ALBERT

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 44: Transient Stability Analysis of Islanded AC Microgrids with a Significant Share of Virtual Synchronous Generators Energies doi: 10.3390/en11010044 Authors: Chang Yuan Peilin Xie Dan Yang Xiangning Xiao As an advanced control method that could bring extra inertia and damping characteristics to inverter-based distributed generators, the virtual synchronous generator (VSG) has recently drawn considerable attention. VSGs are expected to enhance the frequency regulation capability of the local power grid, especially the AC microgrid in island mode. However, the cost of that performance promotion is potential instability. In this paper, the unstable phenomena of the islanded microgrid dominated by SGs and distributed generators (DSs) are addressed after mathematical modeling and detailed eigenvalue analyses respectively. The influence of VSG key parameters, e.g., virtual inertia, damping factor, and droop coefficient on system stability is investigated, and the corresponding mathematical calculation method of unstable region is obtained. The theoretical analysis is well supported by time domain simulation results. The predicted frequency oscillation suggests the consideration of stability constrain during the VSG parameters design procedure.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 77: Anisotropy in Thermal Recovery of Oil Shale—Part 1: Thermal Conductivity, Wave Velocity and Crack Propagation Energies doi: 10.3390/en11010077 Authors: Guoying Wang Dong Yang Zhiqin Kang Jing Zhao In this paper, the evolution of thermal conductivity, wave velocity and microscopic crack propagation both parallel and perpendicular to the bedding plane in anisotropic rock oil shale were studied at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 600 °C. The results show that the thermal conductivity of the perpendicular to bedding direction (KPER) (PER: perpendicular to beeding direction), wave velocity of perpendicular to bedding diretion (VPER), thermal conduction coefficient of parallel to beeding direction (KPAR) and wave velocity of parallel to beeding direction (VPAR) (PAR: parallel to bedding direction) decreased with the increase in temperature, but the rates are different. KPER and VPER linearly decreased with increasing temperature from room temperature to 350 °C, with an obvious decrease at 400 °C corresponding to a large number of cracks generated along the bedding direction. KPER, VPER, KPAR and VPAR generally maintained fixed values from 500 °C to 600 °C. 400 °C has been identified as the threshold temperature for anisotropic evolution of oil shale thermal physics. In addition, the relationship between the thermal conductivity and wave velocity based on the anisotropy of oil shale was fitted using linear regression. The research in this paper can provide reference for the efficient thermal recovery of oil shale, thermal recovery of heavy oil reservoirs and the thermodynamic engineering in other sedimentary rocks.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 64: Practical On-Board Measurement of Lithium Ion Battery Impedance Based on Distributed Voltage and Current Sampling Energies doi: 10.3390/en11010064 Authors: Xuezhe Wei Xueyuan Wang Haifeng Dai Battery impedance based state estimation methods receive extensive attention due to its close relation to internal dynamic processes and the mechanism of a battery. In order to provide impedance for a battery management system (BMS), a practical on-board impedance measuring method based on distributed signal sampling is proposed and implemented. Battery cell perturbing current and its response voltage for impedance calculation are sampled separately to be compatible with BMS. A digital dual-channel orthogonal lock-in amplifier is used to calculate the impedance. With the signal synchronization, the battery impedance is obtained and compensated. And the relative impedance can also be obtained without knowing the current. For verification, an impedance measuring system made up of electronic units sampling and processing signals and a DC-AC converter generating AC perturbing current is designed. A type of 8 Ah LiFePO4 battery is chosen and the valuable frequency range for state estimations is determined with a series of experiments. The battery cells are connected in series and the impedance is measured with the prototype. It is shown that the measurement error of the impedance modulus at 0.1 Hz–500 Hz at 5 °C–35 °C is less than 4.5% and the impedance phase error is less than 3% at <10 Hz at room temperature. In addition, the relative impedance can also be tracked well with the designed system.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 80: Well Test Analysis for Fractured and Vuggy Carbonate Reservoirs of Well Drilling in Large Scale Cave Energies doi: 10.3390/en11010080 Authors: Cuiqiao Xing Hongjun Yin Kexin Liu Xingke Li Jing Fu A well test analysis model for fractured and vuggy carbonate reservoir of wells drilling in large scale cave considering wellbore storage and skin factor is established in this paper. The Laplace transformation and Stehfest numerical inversion are applied to obtain the results of wellbore pressure. Through the sensitivity analysis of different parameters for the well test typical curves, it is found that the change of the well test curves is in accordance with the theoretical analysis. With the increase of skin factor, the hump of well test typical curves is steeper. The storage ratio influences the depth and width of the concave in the pressure derivative curves. The cross flow coefficient mainly affects the position of the concave occurrence in the pressure derivative curves. The dimensionless reservoir radius mainly affects the middle and late stages of the log-log pressure type curves, and the later well test curves will be upturned for sealed boundary. The duration of the early stage of the log-log curves will become longer when drilling in large scale cave. The effective well radius is increased to a certain extent, which is in full agreement with the conclusions in this paper. The size of the caves has the same effect on the well test typical curves as wellbore storage coefficient. Due to acidification, fracturing, and other reasons, the boundary of the cave will collapse. Therefore, considering the wellbore storage coefficient and skin effect is very important during well testing. However, the existing models for well testing of fractured and vuggy carbonate reservoir often ignore the wellbore storage coefficient and skin effect. For fractured and vuggy carbonate reservoirs of well drilling in large scale cave, the existing models are not applicable. Since the previous models are mostly based on the triple-porosity medium and the equivalent continuum. The well test model for well drilling in large scale cave of fracture-cavity carbonate reservoirs with wellbore storage coefficient and skin factor in this work has significant application value for oil field.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 32: High-Precision Speed Control Based on Multiple Phase-Shift Resonant Controllers for Gimbal System in MSCMG Energies doi: 10.3390/en11010032 Authors: Jian Feng Qing Wang Kun Liu The high precision speed control of gimbal servo system in magnetically suspended control moment gyro (MSCMG) suffers from periodic torque disturbances, which lead to periodic fluctuations in speed control. This paper proposes a novel multiple phase-shift resonant controller (MPRC) for a gimbal servo system to suppress the periodic torque ripples whose frequencies vary with the operational speed of the gimbal servo motor and high-speed motor. First, the periodic torque ripples caused by cogging torque, flux harmonics and the dynamic unbalance of the high speed rotor are analyzed. Second, the principle and structure of MPRC parallel with proportional integral (PI) controllers are discussed. The design and stability analysis of the proposed MPRC plus PI control scheme are given both for the current loop and speed loop. The closed-loop stability is ensured by adjusting the phase in the entire operational speed range. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed control method is verified through simulation and experimental results.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1937: Evaluation of Fast Charging Efficiency under Extreme Temperatures Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081937 Authors: Germana Trentadue Alexandre Lucas Marcos Otura Konstantinos Pliakostathis Marco Zanni Harald Scholz Multi-type fast charging stations are being deployed over Europe as electric vehicle adoption becomes more popular. The growth of an electrical charging infrastructure in different countries poses different challenges related to its installation. One of these challenges is related to weather conditions that are extremely heterogeneous due to different latitudes, in which fast charging stations are located and whose impact on the charging performance is often neglected or unknown. The present study focused on the evaluation of the electric vehicle (EV) charging process with fast charging devices (up to 50 kW) at ambient (25 °C) and at extreme temperatures (−25 °C, −15 °C, +40 °C). A sample of seven fast chargers and two electric vehicles (CCS (combined charging system) and CHAdeMO (CHArge de Move)) available on the commercial market was considered in the study. Three phase voltages and currents at the wall socket, where the charger was connected, as well as voltage and current at the plug connection between the charger and vehicle have been recorded. According to SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) J2894/1, the power conversion efficiency during the charging process has been calculated as the ratio between the instantaneous DC power delivered to the vehicle and the instantaneous AC power supplied from the grid in order to test the performance of the charger. The inverse of the efficiency of the charging process, i.e., a kind of energy return ratio (ERR), has been calculated as the ratio between the AC energy supplied by the grid to the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) and the energy delivered to the vehicle’s battery. The evaluation has shown a varied scenario, confirming the efficiency values declared by the manufacturers at ambient temperature and reporting lower energy efficiencies at extreme temperatures, due to lower requested and, thus, delivered power levels. The lowest and highest power conversion efficiencies of 39% and 93% were observed at −25 °C and ambient temperature (+25 °C), respectively.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1934: Multi-Port Zero-Current Switching Switched-Capacitor Converters for Battery Management Applications Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081934 Authors: Yat Chi Fong Ka Wai Eric Cheng S. Raghu Raman Xiaolin Wang A novel implementation of multi-port zero-current switching (ZCS) switched-capacitor (SC) converters for battery management applications is presented. In addition to the auto-balancing feature offered by the SC technique, the proposed SC converter permits individual control of the charging or discharging current of the series-connected energy storage elements, such as the battery or super-capacitor cells. This approach enables advanced state control and accelerates the equalizing process by coordinated operation with the battery management system (BMS) and an adjustable voltage source, which can be implemented by a DC-DC converter interfaced to the energy storage string. Different configurations, including the single-input multi-output (SIMO), multi-input single-output (MISO) SC converters, and the corresponding altered circuits for string-to-cells, cells-to-string, as well as cells-to-cells equalizers, are discussed with a circuit analysis and derivation of the associated mathematical representation. The simulation study and experimental results indicated a significant increase in the balancing speed with the presence of BMS and closed-loop control of cell currents.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1947: Design, Operation, Modeling and Grid Integration of Power-to-Gas Bioelectrochemical Systems Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081947 Authors: Raúl Santiago Muñoz-Aguilar Daniele Molognoni Pau Bosch-Jimenez Eduard Borràs Mónica Della Pirriera Álvaro Luna This paper deals with the design, operation, modeling, and grid integration of bioelectrochemical systems (BES) for power-to-gas application, through an electromethanogenesis process. The paper objective is to show that BES-based power-to-gas energy storage is feasible on a large scale, showing a first approximation that goes from the BES design and operation to the electrical grid integration. It is the first study attempting to cover all aspects of a BES-based power-to-gas technology, on authors’ knowledge. Designed BES reactors were based on a modular architecture, suitable for a future scaling-up. They were operated in steady state for eight months, and continuously monitored in terms of power consumption, water treatment, and biomethane production, in order to obtain data for the following modeling activity. A black box linear model of the BES was computed by using least-square methods, and validated through comparison with collected experimental data. Afterwards, a BES stack was simulated through several series and parallel connections of reactors, in order to obtain higher power consumption and test the grid integration of a real application system. The renewable energy surplus and energy price variability were evaluated for the grid integration of the BES stack. The BES stack was then simulated as energy storage system during low energy price periods, and tested experimentally with a real time system.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1948: The Optimization of Hybrid Power Systems with Renewable Energy and Hydrogen Generation Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081948 Authors: Fu-Cheng Wang Yi-Shao Hsiao Yi-Zhe Yang This paper discusses the optimization of hybrid power systems, which consist of solar cells, wind turbines, fuel cells, hydrogen electrolysis, chemical hydrogen generation, and batteries. Because hybrid power systems have multiple energy sources and utilize different types of storage, we first developed a general hybrid power model using the Matlab/SimPowerSystemTM, and then tuned model parameters based on the experimental results. This model was subsequently applied to predict the responses of four different hybrid power systems for three typical loads, without conducting individual experiments. Furthermore, cost and reliability indexes were defined to evaluate system performance and to derive optimal system layouts. Finally, the impacts of hydrogen costs on system optimization was discussed. In the future, the developed method could be applied to design customized hybrid power systems.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1946: A Novel Multi-Population Based Chaotic JAYA Algorithm with Application in Solving Economic Load Dispatch Problems Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081946 Authors: Jiangtao Yu Chang-Hwan Kim Abdul Wadood Tahir Khurshiad Sang-Bong Rhee The economic load dispatch (ELD) problem is an optimization problem of minimizing the total fuel cost of generators while satisfying power balance constraints, operating capacity limits, ramp-rate limits and prohibited operating zones. In this paper, a novel multi-population based chaotic JAYA algorithm (MP-CJAYA) is proposed to solve the ELD problem by applying the multi-population method (MP) and chaotic optimization algorithm (COA) on the original JAYA algorithm to guarantee the best solution of the problem. MP-CJAYA is a modified version where the total population is divided into a certain number of sub-populations to control the exploration and exploitation rates, at the same time a chaos perturbation is implemented on each sub-population during every iteration to keep on searching for the global optima. The proposed MP-CJAYA has been adopted to ELD cases and the results obtained have been compared with other well-known algorithms reported in the literature. The comparisons have indicated that MP-CJAYA outperforms all the other algorithms, achieving the best performance in all the cases, which indicates that MP-CJAYA is a promising alternative approach for solving ELD problems.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1944: Prediction of Mud Pressures for the Stability of Wellbores Drilled in Transversely Isotropic Rocks Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081944 Authors: Chiara Deangeli Omoruyi Omoman Omwanghe Serious borehole instability problems are often related to the presence of weakness planes in rock formations. In this study, we investigated the stability of wellbores drilled along a principal direction and parallel to the weakness planes. We used three different strength criteria (weakness plane model, Hoek and Brown and Nova and Zaninetti) to calculate the mud pressures to avoid slip and tensile failure along the weakness planes. We identified the orientation of the weakness planes that generate the most critical slip condition as a function of the friction angle of the planes. We also identified the range of orientations of the weakness planes that corresponds with the lower mud pressure window. We confirmed the validity of the proposed relationships with comparative stability analyses by using analytical solutions and numerical simulations (Ubiquitous Joint Model, FLAC). We found that the mud pressures calculated with the Hoek and Brown criterion show a particular trend, which cannot be predicted by the weakness plane model. We provided two normalized stability charts to predict mud pressures to prevent slip along the weakness planes in the critical slip condition. Finally, we corroborated our findings by simulating the stability of wellbores drilled in the Pedernales Field (Venezuela) and in oil fields located in Bohai Bay (China).

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1945: Baltic Power Systems’ Integration into the EU Market Coupling under Different Desynchronization Schemes: A Comparative Market Analysis Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081945 Authors: Ettore Bompard Shaghayegh Zalzar Tao Huang Arturs Purvins Marcelo Masera Currently, the power transmission system of the Baltic states is synchronized with the Integrated/Unified Power System (IPS/UPS), which includes the Russian grid, and the IPS/UPS provides frequency regulation and system security within the Baltic states. Since joining the European Union (EU) in 2004, the Baltic states have been following the EU’s energy policy targets. The Baltics are presently participating in a European electricity market, i.e., the NordPool market, while they are expected to join the pan-European electricity market—the European target model for power market integration. Moreover, from a power grid perspective, EU energy policies intend to desynchronize the power grid of the Baltic states from the IPS/UPS over the coming years. This paper evaluates these policy trends through market impacts, and it complements existing studies on Baltic-IPS/UPS desynchronization in terms of wholesale electricity prices, generation surpluses, primary reserve adequacy, and redispatch costs. Participation of the Baltic states in the integrated pan-European day-ahead electricity market with zonal pricing was modeled for 2030, followed by a national redispatch, with detailed power grid modeling of Baltic states to solve potential intrazonal congestion. The simulation results imply the superiority of the Baltics’ synchronization to continental Europe, compared to the other schemes.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1941: Assessment of Energetic, Economic and Environmental Performance of Ground-Coupled Heat Pumps Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081941 Authors: Matteo Rivoire Alessandro Casasso Bruno Piga Rajandrea Sethi Ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHPs) have a great potential for reducing the cost and climate change impact of building heating, cooling, and domestic hot water (DHW). The high installation cost is a major barrier to their diffusion but, under certain conditions (climate, building use, alternative fuels, etc.), the investment can be profitable in the long term. We present a comprehensive modeling study on GCHPs, performed with the dynamic energy simulation software TRNSYS, reproducing the operating conditions of three building types (residential, office, and hotel), with two insulation levels of the building envelope (poor/good), with the climate conditions of six European cities. Simulation results highlight the driving variables for heating/cooling peak loads and yearly demand, which are the input to assess economic performance and environmental benefits of GCHPs. We found that, in Italy, GCHPs are able to reduce CO2 emissions up to 216 g CO2/year per euro spent. However, payback times are still quite high, i.e., from 8 to 20 years. This performance can be improved by changing taxation on gas and electricity and using hybrid systems, adding a fossil-fuel boiler to cover peak heating loads, thus reducing the overall installation cost compared to full-load sized GCHP systems.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1940: The Selection of Wind Power Project Location in the Southeastern Corridor of Pakistan: A Factor Analysis, AHP, and Fuzzy-TOPSIS Application Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081940 Authors: Yasir Ahmed Solangi Qingmei Tan Muhammad Waris Ali Khan Nayyar Hussain Mirjat Ifzal Ahmed Pakistan has sufficient wind energy potential across various locations of the country. However, so far, wind energy development has not attained sufficient momentum matching its potential. Amongst various other challenges, the site selection for wind power development has always been a primary concern of the decision-makers. Principally, wind project site selection decisions are driven by various multifaceted criteria. As such, in this study, a robust research framework comprising of factor analysis (FA) of techno-economic and socio-political factors, and a hybrid analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (FTOPSIS) have been used for the prioritization of sites in the southeastern region of Pakistan. The results of this study reveal economic and land acquisition as the most significant criteria and sub-criteria, respectively. From the eight different sites considered, Jamshoro has been prioritized as the most suitable location for wind project development followed by Hyderabad, Nooriabad, Gharo, Keti Bandar, Shahbandar, Sajawal, and Talhar. This study provides a comprehensive decision support framework comprising of FA and a hybrid AHP and Fuzzy TOPSIS for the systematic analysis to prioritize suitable sites for the wind project development in Pakistan.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1943: Impacts of Low-Carbon Fuel Standards in Transportation on the Electricity Market Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081943 Authors: Ahmad Karnama João Abel Peças Lopes Mauro Augusto da Rosa Electric Vehicles (EVs) are increasing the interdependence of transportation policies and the electricity market dimension. In this paper, an Electricity Market Model with Electric Vehicles (EMMEV) was developed, exploiting an agent-based model that analyzes how carbon reduction policy in transportation may increase the number of Electric Vehicles and how that would influence electricity price. Agents are Energy Service Providers (ESCOs) which can distribute fuels and their objective is to maximize their profit. In this paper, the EMMEV is used to analyze the impacts of the Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), a performance-based policy instrument, on electricity prices and EV sales volume. The agents in EMMEV are regulated parties in LCFS should meet a certain Carbon Intensity (CI) target for their distributed fuel. In case they cannot meet the target, they should buy credits to compensate for their shortfall and if they exceed it, they can sell their excess. The results, considering the assumptions and limitations of the model, show that the banking strategy of the agents contributing in the LCFS might have negative impact on penetration of EVs, unless there is a regular Credit Clearance to trade credits. It is also shown that the electricity price, as a result of implementing the LCFS and increasing number of EVs, has increased between 2% and 3% depending on banking strategy.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1961: A Novel High Efficiency Quasi-Resonant Converter Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081961 Authors: Tianyu Zhu Jianze Wang Yanchao Ji Yiqi Liu In this paper, a new constant-frequency quasi-resonant converter is proposed. Compared with the traditional LLC converter, the proposed converter can effectively reduce the range of the operating frequency. The output voltage is changed to adjust the reactance of the resonant cavity. The proposed converter has a better loss factor. To verify the theoretical analysis and soft-switching condition, a 250 W, 100 V output prototype was built and compared with the full-bridge LLC converter. Analysis and experimental results verify that a smaller operating frequency range and volume of the transformers, a soft-switching condition, and a higher overall efficiency are achieved with the proposed converter.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1957: Dual-Temperature Evaluation of a High-Temperature Insulation System for Liquid-Immersed Transformer Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081957 Authors: Xiaojing Zhang Lu Ren Haichuan Yu Yang Xu Qingquan Lei Xin Li Baojia Han A high-temperature oil–paper insulation system offers an opportunity to improve the overloading capability of distribution transformers facing seasonal load variation. A high-temperature electrical insulation system (EIS) was chosen due to thermal calculation based on a typical loading curve on the China Southern Power Grid. In order to evaluate candidate high-temperature insulation systems, Nomex® T910 (aramid-enhanced cellulose) immersed in FR3 (natural ester) was investigated by a dual-temperature thermal aging test compared with a conventional insulation system, Kraft paper impregnated with mineral oil. Throughout the thermal aging test, mechanical, chemical, and dielectric parameters of both paper and insulating oil were investigated in each aging cycle. The thermal aging results determined that the thermal class of the FR3-T910 insulation system meets the request of overloading transformer needs.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1954: Experimental Study of Flow-Induced Whistling in Pipe Systems Including a Corrugated Section Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081954 Authors: Hee-Chang LIM Faran RAZI When air flows through pipe systems that include a corrugated segment, a whistling tone is generated and increases in intensity with increasing flow velocity. This whistling sound is related to the particular geometry of corrugated pipes, which is in the form of alternating cavities. This whistling is an environmental noise problem as well as a possible structural danger because of the resulting induced vibration. This paper studies the whistling behavior of various pipe systems with a combination of smooth and corrugated pipes through a series of experiments. The considered pipe systems consist of two smooth pipes attached at the upstream and downstream ends of a corrugated segment. Experiments with smooth and corrugated pipes, which had inner diameters of 15.25 and 16.5 mm, respectively, and various lengths, were performed for flow velocities of up to approximately 30 m/s. The minimum and maximum Strouhal numbers (St) obtained during our experiments were 0.25 and 0.38, respectively. For all pipe configurations investigated in this study, the lowest Mach number at which whistling was observed was 0.017, and the maximum was 0.093. The lowest frequency at which whistling was detected in our experiments was 650 Hz, and the highest was 3080 Hz. The results presented in the form of different variables and dimensionless parameters, including the frequency, Mach number, Strouhal number, and Helmholtz number. The average mode gap and number of excited acoustic modes were also taken into account for all considered configurations. The pipe systems with longer corrugated segments had broader whistling ranges than did configurations with shorter segments, indicating that the number of cavities inside the corrugated pipe has a direct effect on whistling. Increasing the smooth pipe length (either upstream or downstream) resulted in a decrease in the average mode gap between successive modes. The number of excited acoustic modes was primarily related to the corrugated segment length, but the smooth pipe length also had a pronounced effect on the excited modes for a constant corrugation length. The highest number of excited modes (13) was seen in the case of corrugated length 450 mm and smooth pipe length (either upstream or downstream) 400 mm while the lowest number of excited modes (1) was observed for corrugated length 250 mm and smooth pipe length (downstream) 300 mm and 400 mm.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1950: Investigation of Injection Strategy of Branched-Preformed Particle Gel/Polymer/Surfactant for Enhanced Oil Recovery after Polymer Flooding in Heterogeneous Reservoirs Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081950 Authors: Hong He Jingyu Fu Baofeng Hou Fuqing Yuan Lanlei Guo Zongyang Li Qing You The heterogeneous phase combination flooding (HPCF) system which is composed of a branched-preformed particle gel (B-PPG), polymer, and surfactant has been proposed to enhance oil recovery after polymer flooding in heterogeneous reservoirs by mobility control and reducing oil–water interfacial tension. However, the high cost of chemicals can make this process economically challenging in an era of low oil prices. Thus, in an era of low oil prices, it is becoming even more essential to optimize the heterogeneous phase combination flooding design. In order to optimize the HPCF process, the injection strategy has been designed such that the incremental oil recovery can be maximized using the corresponding combination of the B-PPG, polymer, and surfactant, thereby ensuring a more economically-viable recovery process. Different HPCF injection strategies including simultaneous injection and alternation injection were investigated by conducting parallel sand pack flooding experiments and large-scale plate sand pack flooding experiments. Results show that based on the flow rate ratio, the pressure rising area and the incremental oil recovery, no matter whether the injection strategy is simultaneous injection or alternation injection of HPCF, the HPCF can significantly block high permeability zone, increase the sweep efficiency and oil displacement efficiency, and effectively improve oil recovery. Compared with the simultaneous injection mode, the alternation injection of HPCF can show better sweep efficiency and oil displacement efficiency. Moreover, when the slug of HPCF and polymer/surfactant with the equivalent economical cost is injected by alternation injection mode, as the alternating cycle increases, the incremental oil recovery increases. The remaining oil distribution at different flooding stages investigated by conducting large-scale plate sand pack flooding experiments shows that alternation injection of HPCF can recover more remaining oil in the low permeability zone than simultaneous injection. Hence, these findings could provide the guidance for developing the injection strategy of HPCF to further enhance oil recovery after polymer flooding in heterogeneous reservoirs in the era of low oil prices.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1966: Possible Interactions and Interferences of Copper, Chromium, and Arsenic during the Gasification of Contaminated Waste Wood Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081966 Authors: Shurooq Badri Al-Badri Ying Jiang Stuart Thomas Wagland A considerable proportion (about 64%) of biomass energy is produced from woody biomass (wood and its wastes). However, waste wood (WW) is very often contaminated with metal(loid) elements at concentrations leading to toxicity emissions and damages to facilities during thermal conversion. Therefore, procedures for preventing and/or alleviating the negative impacts of these elements require further development, particularly by providing informative and supportive information regarding the phase transformations of the metal(loid)s during thermal conversion processes. Although it is well known that phase transformation depends on different factors such as elements’ vaporization characteristics, operational conditions, and process configuration; however, the influences of reaction atmosphere composition in terms of interactions and interferences are rarely addressed. In response, since Cu, Cr, and As (CCA-elements) are the most regulated elements in woody biomass, this paper aims to explore the possible interactions and interferences among CCA-elements themselves and with Ca, Na, S, Cl, Fe, and Ni from reaction atmosphere composition perspectives during the gasification of contaminated WW. To do so, thermodynamic equilibrium calculations were performed for Boudouard reaction (BR) and partial combustion reaction (PCR) with temperature ranges of 0–1300 °C and 0–1800 °C, respectively, and both reactions were simulated under pressure conditions of 1, 20, and 40 atm. Refinement of the occurred interactions and interferences reveals that Ni-As interactions generate dominant species As2Ni5 and As8Ni11, which increase the solid–gaseous transformation temperature of As. Moreover, the interactions between Ca and Cr predominantly form C3Cr7; whereas the absence of Ca leads to Cr2Na2O4 causing instability in the Cr phase transformation.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1967: Dry Fuel Jet Half-Angle Measurements and Correlation for an Entrained Flow Gasifier Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081967 Authors: Francis Kus Robin Hughes Arturo Macchi Poupak Mehrani Marc Duchesne Reduced order models (ROMs) are increasingly applied to entrained flow gasification development due to reduced computational requirements relative to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. However, they require greater a posteriori knowledge of the reactor physics. A significant parameter influencing ROM outputs is the jet half-angle of the solid fuel and oxidant mixture in the gasifier. Thus, it is important to understand the geometry of the jet in the gasifier, and how it is dependent on operating parameters, such as solid and carrier gas flow rates. In this work, an existing model for jet half-angles, which considers the ratio of surrounding gas density to jet core density, is extended to a dry solids jet with impinging gas. The model is fitted to experimental jet half-angles. The jet half-angle of a non-reactive flow was measured using laser-sheet imaging for solid fluxes in the range of 460–880 kg/m2·s and carrier gas fluxes in the range of 43–90 kg/m2·s at the transport line outlet. Jet half-angles ranged from 5.6° to 11.3°, increasing with lower solid/gas loading ratios. CFD simulations of two reactive conditions, with solid and gas fluxes similar to experiments, were used to test the applicability of the proposed jet half-angle model.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1968: A Review on Recent Advances and Future Trends of Transformerless Inverter Structures for Single-Phase Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081968 Authors: Kamran Zeb Imran Khan Waqar Uddin Muhammad Adil Khan P. Sathishkumar Tiago Davi Curi Busarello Iftikhar Ahmad H. J. Kim The research significance of various scientific aspects of photovoltaic (PV) systems has increased over the past decade. Grid-tied inverters the vital elements for the effective interface of Renewable Energy Resources (RER) and utility in the distributed generation system. Currently, Single-Phase Transformerless Grid-Connected Photovoltaic (SPTG-CPV) inverters (1–10 kW) are undergoing further developments, with new designs, and interest of the solar market. In comparison to the transformer (TR) Galvanic Isolation (GI)-based inverters, its advantageous features are lower cost, lighter weight, smaller volume, higher efficiency, and less complexity. In this paper, a review of SPTG-CPV inverters has been carried out. The basic operational principles of all SPTG-CPV inverters are presented in details for positive, negative, and zero cycles. A comprehensive analysis of each topology has been deliberated. A comparative assessment is also performed based on weaknesses, strengths, component ratings, efficiency, total harmonic distortion (THD), semiconductor device losses, and leakage current of various SPTG-CPV inverters schemes. Typical PV inverter structures and control schemes for grid connected three-phase system and single-phase systems are also discussed, described, and reviewed. Comparison of various industrial grids-connected PV inverters is also performed. Loss analysis is also performed for various topologies at 1 kW. Selection of appropriate topologies for their particular application is thoroughly presented. Then, discussion and forthcoming progress are emphasized. Lastly, the conclusions are presented. More than 100 research publications on the topic of SPTG-CPV inverter topologies, configurations, and control schematics along with the recent developments are thoroughly reviewed and classified for quick reference.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1964: Lightning Impulse Withstand of Natural Ester Liquid Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081964 Authors: Stephanie Haegele Farzaneh Vahidi Stefan Tenbohlen Kevin J. Rapp Alan Sbravati Due to the low biodegradability of mineral oil, intense research is conducted to define alternative liquids with comparable dielectric properties. Natural ester liquids are an alternative in focus; they are used increasingly as insulating liquid in distribution and power transformers. The main advantages of natural ester liquids compared to mineral oil are their good biodegradability and mainly high flash and fire points providing better fire safety. The dielectric strength of natural ester liquids is comparable to conventional mineral oil for homogeneous field arrangements. However, many studies showed a reduced dielectric strength for highly inhomogeneous field arrangements. This study investigates at which degree of inhomogeneity differences in breakdown voltage between the two insulating liquids occur. Investigations use lightning impulses with different electrode arrangements representing different field inhomogeneity factors and different gap distances. To ensure comparisons with existing transformer geometries, investigations are application-oriented using a transformer conductor model, which is compared to other studies. Results show significant differences in breakdown voltage from an inhomogeneity factor of 0.1 (highly inhomogeneous field) depending on the gap distance. Larger electrode gaps provide a larger inhomogeneity at which differences in breakdown voltages occur.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1963: Numerical Analysis to Determine Reliable One-Diode Model Parameters for Perovskite Solar Cells Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081963 Authors: Esteban Velilla Juan Bernardo Cano Keony Jimenez Jaime Valencia Daniel Ramirez Franklin Jaramillo With the aim to determine the photo-generated current, diode saturation current, ideality factor, shunt, and series resistances related to the one-diode model for p-i-n planar perovskite solar cells, reference cells with active area of approximately 1 cm2 and efficiencies ranging between 4.6 and 12.2% were fabricated and characterized at standard test conditions. To estimated feasible parameters, the mean square error between the I-V curve data of these cells and the circuital model results were minimized using a Genetic Algorithm combined with the Nelder-Mead method. When considering the optimization process solutions, a numerical sensitivity analysis of the error as a function of the estimated parameters was carried out. Based on the errors behavior that is showed graphically through maps, it was demonstrated that the set of parameters estimated for each cell were reliable, meaningful, and realistic, and being related to errors lower than 9.1 × 10−9. Therefore, these results can be considered as global solutions of the optimization process. Moreover, based on the lower errors obtained from the optimization process, it was possible to affirm that the one-diode model is suitable to model the I-V curve of perovskite solar cells. Finally, the estimated parameters suggested that the average ideality factor is close to 2 when the fill factor of the I-V curves is higher than 0.5. Lower fill factors corresponded to ideality that was higher than 3, linked to lower efficiencies, and high loses effects reflected on lower shunt resistances. Lower ideality factor of 1.4 corresponds to the best performing solar cells.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1962: Energy Loss Allocation in Smart Distribution Systems with Electric Vehicle Integration Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081962 Authors: Paulo M. De Oliveira-De Jesus Mario A. Rios Gustavo A. Ramos This paper presents a three-phase loss allocation procedure for distribution networks. The key contribution of the paper is the computation of specific marginal loss coefficients (MLCs) per bus and per phase expressly considering non-linear load models for Electric Vehicles (EV). The method was applied in a unbalanced 12.47 kV feeder with 12,780 households and 1000 EVs under peak and off-peak load conditions. Results obtained were also compared with the traditional roll-in embedded allocation procedure (pro rata) using non-linear and standard constant power models. Results show the influence of the non-linear load model in the energy losses allocated. This result highlights the importance of considering an appropriate EV load model to appraise the overall losses encouraging the use and further development of the methodology

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1970: Increase in Robustness against Effects of Coil Misalignment on Electrical Parameters Using Magnetic Material Layer in Planar Coils of Wireless Power Transfer Transformer Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081970 Authors: Joao Victor Pinon Pereira Dias Masafumi Miyatake Utilization of wireless power transfer in light rail transits is seen as one solution for electrification of lines. The main advantage of this supply system is the reduction of installation; moreover, the alignment between the transmitter coil in the track and the receiver coil in the train should be perfect in order not to affect the power transfer. To reduce the effects of misalignment on the input and output electric parameters of the system, a new planar core and coil design, called hybrid intercore coil, is proposed. The proposed design uses a magnetic material layer between the windings in the inner half of the coil to create a non-uniform magnetic field distribution, which makes the system more robust against the effects of coil misalignment on the system current and voltage. Simulations with finite element method software were conducted to compare designs. The results show that the proposed design is less susceptible to the effects of misalignment and is more efficient. Prototype cores were constructed to verify the simulation results. Measurements show a smaller input overcurrent and output overvoltage when operating in resonance mode. The proposed design reduced the effects of coil misalignment on electrical parameters.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1971: A New Lumped Parameter Model for Natural Gas Pipelines in State Space Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081971 Authors: Kai Wen Zijie Xia Weichao Yu Jing Gong Many algorithms and numerical methods, such as implicit and explicit finite differences and the method of characteristics, have been applied for transient flow in gas pipelines. From a computational point of view, the state space model is an effective method for solving complex transient problems in pipelines. However, the impulse output of the existing models is not the actual behavior of the pipeline. In this paper, a new lumped parameter model is proposed to describe the inertial nature of pipelines with inlet/outlet pressure and flow rate as outer variables in the state space. Starting from the basic mechanistic partial differential equations of the general one-dimensional compressible gas flow dynamics under isothermal conditions, the transfer functions are first acquired as the fundamental work. With Taylor-expansion and a transformation procedure, the inertia state space models are derived with proper simplification. Finally, three examples are used to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed model. With the model, a real-time automatic scheduling scheme of the natural gas pipeline could be possible in the future.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1972: Comprehensive Design and Analysis of a State-Feedback Controller for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081972 Authors: Javier Roldán-Pérez Aurelio García-Cerrada Alberto Rodríguez-Cabero Juan Luis Zamora-Macho Voltage sags result in unwanted operation stops and large economical losses in industrial applications. A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a power-electronics-based device conceived to protect high-power installations against these events. However, the design of a DVR control system is not straightforward and it has some peculiarities. First of all, a DVR includes a resonant (LC) connection filter with a lightly damped resonance. Secondly, the control system of a DVR should work properly regardless of the type of load, which can be linear or non-linear, to be protected. In this paper, a digital state-feedback (SF) controller for a DVR is proposed to address these issues. The design and features of the SF controller are studied in detail. Two pole-placement alternatives are discussed and the system robustness is tested under variations in the system parameters. Furthermore, implementation aspects such as discretization not commonly addressed in the literature are described. The controller is implemented in its incremental form. A decoupling system for the dq-axis dynamics that takes into account system delays and the load current is proposed and analytically studied. The proposed controller is compared with two other alternatives found in the literature: a Proportional-Integral-Differential (PID) controller and a cascade controller. The effect of the load connected downstream a DVR is also studied, revealing the potential of the SF controller to damp the resonance under light load conditions. All control system developments were tested in a 5 kVA prototype of a DVR connected to a configurable grid.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1987: Distributed Energy Resources Scheduling and Aggregation in the Context of Demand Response Programs Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081987 Authors: Pedro Faria João Spínola Zita Vale Distributed energy resources can contribute to an improved operation of power systems, improving economic and technical efficiency. However, aggregation of resources is needed to make these resources profitable. The present paper proposes a methodology for distributed resources management by a Virtual Power Player (VPP), addressing the resources scheduling, aggregation and remuneration based on the aggregation made. The aggregation is made using K-means algorithm. The innovative aspect motivating the present paper relies on the remuneration definition considering multiple scenarios of operation, by performing a multi-observation clustering. Resources aggregation and remuneration profiles are obtained for 2592 operation scenarios, considering 548 distributed generators, 20,310 consumers, and 10 suppliers.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1986: The Influence of Local Environmental, Economic and Social Variables on the Spatial Distribution of Photovoltaic Applications across China’s Urban Areas Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081986 Authors: Alin Lin Ming Lu Pingjun Sun The capacity of new installed photovoltaic (PV) in China in 2017 was increased to 53.06 GW, reaching a total of 402.5 GW around the world. Photovoltaic applications have a significant role in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and alleviating electricity shortages in the sustainable development process of cities. Research on the factors that influenced the spatial distribution of photovoltaic applications mostly focus on a certain project or a region. However, it is a complicated process for decision-making of photovoltaic installations in urban areas. This study uses zip code level data from 83 cities to investigate the influence of local environmental, economic and social variables on the spatial distribution of photovoltaic applications across China’s urban areas. By analyzing the current situation, the locations of urban photovoltaic applications are collected and presented. Statistical analysis software is used to evaluate the influence of selected variables. In this paper, correlation analysis, principle component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis are generated to predict urban photovoltaic installations. The results of this research show that Gross Domestic Product (GDP), electricity consumption, policy incentives, the number of photovoltaic companies, population, age, education and rate of urbanization were important factors that influenced the adoption of urban photovoltaic systems. The results also indicate that Southeast China and Hangzhou Province are currently the most promising areas as they have a higher rate of solar photovoltaic installation. These conclusions have significancefor energy policy and planning strategies by predicting the future development of urban photovoltaic applications.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1985: Design, Construction, and Testing of a Gasifier-Specific Solid Oxide Fuel Cell System Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081985 Authors: Alvaro Fernandes Joerg Brabandt Oliver Posdziech Ali Saadabadi Mayra Recalde Liyuan Fan Eva O. Promes Ming Liu Theo Woudstra Purushothaman Vellayan Aravind This paper describes the steps involved in the design, construction, and testing of a gasifier-specific solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) system. The design choices are based on reported thermodynamic simulation results for the entire gasifier- gas cleanup-SOFC system. The constructed SOFC system is tested and the measured parameters are compared with those given by a system simulation. Furthermore, a detailed exergy analysis is performed to determine the components responsible for poor efficiency. It is concluded that the SOFC system demonstrates reasonable agreement with the simulated results. Furthermore, based on the exergy results, the components causing major irreversible performance losses are identified.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1984: Experimental Study of Mixed Gas Hydrates from Gas Feed Containing CH4, CO2 and N2: Phase Equilibrium in the Presence of Excess Water and Gas Exchange Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081984 Authors: Ludovic Nicolas Legoix Livio Ruffine Christian Deusner Matthias Haeckel This article presents gas hydrate experimental measurements for mixtures containing methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) with the aim to better understand the impact of water (H2O) on the phase equilibrium. Some of these phase equilibrium experiments were carried out with a very high water-to-gas ratio that shifts the gas hydrate dissociation points to higher pressures. This is due to the significantly different solubilities of the different guest molecules in liquid H2O. A second experiment focused on CH4-CO2 exchange between the hydrate and the vapor phases at moderate pressures. The results show a high retention of CO2 in the gas hydrate phase with small pressure variations within the first hours. However, for our system containing 10.2 g of H2O full conversion of the CH4 hydrate grains to CO2 hydrate is estimated to require 40 days. This delay is attributed to the shrinking core effect, where initially an outer layer of CO2-rich hydrate is formed that effectively slows down the further gas exchange between the vapor phase and the inner core of the CH4-rich hydrate grain.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1991: Operation and Economic Assessment of Hybrid Refueling Station Considering Traffic Flow Information Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081991 Authors: Suyang Zhou Yuxuan Zhuang Wei Gu Zhi Wu It is anticipated that the penetration of “Green-Energy” vehicles, including Electric Vehicle (EV), Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV), and Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV) will keep increasing in next decades. The demand of refueling stations will correspondingly increase for refueling these “Green-Energy” vehicles. While such kinds of “Green-Energy” vehicles can provide both social and economic benefits, effective management of refueling various kinds of these vehicles is necessary to maintain vehicle users’ comfortabilities and refueling station’s return on investment. To tackle these problems, this paper proposes a novel energy management approach for hybrid refueling stations with EV chargers, Hydrogen pumps and gas pumps. Firstly, the detailed models of EV chargers, Hydrogen pumps with electrolyte and hydrogen tank, the gas pumps with gas tank, renewable resources, and battery energy storage systems are established. The forecasting methodologies for renewable energy, electricity price and the traffic flow are also presented to support the hybrid refueling station modeling and operation. Then, a management approach is adopted to manage the refueling various kinds of vehicles with considerations of the refueling station profitability. Finally, the proposed management approach is verified under four different kinds of tariffs- Economy-7, Economy-10, Flat-rate, and Real-Time Pricing (RTP), finding that the proposed management approach has the best performance under RTP tariff. The economic assessment of the Energy Storage System (ESS) is also performed. It is found that the ESS can make the saving up to $127 per day. Different sizes of gas storage tank are compared in the final section as well. The result shows that increasing the size of the tank does not bring attractive extra benefits with the consideration of the investment on enlarging the tank size.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1998: Design Issues for Claw Pole Machines with Soft Magnetic Composite Cores Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081998 Authors: Chengcheng Liu Jiawei Lu Youhua Wang Gang Lei Jianguo Zhu Youguang Guo By using global ring winding, the torque coefficient of the transverse flux machine (TFM) is proportional to its number of pole pairs, and thus the TFM possesses high torque density ability when compared with other electrical machines. As a special kind of TFM, the claw pole machine (CPM) can have more torque due to its special claw pole teeth. The manufacturing of CPM or TFM with silicon steels was very difficult in the past, and is a handicap for the progress of this kind of machine. Thanks to the advent of soft magnetic composite (SMC) materials, the manufacturing process of CPM has become more and more simple. More attention has been paid to this kind of technology, and some mass production CPMs with SMC cores have appeared. However, there are few works that discuss the key design issues for this kind of machine. In this paper, a small CPM with SMC is used as as a research benchmark. Various design methods that can be adopted to improve its performance have been studied, including unequal stator claw pole teeth, a skewing magnet design, consequent pole design, and etc. The 3D finite element method (FEM) is used for the machine analysis, and it is verified by the experimental results of a CPM with SMC cores.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1992: Assessment and Performance Evaluation of a Wind Turbine Power Output Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081992 Authors: Akintayo Temiloluwa Abolude Wen Zhou Estimation errors have constantly been a technology bother for wind power management, often time with deviations of actual power curve (APC) from the turbine power curve (TPC). Power output dispersion for an operational 800 kW turbine was analyzed using three averaging tine steps of 1-min, 5-min, and 15-min. The error between the APC and TPC in kWh was about 25% on average, irrespective of the time of the day, although higher magnitudes of error were observed during low wind speeds and poor wind conditions. The 15-min averaged time series proved more suitable for grid management and energy load scheduling, but the error margin was still a major concern. An effective power curve (EPC) based on the polynomial parametric wind turbine power curve modeling technique was calibrated using turbine and site-specific performance data. The EPC reduced estimation error to about 3% in the aforementioned time series during very good wind conditions. By integrating statistical wind speed forecasting methods and site-specific EPCs, wind power forecasting and management can be significantly improved without compromising grid stability.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1995: Active-Current Control of Large-Scale Wind Turbines for Power System Transient Stability Improvement Based on Perturbation Estimation Approach Energies doi: 10.3390/en11081995 Authors: Peng Shen Lin Guan Zhenlin Huang Liang Wu Zetao Jiang This paper proposes an active-current control strategy for large-scale wind turbines (WTs) to improve the transient stability of power systems based on a perturbation estimation (PE) approach. The main idea of this control strategy is to mitigate the generator imbalance of mechanical and electrical powers by controlling the active-current of WTs. The effective mutual couplings of synchronous generators and WTs are identified using a Kron-reduction technique first. Then, the control object of each WT is assigned based on the identified mutual couplings. Finally, an individual controller is developed for each WT using a PE approach. In the control algorithm, a perturbation state (PS) is introduced for each WT to represent the comprehensive effect of the nonlinearities and parameter variations of the power system, and then it is estimated by a designed perturbation observer. The estimated PS is employed to compensate the actual perturbation, and to finally achieve the adaptive control design without requiring an accurate system model. The effectiveness of the proposed control approach on improving the system transient stability is validated in the modified IEEE 39-bus system.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2018: Technological Solutions for Recycling Ash Slag from the Cao Ngan Coal Power Plant in Vietnam Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082018 Authors: Thriveni Thenepalli Nguyen Thi Minh Ngoc Lai Quang Tuan Trinh Hai Son Ho Huu Hieu Dang Tran Nhu Thuy Nguyen Thi Thanh Thao Duong Thi Thanh Tam Doan Thi Ngoc Huyen Tran Tan Van Ramakrishna Chilakala Ji Whan Ahn Annually, coal-fired power plants in Vietnam discharge hundreds of thousand tons of coal ash. Most of this ash goes into the environment without treatment or any plan for the efficient reuse of this precious resource. There are many reasons for this, such as poor quality of the ash, no suitable and feasible ash treatment technology, a lack of awareness about environmental pollution and resource saving, and inappropriate sanctions and policies. This study analyzed and summarized information and data pertaining to the current status of the production, discharge, and utilization of coal ash from the Cao Ngan Power Plant (CNPP) in Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam. In addition, the potential for applying advanced emission reduction technologies in order to recycle coal ash for cement production, as well as geographical, socio-economic, and market factors were assessed. This paper reveals the results of a preliminary assessment of carbon-mineralization technologies which seek to achieve the following three goals: (1) effectively disposing of coal ash to protect the environment and local community, (2) contributing to the nationally determined effort to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions which cause climate change, and (3) making value-added products and bringing economic benefits to a sustainable society.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2017: An Experimental Investigation of Thermal Characteristics of Phase Change Material Applied to Improve the Isothermal Operation of a Refrigerator Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082017 Authors: Seok-Joon Lee Seul-Hyun Park We investigated the thermal performance of a refrigerator with a functional duct unit (FDU) which was charged with a phase change material (PCM) and designed to replace the existing expandable polystyrene (EPS) duct unit. Since the performance of the FDU is dependent upon the thermal characteristics of the PCM, the eutectic water–salt solution as the PCM was prepared and tested to optimize the thermal characteristics. The thermal properties of the PCM were examined by the T-history method. When the PCM contained 1 wt.% eutectic molten salt compounds, the phase change temperature was approximately −0.5 °C, the supercooling temperature was approximately −2.9 °C, and the latent heat was 304.9 kJ/kg. Compared with other PCMs of different eutectic molten salt concentrations, this PCM was found to have the most appropriate thermal properties for the FDU. Therefore, the PCM with 1 wt.% eutectic molten salt compounds was used in the FDU, which was installed in a 200 L top-mounted freezer (TMF). For a quantitative comparison of the operational performance, an FDU and an EPS duct were installed alternately in a refrigerator operated under the same conditions and analyzed in terms of internal temperature variation and operational characteristics. When the EPS duct was replaced by the FDU, the temperature deviation measured during a defrosting operation was observed to become smaller. Moreover, during a power outage, the refrigerator with the FDU released heat owing to the phase change of the PCM, thereby preventing temperature rise inside the refrigerator.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2016: The Synergies of Shared Autonomous Electric Vehicles with Renewable Energy in a Virtual Power Plant and Microgrid Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082016 Authors: Riccardo Iacobucci Benjamin McLellan Tetsuo Tezuka The introduction of shared autonomous electric vehicles (SAEVs), expected within the next decade, can transform the car into a service, accelerate electrification of the transport sector, and allow for large scale control of electric vehicle charging. In this work, we investigate the potential for this system to provide aggregated storage when combined with intermittent renewable energy sources. We develop a simulation methodology for the optimization of vehicle charging in the context of a virtual power plant or microgrid, with and without grid connection or distributed dispatchable generators. The model considers aggregate storage availability from vehicles based on transport patterns taking into account the necessary vehicle redistribution. We investigate the case of a grid-connected VPP with rooftop solar and the case of a isolated microgrid with solar, wind, and dispatchable generation. We conduct a comprehensive sensitivity analysis to study the effect of several parameters on the results for both cases.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2015: Energy-Efficient Clusters for Object Tracking Networks Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082015 Authors: Yang-Hsin Fan Smart cities have hundreds of thousands of devices for tracking data on crime, the environment, and traffic (such as data collected at crossroads and on streets). This results in higher energy usage, as they are recording information persistently and simultaneously. Moreover, a single object tracking device, on a corner at an intersection for example has a limited scope of view, so more object tracking devices are added to broaden the view. As an increasing number of object tracking devices are constructed on streets, their efficient energy consumption becomes a significant issue. This work is concerned with decreasing the energy required to power these systems, and proposes energy-efficient clusters (EECs) of object tracking systems to achieve energy savings. First, we analyze a current object tracking system to establish an equivalent model. Second, we arrange the object tracking system in a cluster structure, which facilitates the evaluation of energy costs. Third, the energy consumption is assessed as either dynamic or static, which is a more accurate system for determining energy consumption. Fourth, we analyze all possible scenarios of the object’s location and the resulting energy consumption, and derive a number of formulas for the fast computation of energy consumption. Finally, the simulation results are reported. These results show the proposed EEC is an effective way to save energy, compared with the energy consumption benchmarks of current technology.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2014: Effect of Sodium Chloride and Thiourea on Pollutant Formation during Combustion of Plastics Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082014 Authors: María E. Iñiguez Juan A. Conesa Andrés Fullana Thermal decomposition of different samples containing a mixture of plastics (polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon) combined with NaCl and metal oxides (Fe2O3, CuO) was studied under an air atmosphere at 850 °C using a reactor, followed by analysis of the evolved products. Combustion runs were performed to study how the presence of such compounds influences the production of pollutants. Here, we report the analyses of the emissions of the main gases, as well as volatiles and semivolatiles, including polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated benzenes and phenols, and polybrominated phenols. Results show that the production of chlorinated pollutants did not increase in the presence of NaCl, but the presence of other metals during the decomposition led to the production of a great amount of pollutants. In this regard, the emission of chlorinated phenols increased from 110 to ca. 250 mg/kg when the sample included a small quantity of a transition metal oxide. Additionally, the presence of an inhibitor—thiourea (TUA)—was tested. Results confirm that adding TUA to the sample reduced these emissions to a considerable extent, with the emission of chlorinated phenols amounting to 65 mg/kg.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2013: Establishment of an Improved Material-Drilling Power Model to Support Energy Management of Drilling Processes Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082013 Authors: Shun Jia Qingwen Yuan Wei Cai Qinghe Yuan Conghu Liu Jingxiang Lv Zhongwei Zhang Drilling processes, as some of the most widely used machining processes in the manufacturing industry, play an important role in manufacturing process energy-saving programs. However, research focus on energy modeling of drilling processes, especially for the modeling of material-drilling power, are really scarce. To bridge this gap, an improved material-drilling power model is proposed in this paper. The obtained material-drilling power model can improve the accuracy of the material-drilling power and lay a good foundation for energy modeling and optimization of drilling processes. Finally, experimental studies were carried out on an XHK-714F CNC machining center (Hangzhou HangJi Machine Tool Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China) and a JTVM6540 CNC milling machine (Jinan Third Machine Tool Co., Ltd., Jinan, China). The results showed that predictive accuracies with the proposed model are generally higher than 96% for all the test cases.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2012: Estimation of Load Pattern for Optimal Planning of Stand-Alone Microgrid Networks Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082012 Authors: Chang Koo Lee Byeong Gwan Bhang David Kwangsoon Kim Sang Hun Lee Hae Lim Cha Hyung Keun Ahn This paper proposes a method for estimating the load pattern for optimal planning of stand-alone renewable microgrids and verifies when the basic data for microgrid design are limited. To estimate a proper load pattern for optimal microgrid design when the data obtained in advance are insufficient, the least squares method is used to compare the similarity of annual power consumption between the subject area and eight islands in Korea whose actual load patterns were previously obtained. Similarity is compared in terms of annual (every month), seasonal, bi-monthly, and monthly averages. To verify the validity of the proposed estimation method, the applied proposed estimation method is used for two islands that have already installed a microgrid consisting of photovoltaic, wind power, energy storage systems, and diesel generators. In comparing the actual data from the two islands, the costs of electricity in terms of microgrid operations show improvements of 37.2% and 29.8%, respectively.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2008: Short-Term Load Forecasting of Natural Gas with Deep Neural Network Regression † Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082008 Authors: Gregory D. Merkel Richard J. Povinelli Ronald H. Brown Deep neural networks are proposed for short-term natural gas load forecasting. Deep learning has proven to be a powerful tool for many classification problems seeing significant use in machine learning fields such as image recognition and speech processing. We provide an overview of natural gas forecasting. Next, the deep learning method, contrastive divergence is explained. We compare our proposed deep neural network method to a linear regression model and a traditional artificial neural network on 62 operating areas, each of which has at least 10 years of data. The proposed deep network outperforms traditional artificial neural networks by 9.83% weighted mean absolute percent error (WMAPE).

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2024: Coupled Fluid-Thermal Analysis for Induction Motors with Broken Bars Operating under the Rated Load Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082024 Authors: Ying Xie Jinpeng Guo Peng Chen Zhiwei Li Thermal stress of the rotor in a squirrel cage induction motor is generated due to the temperature rise, it is also one of the factors causing the broken bar fault because the structure of the rotor would be destroyed if the stress of the rotor bars exceed the strength limit. The coupled fluid-thermal analysis for the induction motor with healthy and broken bar rotors is performed in this paper. Much concern has been committed to establishment of the fluid model on the basis of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) theory. The heat field of the prototypes is analysed so that the effect of the asymmetrical rotor on the motor heat performance can be investigated in depth. Eventually, the efficiency of the presented model and method, for the totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) induction motor, can be verified through experimental results. In addition, this paper reports a quantitative analysis of the heat flux distribution of the fault rotor, and the heat flux density of the bars is investigated in detail. Then, the part most likely to break in the rotor as a result of the thermal load is identified.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2021: Pilot Protection Based on Amplitude of Directional Travelling Wave for Voltage Source Converter-High Voltage Direct Current (VSC-HVDC) Transmission Lines Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082021 Authors: Lingtong Jiang Qing Chen Wudi Huang Lei Wang Yu Zeng Pu Zhao This paper presents a novel pilot protection scheme of DC cable line in voltage-source-converter (VSC) based multi-terminal DC (MTDC) grids, which utilizes a novel phase-mode transformation to decouple the bipolar DC cable current into six mode and it uses the stationary wavelet transform to extract the modulus maxima of fault initial traveling waves current (FITWC). With accurate amplitude and polarities of the FITWC being collected from the fault-detection devices located at each terminal, the proposed scheme can correctly determine the faulty segment and the faulty pole. In this paper, the ratio of amplitudes between sixth mode forward and backward travelling wave currents is used to judge the faulty segment and the polarity of fifth mode forward travelling wave current is used to identify the faulty pole. A four-terminal VSC-based MTDC grid was built in PSCAD/EMTDC to evaluate the performance of the fault-protection scheme. Simulation results for different cases demonstrate that the proposed protection scheme is robust against noise, and has been tested successfully for fault resistance of up to 400 Ω. Since the scheme merely needs the characteristics of FITWCs, the practical difficulties of detecting subsequent travelling waves are avoided. Moreover, only the state signal is needed to send to the other side in proposed scheme, so low communication speed can satisfy the requirement of relay protection and it does not need the data synchronization seriously.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2042: Time-Resolved Temperature Map Prediction of Concentration Photovoltaics Systems by Means of Coupled Ray Tracing Flux Analysis and Thermal Quadrupoles Modelling Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082042 Authors: Alejandro Mateos-Canseco Manuel I. Peña-Cruz Arturo Díaz-Ponce Jean-Luc Battaglia Christophe Pradère Luis David Patino-Lopez A transient 3D thermal model based on the thermal quadrupole method, coupled to ray tracing analysis, is presented. This methodology can predict transient temperature maps under any time-fluctuating irradiance flux—either synthetic or experimental—providing a useful tool for the design and parametric optimization of concentration photovoltaics systems. Analytic simulations of a concentration photovoltaics system thermal response and assessment of in-plane thermal gradients induced by fast tracking point perturbations, like those induced by wind, are provided and discussed for the first time. Computation times for time-resolved temperature maps can be as short as 9 s for a full month of system operation, with stimuli inspired by real data. Such information could pave the way for more accurate studies of cell reliability under any set of worldwide irradiance conditions.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2035: Experimental Investigation of Flow-Induced Motion and Energy Conversion of a T-Section Prism Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082035 Authors: Nan Shao Jijian Lian Guobin Xu Fang Liu Heng Deng Quanchao Ren Xiang Yan Flow-induced motion (FIM) performs well in energy conversion but has been barely investigated, particularly for prisms with sharp sections. Previous studies have proven that T-section prisms that undergo galloping branches with high amplitude are beneficial to energy conversions. The FIM experimental setup designed by Tianjin University (TJU) was improved to conduct a series of FIM responses and energy conversion tests on a T-section prism. Experimental results are presented and discussed, to reveal the complete FIM responses and power generation characteristics of the T-section prism under different load resistances and section aspect ratios. The main findings are summarized as follows. (1) Hard galloping (HG), soft galloping (SG), and critical galloping (CG) can be observed by varying load resistances. When the load resistances are low, HG occurs; otherwise, SG occurs. (2) In the galloping branch, the highest amplitude and the most stable oscillation cause high-quality electrical energy production by the generator. Therefore, the galloping branch is the best branch for harvesting energy. (3) In the galloping branch, as the load resistances decrease, the active power continually increases until the prism is suppressed from galloping to a vortex-induced vibration (VIV) lower branch with a maximum active power Pharn of 21.23 W and a maximum ηout of 20.2%. (4) Different section aspect ratios (α) can significantly influence the FIM responses and energy conversions of the T-section prism. For small aspect ratios, galloping is hardly observed in the complete responses, but the power generation efficiency (ηout,0.8 = 27.44%) becomes larger in the galloping branch.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2070: A Simple Assessment of Housing Retrofit Policies for the UK: What Should Succeed the Energy Company Obligation? Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082070 Authors: Luciana Maria Miu Natalia Wisniewska Christoph Mazur Jeffrey Hardy Adam Hawkes Despite the need for large-scale retrofit of UK housing to meet emissions reduction targets, progress to date has been slow and domestic energy efficiency policies have struggled to accelerate housing retrofit processes. There is a need for housing retrofit policies that overcome key barriers within the retrofit sector while maintaining economic viability for customers, funding organizations, and effectively addressing UK emission reductions and fuel poverty targets. In this study, we use a simple assessment framework to assess three policies (the Variable Council Tax, the Variable Stamp Duty Land Tax, and Green Mortgage) proposed to replace the UK’s current major domestic retrofit programme known as the Energy Company Obligation (ECO). We show that the Variable Council Tax and Green Mortgage proposals have the greatest potential for overcoming the main barriers to retrofit policies while maintaining economic viability and contributing to high-level UK targets. We also show that, while none of the assessed schemes are capable of overcoming all retrofit barriers on their own, a mix of all three policies could address most barriers and provide key benefits such as wide coverage of property markets, operation on existing financial infrastructures, and application of a “carrot-and-stick” approach to incentivize retrofit. Lastly, we indicate that the specific support and protection of fuel-poor households cannot be achieved by a mix of these policies and a complementary scheme focused on fuel-poor households is required.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2069: Layout Optimization Design of Two Vortex Induced Piezoelectric Energy Converters (VIPECs) Using the Combined Kriging Surrogate Model and Particle Swarm Optimization Method Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082069 Authors: Xinyu An Baowei Song Zhaoyong Mao Congcong Ma The layout configuration of Vortex Induced Piezoelectric Energy Converters (VIPECs) is essential to improve its overall performance. Based on the formations of migrating geese, the configuration is characterized by two nondimensionalized layout parameters. A number of sampled points for different configurations are simulated with the two-dimensional Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method. The influence of layout configurations on VIPECs’ lift force and wake structure is investigated and the generated open circuit output voltage is obtained through the derived output voltage equation. The response surface model of the output voltage of both the leading VIPEC and the following VIPEC and their summation are established using the Kriging surrogate model based on the obtained simulation results. Then, optimal layout parameters are found through the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm, and its predicted result is compared with that of the CFD simulation. The simulation and optimization results reveal that the output voltage is not always consistent with the lift force on the plate. When VIPECs are placed in parallel with a certain spacing, their overall performance increases. The summation of output voltage is predicted to improve by approximately 63.7% compared to two single VIPECs when they are placed at the optimal layout parameters.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2057: Heat Transfer Coefficient Identification in Mini-Channel Flow Boiling with the Hybrid Picard–Trefftz Method Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082057 Authors: Mirosław Grabowski Sylwia Hożejowska Anna Pawińska Mieczysław E. Poniewski Jacek Wernik This paper summarizes the results of the flow boiling heat transfer study with ethanol in a 1.8 mm deep and 2.0 mm wide horizontal, asymmetrically heated, rectangular mini-channel. The test section with the mini-channel was the main part of the experimental stand. One side of the mini-channel was closed with a transparent sight window allowing for the observation of two-phase flow structures with the use of a fast film camera. The other side of the channel was the foil insulated heater. The infrared camera recorded the 2D temperature distribution of the foil. The 2D temperature distributions in the elements of the test section with two-phase flow boiling were determined using (1) the Trefftz method and (2) the hybrid Picard–Trefftz method. These methods solved the triple inverse heat conduction problem in three consecutive elements of the test section, each with different physical properties. The values of the local heat transfer coefficients calculated on the basis of the Robin boundary condition were compared with the coefficients determined with the simplified approach, where the arrangement of elements in the test section was treated as a system of planar layers.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2056: Macroscopic and Microscopic Spray Characteristics of Diesel and Gasoline in a Constant Volume Chamber Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082056 Authors: Moo-Yeon Lee Gee-Soo Lee Chan-Jung Kim Jae-Hyeong Seo Ki-Hyun Kim The aim of this study is to investigate the spray characteristics of diesel and gasoline under various ambient conditions. Ambient conditions were simulated, ranging from atmospheric conditions to high pressure and temperature conditions such as those inside a combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine. Spray tip penetration and spray cross-sectional area were calculated in liquid and vapor spray development. In addition, initial spray development and end of injection near nozzle were visualized microscopically, to study spray atomization characteristics. Three injection pressures of 50 MPa, 100 MPa, and 150 MPa were tested. The ambient temperature was varied from 300 K to 950 K, and the ambient density was maintained between 1 kg/m3 and 20 kg/m3. Gasoline and diesel exhibited similar liquid penetration and spray cross-sectional area at every ambient density condition under non-evaporation. As the ambient temperature increased, liquid penetration length and spray area of both fuels’ spray were shortened and decreased by fuel evaporation near the spray boundary. However, the two fuels were characterized by different slopes in the decrement trend of spray area as the ambient temperature increased. The decrement slope trend coincided considerably with the distillation curve characteristics of the two fuels. Vapor spray boundary of gasoline and diesel was particularly similar, despite the different amount of fuel evaporation. It was assumed that the outer spray boundary of gasoline and diesel is always similar when using the same injector and injection conditions. In microscopic spray visualization, gasoline spray displayed a more unstable and asymmetric spray shape, with more dispersed and distributed fuel ligaments during initial spray development. Large amounts of fuel vapor cloud were observed near the nozzle at the end of the injection process with gasoline. Some amounts of this vapor cloud were attributed to the evaporation of residual fuel in the nozzle sac.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2055: Energy Retrofitting Strategies and Economic Assessments: The Case Study of a Residential Complex Using Utility Bills Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082055 Authors: Cesare Biserni Paolo Valdiserri Dario D’Orazio Massimo Garai Promotion of retrofit actions on existing buildings is a goal in Italy, since most of them were built before the 80′s when little attention was paid to energy saving. This paper presents an integrated passive design approach to reduce the heating demand and limit the costs of a representative existing residential complex located in Bologna, in the northern part of Italy. To this purpose, we explored different scenarios upon actions taken on the building structure: (1) High efficiency windows; (2) additional insulation on the external walls; or (3) the simultaneous application of high efficiency windows and improved thermal envelope, on both external walls and roofing. The numerical optimization has been performed dynamically using TRNSYS simulation tool, to evaluate energy consumptions in different structural conditions. Then, the developed model has been calibrated by the real consumption data deduced from energy bills (years 2009–2015). Finally, the energy results obtained in the above mentioned different scenarios have been evaluated under an economic assessment of cost investment: It has been highlighted that the payback time (PBT) results to be strongly influenced by the national policies of fiscal incentives. According to the present model, the most profitable condition is obtained when additional insulation on the external walls is applied: The total amount of energy saving resulted to be equal to 930.4 MWh, with an optimal PBT of roughly six years, when tax refund was contemplated.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2052: A Fractional Order Power System Stabilizer Applied on a Small-Scale Generation System Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082052 Authors: Florindo A. de C. Ayres Junior Carlos T. da Costa Junior Renan L. P. de Medeiros Walter Barra Junior Cleonor C. das Neves Marcelo K. Lenzi Gabriela de M. Veroneze In this paper, a Fractional Order Power System controller (FOPSS) is designed, and its performance and robustness are experimentally evaluated by tests in a 10 kVA laboratory scale power system. The FOPSS design methodology is based on the tuning of an additional design variable, namely the fractional order of the controller transfer function. This design variable is tuned aiming to obtain a tradeoff between satisfactory damping of dominant oscillating mode and improved closed-loop system robustness. For controller synthesis, transfer function models were estimated from data collected at selected operating points and subsequently applied for the controller design and for obtaining upper bounds estimates on the operating-point depends on plant uncertainties. The experimental results show that the FOPPS was able to obtain a robust performance for the considered set of the power system operating conditions.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 2054: Lifetime Prediction of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell under Automotive Load Cycling Using a Physically-Based Catalyst Degradation Model Energies doi: 10.3390/en11082054 Authors: Manik Mayur Mathias Gerard Pascal Schott Wolfgang G. Bessler One of the bottlenecks hindering the usage of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell technology in automotive applications is the highly load-sensitive degradation of the cell components. The cell failure cases reported in the literature show localized cell component degradation, mainly caused by flow-field dependent non-uniform distribution of reactants. The existing methodologies for diagnostics of localized cell failure are either invasive or require sophisticated and expensive apparatus. In this study, with the help of a multiscale simulation framework, a single polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) model is exposed to a standardized drive cycle provided by a system model of a fuel cell car. A 2D multiphysics model of the PEMFC is used to investigate catalyst degradation due to spatio-temporal variations in the fuel cell state variables under the highly transient load cycles. A three-step (extraction, oxidation, and dissolution) model of platinum loss in the cathode catalyst layer is used to investigate the cell performance degradation due to the consequent reduction in the electro-chemical active surface area (ECSA). By using a time-upscaling methodology, we present a comparative prediction of cell end-of-life (EOL) under different driving behavior of New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC).

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1453: Comments to Paper Entitled: Development of a Data-Driven Predictive Model of Supply Air Temperature in an Air-Handling Unit for Conserving Energy. Energies 2018, 11, 407 Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061453 Authors: Yaolin Lin Wei Yang I have read, with interest, the article authorized by Hong and Kim, which was published in Energies 2018, 11, 407; doi:10.3390/en11020407: entitled “Development of a Data-Driven Predictive Model of Supply Air Temperature in an Air-Handling Unit for Conserving Energy”[...]

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1450: Investigation of Water Hammer Protection in Water Supply Pipeline Systems Using an Intelligent Self-Controlled Surge Tank Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061450 Authors: Wuyi Wan Boran Zhang A surge tank is a common pressure control device in long pressurized pipelines. The performance is greatly influenced by the location, cross area, and the characteristics of the connector. In order to improve the property of the surge tank, the effect of the connector is numerically analyzed by the method of characteristics (MOC). A hysteretic effect can occur when the discharge capacity is limited. Therefore, the performance of the surge tank can be improved if the discharge capacity of the connector is appropriately controlled according to the different conditions. For the adjustability of the connector’s discharge capacity, a kind of intelligent self-controlled surge tank (IST) is proposed. In addition, through simulations and analysis, IST is proved to have advantages in pressure control and applicability compared to normal surge tanks.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1452: Impact of Demand Response Programs on Optimal Operation of Multi-Microgrid System Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061452 Authors: Anh-Duc Nguyen Van-Hai Bui Akhtar Hussain Duc-Huy Nguyen Hak-Man Kim The increased penetration of renewables is beneficial for power systems but it poses several challenges, i.e., uncertainty in power supply, power quality issues, and other technical problems. Backup generators or storage system have been proposed to solve this problem but there are limitations remaining due to high installation and maintenance cost. Furthermore, peak load is also an issue in the power distribution system. Due to the adjustable characteristics of loads, strategies on demand side such as demand response (DR) are more appropriate in order to deal with these challenges. Therefore, this paper studies how DR programs influence the operation of the multi-microgrid (MMG). The implementation is executed based on a hierarchical energy management system (HiEMS) including microgrid EMSs (MG-EMSs) responsible for local optimization in each MG and community EMS (C-EMS) responsible for community optimization in the MMG. Mixed integer linear programming (MILP)-based mathematical models are built for MMG optimal operation. Five scenarios consisting of single DR programs and DR groups are tested in an MMG test system to evaluate their impact on MMG operation. Among the five scenarios, some DR programs apply curtailing strategies, resulting in a study about the influence of base load value and curtailable load percentage on the amount of curtailed load and shifted load as well as the operation cost of the MMG. Furthermore, the impact of DR programs on the amount of external and internal trading power in the MMG is also examined. In summary, each individual DR program or group could be handy in certain situations depending on the interest of the MMG such as external trading, self-sufficiency or operation cost minimization.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1449: Short-Term Load Forecasting for Electric Bus Charging Stations Based on Fuzzy Clustering and Least Squares Support Vector Machine Optimized by Wolf Pack Algorithm Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061449 Authors: Xing Zhang Accurate short-term load forecasting is of momentous significance to ensure safe and economic operation of quick-change electric bus (e-bus) charging stations. In order to improve the accuracy and stability of load prediction, this paper proposes a hybrid model that combines fuzzy clustering (FC), least squares support vector machine (LSSVM), and wolf pack algorithm (WPA). On the basis of load characteristics analysis for e-bus charging stations, FC is adopted to extract samples on similar days, which can not only avoid the blindness of selecting similar days by experience, but can also overcome the adverse effects of unconventional load data caused by a sudden change of factors on training. Then, WPA with good global convergence and computational robustness is employed to optimize the parameters of LSSVM. Thus, a novel hybrid load forecasting model for quick-change e-bus charging stations is built, namely FC-WPA-LSSVM. To verify the developed model, two case studies are used for model construction and testing. The simulation test results prove that the proposed model can obtain high prediction accuracy and ideal stability.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1447: The Effect of Unbalanced Impedance Loads on the Short-Circuit Current Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061447 Authors: Insu Kim Conventional short-circuit studies often neglect the load current because the short-circuit current (SCC) flowing from generators is much greater than the SCC that is affected by various loading conditions. As distributed or clustered loads that are unbalanced in phases are connected to the grid, they can also change the magnitude and phase angle of the SCC, despite their small capacities. Thus, the objective of this study is to present algorithms that are able to analyze such an impedance unbalanced load. For this purpose, this study initially derives an SCC model of the unbalanced impedance load in phases. Since the proposed SCC model requires the pre-fault voltage, it uses a power-flow analysis algorithm that iteratively calculates the current that is to be injected and the pre-fault voltage, using the bus impedance matrix. Then, the proposed SCC calculation algorithm transforms the unbalanced loads into equivalent impedances, using the pre-fault voltage, and adds them to sequence networks as input data, using the proposed SCC model. The proposed algorithms are verified in various case studies. As a result, the proposed SCC calculation algorithms are more accurate, because they do not neglect unbalanced loads.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1451: Design of a Path-Tracking Steering Controller for Autonomous Vehicles Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061451 Authors: Chuanyang Sun Xin Zhang Lihe Xi Ying Tian This paper presents a linearization method for the vehicle and tire models under the model predictive control (MPC) scheme, and proposes a linear model-based MPC path-tracking steering controller for autonomous vehicles. The steering controller is designed to minimize lateral path-tracking deviation at high speeds. The vehicle model is linearized by a sequence of supposed steering angles, which are obtained by assuming the vehicle can reach the desired path at the end of the MPC prediction horizon and stay in a steady-state condition. The lateral force of the front tire is directly used as the control input of the model, and the rear tire’s lateral force is linearized by an equivalent cornering stiffness. The course-direction deviation, which is the angle between the velocity vector and the path heading, is chosen as a control reference state. The linearization model is validated through the simulation, and the results show high prediction accuracy even in regions of large steering angle. This steering controller is tested through simulations on the CarSim-Simulink platform (R2013b, MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA), showing the improved performance of the present controller at high speeds.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1442: Interaction of Wind Turbine Wakes under Various Atmospheric Conditions Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061442 Authors: Sang Lee Peter Vorobieff Svetlana Poroseva We present a numerical study of two utility-scale 5-MW turbines separated by seven rotor diameters. The effects of the atmospheric boundary layer flow on the turbine performance were assessed using large-eddy simulations. We found that the surface roughness and the atmospheric stability states had a profound effect on the wake diffusion and the Reynolds stresses. In the upstream turbine case, high surface roughness increased the wind shear, accelerating the decay of the wake deficit and increasing the Reynolds stresses. Similarly, atmospheric instabilities significantly expedited the wake decay and the Reynolds stress increase due to updrafts of the thermal plumes. The turbulence from the upstream boundary layer flow combined with the turbine wake yielded higher Reynolds stresses for the downwind turbine, especially in the streamwise component. For the downstream turbine, diffusion of the wake deficits and the sharp peaks in the Reynolds stresses showed faster decay than the upwind case due to higher levels of turbulence. This provides a physical explanation for how turbine arrays or wind farms can operate more efficiently under unstable atmospheric conditions, as it is based on measurements collected in the field.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1443: Impacts of the Allocation Mechanism Under the Third Phase of the European Emission Trading Scheme Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061443 Authors: Wolfgang Eichhammer Nele Friedrichsen Sean Healy Katja Schumacher This paper focuses on the following two key research questions in the context of the change in allocation rules in the move from Phase I/II (2005–2012) to Phase III (2013–2020) of the European Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS): First, how do allocations compare with actual installation-verified emissions in Phase III? For that purpose we analyse changes in sector-country allocations and verified emissions between Phase II and Phase III. The analysis is based on a selection of 2150 installations present in all phases of the EU ETS, taken from the European Union Transaction Log (EUTL) The results show that over-allocation has been considerably reduced in Phase III. Overall, allocation for the selected sectors decreased by 20% in 2013 compared to 2008 but varying across installations. Second, we investigate, whether the introduction of benchmarks in Phase III may have triggered carbon-reducing measures for industrial processes. For that purpose, we analyse for four product groups (cement clinker, pig iron, ammonia and nitric acid) the specific emissions (per tonne of product). Care was taken to define a data set with a similar delimitation of emission and production data. The findings were cross-checked through selected expert interviews. Our findings indicate that there is no evidence so far for improving specific emissions, though the strong improvement for nitric acid, as well as some improvement linked to ammonia occurring before the start of Phase III may have been supported by the introduction of Phase III.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1448: Electrical Properties of Polyethylene/Polypropylene Compounds for High-Voltage Insulation Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061448 Authors: Sameh Ziad Ahmed Dabbak Hazlee Azil Illias Bee Chin Ang Nurul Ain Abdul Latiff Mohamad Zul Hilmey Makmud In high-voltage insulation systems, the most commonly used material is polymeric material because of its high dielectric strength, high resistivity, and low dielectric loss in addition to good chemical and mechanical properties. In this work, various polymer compounds were prepared, consisting of low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), HDPE/PP, and LDPE/PP polymer blends. The relative permittivity and breakdown strength of each sample types were evaluated. In order to determine the physical properties of the prepared samples, the samples were also characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results showed that the dielectric constant of PP increased with the increase of HDPE and LDPE content. The breakdown measurement data for all samples were analyzed using the cumulative probability plot of Weibull distribution. From the acquired results, it was found that the dielectric strengths of LDPE and HDPE were higher than that of PP. Consequently, the addition of LDPE and HDPE to PP increased the breakdown strength of PP, but a variation in the weight ratio (30%, 50% and 70%) did not change significantly the breakdown strength. The DSC measurements showed two exothermic crystallization peaks representing two crystalline phases. In addition, the DSC results showed that the blended samples were physically bonded, and no co-crystallization occurred in the produced blends.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1512: Experimental Investigation of the Use of Waste Mineral Oils as a Fuel with Organic-Based Mn Additive Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061512 Authors: Bülent Özdalyan Recep Ç. Orman The heat values of waste mineral oils are equal to the heat value of the fuel oil. However, heat value alone is not sufficient for the use of waste minerals oils as fuel. However, the critical physical properties of fuels such as density and viscosity need to be adapted to the system in order to be used. In this study, the engine oils used in the first 10,000 km of the vehicles were used as waste mineral oil. An organic-based Mn additive was synthesized to improve the properties of the waste mineral oil. It was observed that mixing the Mn additive with the waste mineral oil at different doses (4, 8, 12, and 16 ppm) improves the viscosity of the waste oil and the flash point. The resulting fuel was evaluated for emission using different loads in a 5 kW capacity generator to compare the fuel with standard diesel fuel and to determine the effect of Mn addition. In the experimental study, it was observed that the emission characteristics of the fuel obtained from waste mineral oil were worse than diesel fuel, but some improvement was observed with Mn addition. As a result, we found that the use of waste mineral oils in engines in fuel standards was not appropriate, but may be improved with additives.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1517: Design, Fabrication, and Performance Test of a 100-W Helical-Blade Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine at Low Tip-Speed Ratio Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061517 Authors: Dowon Han Young Gun Heo Nak Joon Choi Sang Hyun Nam Kyoung Ho Choi Kyung Chun Kim A 100-W helical-blade vertical-axis wind turbine was designed, manufactured, and tested in a wind tunnel. A relatively low tip-speed ratio of 1.1 was targeted for usage in an urban environment at a rated wind speed of 9 m/s and a rotational speed of 170 rpm. The basic dimensions were determined through a momentum-based design method according to the IEC 61400-2 protocol. The power output was estimated by a mathematical model that takes into account the aerodynamic performance of the NACA0018 blade shape. The lift and drag of the blade with respect to the angle of attack during rotation were calculated using 2D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation to take into account stall region. The average power output calculated by the model was 108.34 W, which satisfies the target output of 100 W. The manufactured wind turbine was tested in a large closed-circuit wind tunnel, and the power outputs were measured for given wind speeds. At the design condition, the measured power output was 114.7 W, which is 5.9% higher than that of the mathematical model. This result validates the proposed design method and power estimation by the mathematical model.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1515: An Improved Heating System with Waste Pressure Utilization in a Combined Heat and Power Unit Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061515 Authors: Heng Chen Jidong Xu Yao Xiao Zhen Qi Gang Xu Yongping Yang An improved heating system integrated with waste pressure utilization (WPU) for combined heat and power (CHP) cogeneration was proposed. The new heating system efficiently utilized the excess pressure of the extraction heating steam to drive the WPU turbine and generator for producing electricity, achieving higher energy efficiency and lower fuel consumption of the CHP unit. The results of the detailed thermodynamic analysis showed that applying the proposed concept in a typical 300 MW coal-fired CHP unit could reduce the standard coal consumption rate by 9.84 g/(kW·h), with a thermal efficiency improvement of 1.97% (absolute value). Compared to that of the original heating process, the energy efficiency of the proposed process decreased by 0.55% (absolute value), but its exergy efficiency increased dramatically by 17.97% (absolute value), which meant that the proposed configuration could make better use of the steam energy and contribute to the better performance of the CHP unit. As the unit generation load and supply and return-water temperatures declined and the unit heating load rose, the WPU system would generate more electricity and its energy-saving benefit would be enhanced. This work provides a promising approach to further advance the CHP technology and district heating systems.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1510: Synergistic Enhancement of Ternary Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/Graphene Oxide/Manganese Oxide Composite as a Symmetrical Electrode for Supercapacitors Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061510 Authors: Nur Hawa Nabilah Azman Hong Ngee Lim Md Shuhazlly Mamat Yusran Sulaiman A novel facile preparation of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/graphene oxide/manganese oxide (PEDOT/GO/MnO2) ternary composite as an electrode material for a supercapacitor was evaluated. The ternary composite was sandwiched together and separated by filter paper soaked in 1 M KCl in order to investigate the supercapacitive properties. The ternary composite exhibits a higher specific capacitance (239.4 F/g) compared to PEDOT/GO (73.3 F/g) at 25 mV/s. The incorporation of MnO2 which act as a spacer in the PEDOT/GO helps to improve the supercapacitive performance by maximizing the utilization of electrode materials by the electrolyte ions. The PEDOT/GO/MnO2 ternary composite displays a specific energy and specific power of 7.9 Wh/kg and 489.0 W/kg, respectively. The cycling stability test revealed that the ternary composite is able to achieve 95% capacitance retention even after 1000 cycles due to the synergistic effect between the PEDOT, GO, and MnO2 that helps to enhance the performance of the ternary composite for supercapacitor application.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1511: Influence of Water Immersion on Pore System and Methane Desorption of Shales: A Case Study of Batu Gajah and Kroh Shale Formations in Malaysia Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061511 Authors: Ahmed Al-Mutarreb Shiferaw Regassa Jufar Hesham Abdulelah Eswaran Padmanabhan The influence of water on the pore system and gas desorption in shale remains an open question that is not yet fully understood. In this study, we present the effect of water on the shale pore system and recovered desorbed gas through a series of measurements on shale samples. We utilized the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) low pressure N2 adsorption and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) to observe and analyze the effects of water immersion and moisture on the pore system of shale samples from Batu Gajah (BG) and Kroh shale formations in Malaysia. The impact of water on desorption was then measured using the United States former Bureau of Mines (USBM) modified method. The results showed that the micropore and mesopore volumes of the Batu Gajah (BG) and Kroh (KH) shale samples were reduced by 64.84% and 44.12%, respectively, after the samples were immersed in water. The BET-specific surface area declined by 88.34% and 59.63% for the BG and KH sample, respectively. Desorption results showed that the methane desorbed volume was (KH: 1.22 cc/g, BG: 0.94 cc/g) for the water immersed sample, and (KH: 0.72 cc/g, BG: 0.60) for the equilibrated sample. The difference can be attributed to the proportion of the organic (total organic carbon) and inorganic (clay) content found in the two shale samples. The total organic carbon (TOC) existing in the KH sample was 12.1 wt %, which was greater than the organic carbon content of the BG sample (2.1 wt %). The clay content was found to be more dominant in the BG shale when compared to the KH shale.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1543: Three-Stage Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor (ASBR) for Maximum Methane Production: Effects of COD Loading Rate and Reactor Volumetric Ratio Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061543 Authors: Achiraya Jiraprasertwong Kornpong Vichaitanapat Malinee Leethochawalit Sumaeth Chavadej A three-stage anaerobic sequencing batch reactor system was developed as a new anaerobic process with an emphasis on methane production from ethanol wastewater. The three-stage anaerobic sequencing batch reactor system consisted of three bioreactors connected in series. It was operated at 37 °C with a fixed recycle ratio of 1:1 (final effluent flow rate to feed flow rate) and the washout sludge from the third bioreactor present in the final effluent was allowed to be recycled to the first bioreactor. The pH of the first bioreactor was controlled at 5.5, while the pH values of the other two bioreactors were not controlled. Under the optimum chemical oxygen demand loading rate of 18 kg/m3d (based on the feed chemical oxygen demand load and total volume of the three bioreactors) with a bioreactor volumetric ratio of 5:5:20, the system provided the highest gas production performance in terms of yields of both hydrogen and methane and the highest overall chemical oxygen demand removal. Interestingly, the three-stage anaerobic sequencing batch reactor system gave a much higher energy production rate and a higher optimum chemical oxygen demand loading rate than previously reported anaerobic systems since it was able to maintain very high microbial concentrations in all bioreactors with very high values of both alkalinity and solution pH, especially in the third bioreactor, resulting in sufficient levels of micronutrients for anaerobic digestion.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1539: Study of Power Quality at the Point of Common Coupling of a Low Voltage Grid and a Distributed Generation System of 7.8 kWp in a Tropical Region Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061539 Authors: Agustín Valverde Granja Teófilo Miguel de Souza Pedro Magalhães Sobrinho Daniel Felipe Arévalo Santos In this paper we analyze an experimental 1000 kWh/month distributed generation system in a tropical region connected to a point of common coupling in a low voltage grid that was characterized according to NTC 5001. This photovoltaic system has 7.8 kWp and uses 30 polycrystalline silicon-panels of 260 Wp each. Its maximum energy produced was 850 kWh/month, equivalent to 72.65% of the installed capacity. Finally, there was an increase of 2% with respect to the minimum voltage value that was recorded. The voltage unbalance decreases between 3.5 and 70% and voltage harmonics in each line increased by 7% on line U1, 0.8% on U2, 3% on U3 and current harmonics have a 22% increase. Likewise, the total active and reactive power were increased by 58% and 42% respectively, and the thermography study allowed to establish a temperature increase at the point of common coupling of 7.5%. Therefore, it is expected that this paper can serve as a reference for the application of Colombian law 1715 in solar energy.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1551: Increasing Profits in Food Waste Biorefinery—A Techno-Economic Analysis Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061551 Authors: Juan-Rodrigo Bastidas-Oyanedel Jens Schmidt The present manuscript highlights the economic profit increase when combining organic waste anaerobic digestion with other mixed culture anaerobic fermentation technologies, e.g., lactic acid fermentation and dark fermentation. Here we consider the conversion of 50 tonnes/day of food waste into methane, power generation (from CHP of biomethane), lactic acid, polylactic acid, hydrogen, acetic acid and butyric acid. The economic assessment shows that the basic alternative, i.e., anaerobic digestion with methane selling to the grid, generates 19 USD/t_VS (3 USD/t_foodwaste) of profit. The highest profit is obtained by dark fermentation with separation and purification of acetic and butyric acids, i.e., 296 USD/t_VS (47 USD/t_foodwaste). The only alternative that presented losses is the power generation alternative, needing tipping fees and/or subsidy of 176 USD/t_VS (29 USD/t_foodwaste). The rest of the alternatives generate profit. From the return on investment (ROI) and payback time, the best scenario is the production of polylactic acid, with 98% ROI, and 7.8 years payback time. Production of butyric acid ROI and payback time was 74% and 9.1 years.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1537: Jerk Analysis of a Power-Split Hybrid Electric Vehicle Based on a Data-Driven Vehicle Dynamics Model Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061537 Authors: Xiaohua Zeng Haoyong Cui Dafeng Song Nannan Yang Tong Liu Huiyong Chen Yinshu Wang Yulong Lei Given its highly coupled multi-power sources with diverse dynamic response characteristics, the mode transition process of a power-split Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) can easily lead to unanticipated passenger-felt jerks. Moreover, difficulties in parameter estimation, especially power-source dynamic torque estimation, result in new challenges for jerk reduction. These two aspects entangle with each other and constitute a complicated coupling problem which obstructs the realization of a valid anti-jerk method. In this study, a vehicle dynamics model with reference to a data-driven modeling method is first established, integrating a full-time artificial neural network engine dynamic model that can accurately predict engine dynamic torque. Then the essential reason for the occurrence of vehicle jerks in real driving conditions is analyzed. Finally, to smooth the mode transition process, a more practical anti-jerk strategy based on power-source torque changing rate limitation (TCRL) is proposed. Verification studies indicate that the data-driven vehicle dynamics model has enough accuracy to reflect the vehicle dynamic characteristics, and the proposed TCRL strategy could reduce the vehicle jerk by up to 85.8%, without any sacrifice of vehicle performance. This research provides a feasible method for precise modeling of vehicle dynamics and a reference for improving the riding comfort of hybrid electric vehicles.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1542: Heat and Mass Transfer Behavior Prediction and Thermal Performance Analysis of Earth-to-Air Heat Exchanger by Finite Volume Method Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061542 Authors: Qinggong Liu Zhenyu Du Yi Fan A comprehensive numerical study on coupled heat and mass transfer in an earth-to-air heat exchanger (EAHE) is conducted by self-complied program based on the finite volume method. The soil thermal and moisture coupled characteristics in the vicinity of the pipe and the thermal performance of the EAHE are evaluated by a two-dimensional simulation model. The model of the EAHE is verified by the experimental data, which achieved a good agreement with each other. The numerical results show that there is an obvious moisture peak in the radial direction, and the peak position radially moves away from the wall of the pipe over time. It is also found that the thermal performance of the heat and mass transfer model in soil is better than the pure heat conduction model.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1536: The Impact of Financial Development on Energy Consumption: Evidence from an Oil-Rich Economy Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061536 Authors: Shahriyar Mukhtarov Jeyhun I. Mikayilov Jeyhun Mammadov Elvin Mammadov This paper examines the relationship between energy consumption, financial development, and economic growth in an oil-rich economy—Azerbaijan—employing cointegration techniques to the data ranging from 1992 to 2015. The results confirm the existence of a long-run relationship among the variables. Also, we find that there is a positive and statistically significant impact of financial development and economic growth on energy consumption in the long-run. The positive and statistically significant coefficient of financial development and decreasing volatility in the proxy for financial development over time can be considered as improvements in the financial system. Estimation results show that a 1% increase in financial development, proxied by the private credit indicator, and economic development increases energy consumption by 0.19% and 0.12%, respectively. The positive and significant impact of financial development on energy consumption on the backdrop of relatively cheaper energy prices due to rich oil and gas resources, should be considered by policymakers in their energy use, financial development, and economic growth related decisions.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1459: Adaptive Higher-Order Sliding Mode Control for Islanding and Grid-Connected Operation of a Microgrid Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061459 Authors: Yaozhen Han Ronglin Ma Jinghan Cui Grid-connected and islanding operations of a microgrid are often influenced by system uncertainties, such as load parameter variations and unmodeled dynamics. This paper proposes a novel adaptive higher-order sliding mode (AHOSM) control strategy to enhance system robustness and handle an unknown uncertainty upper bounds problem. Firstly, microgrid models with uncertainties are established under islanding and grid-connected modes. Then, adaptive third-order sliding mode and adaptive second-order sliding mode control schemes are respectively designed for the two modes. Microgrid models’ descriptions are divided into nominal part and uncertain part, and higher-order sliding mode (HOSM) control problems are transformed into finite time stability problems. Again, a scheduled law is proposed to increase or decrease sliding mode control gain adaptively. Real higher-order sliding modes are established, and finite time stability is proven based on the Lyapunov method. In order to achieve smooth mode transformation, an islanding mode detection algorithm is also adopted. The proposed control strategy accomplishes voltage control and current control of islanding mode and grid-connected mode. Control voltages are continuous, and uncertainty upper bounds are not required. Furthermore, adjustable control gain can further whittle control chattering. Simulation experiments verify the validity and robustness of the proposed control scheme.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1461: Three-Dimensional Peridynamic Model for Predicting Fracture Evolution during the Lithiation Process Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061461 Authors: Hanlin Wang Erkan Oterkus Selda Oterkus Due to its large electric capacity, silicon has become one of the most promising electrode materials for lithium ion batteries. However, silicon undergoes large volumetric expansion and material stiffness reduction during the charging process. This can lead to fracture and failure of lithium-ion batteries. Damage formation and evolution inside the electrode are influenced by the lithium ion concentration and electrode material. High stress gradients induced by heterogeneous deformation can lead to massive migration of lithium ions towards high geometrical singularity regions, such as crack edge regions, which increases the lithium ion concentration. Fully coupled mechanical diffusion equations are important in describing the mechanics of this problem. In this study, the three-dimensional peridynamic theory is presented to solve the coupled field problem. In addition, the newly developed peridynamic differential operator concept is utilized to convert partial differential equations into peridynamic form for the diffusion equation. Spherical and cylindrical shaped energy storage structures with different pre-existing penny-shaped cracks are considered to demonstrate the capability of the developed framework. It is shown that peridynamic theory is a suitable tool for predicting crack evolution during the lithiation process.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1457: Optimal Planning Method of On-load Capacity Regulating Distribution Transformers in Urban Distribution Networks after Electric Energy Replacement Considering Uncertainties Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061457 Authors: Yu Su Niancheng Zhou Qianggang Wang Chao Lei Jian Fang Electric energy replacement is the umbrella term for the use of electric energy to replace oil (e.g., electric automobiles), coal (e.g., electric heating), and gas (e.g., electric cooking appliances), which increases the electrical load peak, causing greater valley/peak differences. On-load capacity regulating distribution transformers have been used to deal with loads with great valley/peak differences, so reasonably replacing conventional distribution transformers with on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers can effectively cope with load changes after electric energy replacement and reduce the no-load losses of distribution transformers. Before planning for on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers, the nodal effective load considering uncertainties within the life cycle after electric energy replacement was obtained by a Monte Carlo method. Then, according to the loss relation between on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers and conventional distribution transformers, three characteristic indexes of annual continuous apparent power curve and replacement criteria for on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers were put forward in this paper, and a set of distribution transformer replaceable points was obtained. Next, based on cost benefit analysis, a planning model of on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers which consists of investment profitability index within the life cycle, investment cost recouping index and capacity regulating cost index was put forward. The branch and bound method was used to solve the planning model within replaceable point set to obtain upgrading and reconstruction scheme of distribution transformers under a certain investment. Finally, planning analysis of on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers was carried out for electric energy replacement points in one urban distribution network under three scenes: certain load, uncertain load and nodal effective load considering uncertainties. Results showed that the planning method of on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers proposed in this paper was very feasible and is of great guiding significance to distribution transformer planning after electric energy replacement and the popularization of on-load capacity regulating distribution transformers.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1456: Esterification of Jatropha Oil with Isopropanol via Ultrasonic Irradiation Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061456 Authors: Chia-Chi Chang Syuan Teng Min-Hao Yuan Dar-Ren Ji Ching-Yuan Chang Yi-Hung Chen Je-Lueng Shie Chungfang Ho Sz-Ying Tian Cesar Augusto Andrade-Tacca Do Van Manh Min-Yi Tsai Mei-Chin Chang Yen-Hau Chen Michael Huang Bo-Liang Liu The reduction of high acid value (AV) of inedible jatropha oil (JO) by esterification with isopropanol (IPA), which is a common alcohol solvent waste in Taiwan’s high-tech industry, was studied. The decrease of AV is beneficial for the subsequent transesterification to produce JO biodiesel (i.e., biodiesel of fatty acid isopropyl ester (FAIE)). Acid catalyst (H2SO4) and a novel mixing/emulsion technique using ultrasound irradiation (UI) were applied to promote and facilitate the esterification process. The results showed that increased IPA/oil molar ratio (MIOE) can significantly reduce the AV, kinematic viscosity (KV), density (ρLO), and water content (MW) of esterified JO, while also providing the benefit of enhancing the yield (YF) of biodiesel of FAIE. For example, with MIOE = 5 at esterification temperature (TE) = 394.2 K (393.8–394.7 K), a reduction of AV of 99.25% with YF of 67.15% can be achieved. Free fatty acid (FFA) was reduced from 18.06 wt.% to 0.14 wt.%, indicating 17.92 wt.% out of 18.06 wt.% of FFA was esterified to FAIE. As a result, among the YF of 67.15%, 49.23% (= 67.15 wt.% deducting 17.92 wt.%) was contributed by the transesterification of triglycerides. By esterification of high FFA-containing raw JO with acid catalyst, one can not only avoid saponification, but also reduce the loading of the subsequent alkali-catalyzed transesterification. Moreover, increasing TE from 394.2 to 454.4 K further reduced AV (from 0.27 to 0.084 mg KOH/g) and MW (from 0.27 to 0.043 wt.%), but, on the other hand, it increased KV (from 14.62 to 25.2 mm2/s) and ρLO (from 901.6 to 913.3 kg/m3), while it decreased YF (from 67.15 to 25.84%). In sum, IPA was successfully used as a replacement for methanol in the esterification of JO while UI provided mixing/emulsion along with heating resulting from cavitation for the system.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1458: AC Ship Microgrids: Control and Power Management Optimization Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061458 Authors: Monaaf D. A. Al-Falahi Tomasz Tarasiuk Shantha Gamini Jayasinghe Zheming Jin Hossein Enshaei Josep M. Guerrero At sea, the electrical power system of a ship can be considered as an islanded microgrid. When connected to shore power at berth, the same power system acts as a grid connected microgrid or an extension of the grid. Therefore, ship microgrids show some resemblance to terrestrial microgrids. Nevertheless, due to the presence of large dynamic loads, such as electric propulsion loads, keeping the voltage and frequency within a permissible range and ensuring the continuity of supply are more challenging in ship microgrids. Moreover, with the growing demand for emission reductions and fuel efficiency improvements, alternative energy sources and energy storage technologies are becoming popular in ship microgrids. In this context, the integration of multiple energy sources and storage systems in ship microgrids requires an efficient power management system (PMS). These challenging environments and trends demand advanced control and power management solutions that are customized for ship microgrids. This paper presents a review on recent developments of control technologies and power management strategies proposed for AC ship microgrids.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1460: Forecasting Electricity Market Price for End Users in EU28 until 2020—Main Factors of Influence Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061460 Authors: Simon Pezzutto Gianluca Grilli Stefano Zambotti Stefan Dunjic The scope of the present investigation is to provide a description of final electricity prices development in the context of deregulated electricity markets in EU28, up to 2020. We introduce a new methodology to predict long-term electricity market prices consisting of two parts: (1) a self-developed form of Porter’s five forces analysis (PFFA) determining that electricity markets are characterized by a fairly steady price increase. Dominant driving factors come out to be: (i) uncertainty of future electricity prices; (ii) regulatory complexity; and (iii) generation overcapacities. Similar conclusions derive from (2) a self-developed form of multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). In this case, we find that the electricity market particularly depends on (i) market liberalization and (ii) the European Union (EU)’s economy growth. The applied methodologies provide a novel contribution in forecasting electricity price trends, by analyzing the sentiments, expectations, and knowledge of industry experts, through an assessment of factors influencing the market price and goals of key market participants. An extensive survey was conducted, interviewing experts all over Europe showed that the electricity market is subject to a future slight price increase.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1455: Research into an Online Calibration System for the Errors of Voltage Transformers Based on Open–Closed Capacitor Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061455 Authors: Zhenhua Li Qiuhui Li Zhengtian Wu Zhenxing Li Periodical calibration is necessary to ensure the accuracy and reliability of voltage transformers. The traditional calibration method requires the power to be off, and the calibration period for this method is too long, meaning that problems with the transformer cannot be found in time. In this paper, a voltage transformer error online calibration system based on open–closed capacitors is proposed. Two open–closed capacitors and other auxiliary devices are utilized to construct the standard voltage sensor. The outputs of the open–closed capacitors are compared with each other to realize accurate self-checking. The average value of the output is used as the final output, which can improve the system’s accuracy and reliability. An improved algorithm based on a hybrid convolution window is proposed to extract the fundamental and harmonic signals. Test results show that the variation of the ratio error is less than 0.037%, and the variation of the angle error is less than 0.45’.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1454: Convex Programming and Bootstrap Sensitivity for Optimized Electricity Bill in Healthcare Buildings under a Time-Of-Use Pricing Scheme Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061454 Authors: Rodolfo Gordillo-Orquera Sergio Muñoz-Romero Diego Arcos-Aviles Rafael Chillón Luis M. Lopez-Ramos Antonio G. Marques José Luis Rojo-Álvarez Efficient energy management is strongly dependent on determining the adequate power contracts among the ones offered by different electricity suppliers. This topic takes special relevance in healthcare buildings, where noticeable amounts of energy are required to generate an adequate health environment for patients and staff. In this paper, a convex optimization method is scrutinized to give a straightforward analysis of the optimal power levels to be contracted while minimizing the electricity bill cost in a time-of-use pricing scheme. In addition, a sensitivity analysis is carried out on the constraints in the optimization problems, which are analyzed in terms of both their empirical distribution and their bootstrap-estimated statistical distributions to create a simple-to-use tool for this purpose, the so-called mosaic-distribution. The evaluation of the proposed method was carried out with five-year consumption data on two different kinds of healthcare buildings, a large one given by Hospital Universitario de Fuenlabrada, and a primary care center, Centro de Especialidades el Arroyo, both located at Fuenlabrada (Madrid, Spain). The analysis of the resulting optimization shows that the annual savings achieved vary moderately, ranging from −0.22 % to +27.39%, depending on the analyzed year profile and the healthcare building type. The analysis introducing mosaic-distribution to represent the sensitivity score also provides operative information to evaluate the convenience of implementing energy saving measures. All this information is useful for managers to determine the appropriate power levels for next year contract renewal and to consider whether to implement demand response mechanisms in healthcare buildings.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1567: Evaluation of the Reactive Power Support Capability and Associated Technical Costs of Photovoltaic Farms’ Operation Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061567 Authors: Luís F. N. Lourenço Renato M. Monaro Maurício B. C. Salles José R. Cardoso Loïc Quéval The share of photovoltaic (PV) farms is increasing in the energy mix as power systems move away from conventional carbon-emitting sources. PV farms are equipped with an expensive power converter, which is, most of the time, used well bellow its rated capacity. This has led to proposals to use it to provide reactive power support to the grid. In this framework, this work presents a step-by-step methodology to obtain the reactive power support capability map and the associated technical costs of single- and two-stage PV farms during daytime operation. Results show that the use of two-stage PV farms can expand the reactive power support capability for low irradiance values in comparison to single-stage ones. Besides, despite losses being higher for two-stage PV farms, the technical cost in providing reactive power support is similar for both systems. Based on the obtained maps, it is demonstrated how the profits of a PV farm can be evaluated for the current ancillary services policy in Brazil. The proposed method is of interest to PV farm owners and grid operators to estimate the cost of providing reactive power support and to evaluate the economic feasibility in offering this ancillary service.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1566: Design and Implementation of the Battery Energy Storage System in DC Micro-Grid Systems Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061566 Authors: Yuan-Chih Chang Hao-Chin Chang Chien-Yu Huang The design and implementation of the battery energy storage system in DC micro-grid systems is demonstrated in this paper. The battery energy storage system (BESS) is an important part of a DC micro-grid because renewable energy generation sources are fluctuating. The BESS can provide energy while the renewable energy is absent in the DC micro-grid. The circuit topology of the proposed BESS will be introduced. The design of the voltage controller and the current controller for the battery charger/discharger are also illustrated. Finally, experimental results are provided to validate the performance of the BESS.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1563: AC Flashover Performance of 10 kV Rod-Plane Air-Gapped Arresters under Rain Conditions Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061563 Authors: Jiazheng Lu Pengkang Xie Jianping Hu Zhenglong Jiang Zhen Fang According to operational experience of power systems, the outdoor insulation strength can be reduced due to the effect of rain. Till now, little work has been done to investigate the flashover performance of air gapped arresters under rain conditions. Therefore, in this paper, experiments were carried out and the AC flashover performance of 10 kV arresters with different air gap structures was studied. The experimental results show that, for the tested arresters, the flashover current mainly flows through the air gaps and zinc oxide varistors under rain conditions. It is also confirmed that the flashover voltages decrease with the increasing of rain intensity and conductivity. In the windward direction, the wind can distort the water streams between the air gaps and rise the flashover voltages. In the leeward direction, if the rod electrode is beyond the range of the plane electrode, the flashover voltage researches the smallest value when the wind speed is 4 m/s. Analysis and discussions have been done to explain the experimental results, and the research in this paper may provide reference to improve the flashover performance of air gapped arresters under rain conditions.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1560: Peer to Peer Distributed Energy Trading in Smart Grids: A Survey Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061560 Authors: Juhar Abdella Khaled Shuaib Due to the expansion of distributed renewable energy resources, peer to peer energy trading (P2P DET) is expected to be one of the key elements of next generation power systems. P2P DET can provide various benefits such as creating a competitive energy market, reducing power outages, increasing overall efficiency of power systems and supplementing alternative sources of energy according to user preferences. Because of these promising advantages, P2P DET has attracted the attention of several researchers. Current research related to P2P DET include demand response optimization, power routing, network communication, security and privacy. This paper presents a review of the main research topics revolving around P2P DET. Particularly, we present a comprehensive survey of existing demand response optimization models, power routing devices and power routing algorithms. We also identify some key challenges faced in realizing P2P DET. Furthermore, we discuss state of the art enabling technologies such as Energy Internet, Blockchain and Software Defined Networking (SDN) and we provide insights into future research directions.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1559: A Simplified Physical Model Construction Method and Gas-Water Micro Scale Flow Simulation in Tight Sandstone Gas Reservoirs Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061559 Authors: Fengjiao Wang Yikun Liu Chaoyang Hu Anqi Shen Shuang Liang Bo Cai Accuracy defects exist when modeling fluid transport by the classical capillary bundle model for tight porous media. In this study, a three-dimensional simplified physical model construction method was developed for tight sandstone gas reservoirs based on the geological origin, sedimentary compaction and clay mineral-cementation. The idea was to reduce the porosity of the tangent spheres physical model considering the synergistic effect of the above two factors and achieve a simplified model with the same flow ability as the actual tight core. Regarding the wall surface of the simplified physical model as the boundary and using the Lattice Boltzmann (LB) method, the relative permeability curves of gas and water in the simplified model were fitted with experimental results and a synergistic coefficient could be obtained, which we propose for characterizing the synergistic effect of sedimentary compaction and clay mineral-cementation. The simplified physical model and the results simulated by the LB method are verified with the experimental results under indoor experimental conditions, and the two are consistent. Finally, we have carried out a simulation of gas flooding water under conditions of high temperature and high pressure which are consistent with the actual tight sandstone gas reservoir. The simulation results show that both gas and water have relatively stronger seepage ability compared with the results of laboratory experiments. Moreover, the interfacial tension between gas and water is lower, and the swept volume is larger during placement. In addition, the binding ability of the rock surface to the water film adhered to it becomes reduced. The method proposed in this study could indicate high frequency change of pores and throats and used to reflect the seepage resistance caused by frequent collisions with the wall in microscopic numerical simulations of tight sandstone gas reservoirs.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1553: Thermal Conductance along Hexagonal Boron Nitride and Graphene Grain Boundaries Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061553 Authors: Timon Rabczuk Mohammad Azadi Kakavand Raahul Palanivel Uma Ali Hossein Nezhad Shirazi Meysam Makaremi We carried out molecular dynamics simulations at various temperatures to predict the thermal conductivity and the thermal conductance of graphene and hexagonal boron-nitride (h-BN) thin films. Therefore, several models with six different grain boundary configurations ranging from 33–140 nm in length were generated. We compared our predicted thermal conductivity of pristine graphene and h-BN with previously conducted experimental data and obtained good agreement. Finally, we computed the thermal conductance of graphene and h-BN sheets for six different grain boundary configurations, five sheet lengths ranging from 33 to 140 nm and three temperatures (i.e., 300 K, 500 K and 700 K). The results show that the thermal conductance remains nearly constant with varying length and temperature for each grain boundary.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1555: Characterization of a Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) System for Waste Heat Recovery Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061555 Authors: Oswaldo Hideo Ando Junior Nelson H. Calderon Samara Silva de Souza This paper presents the development and characterization of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) system for waste heat recovery to low temperature in industrial processes. The relevance of this mode of electric energy harvest is that it is clean energy and it depends only on the capture of losses. These residual energies from industrial processes are, in principle, released into the environment without being exploited. With the proposed device, the waste energy will not be released into the environment and will be used for electrical generation, which is useful for heat production. The characterization of TEGs that are used a data-acquisition system have measured data for the voltage, current, and temperature, in real-time, for temperatures down to 200 °C without signal degradation. As a result, the measured data has revealed an open circuit voltage of VOC = 0.4306 × ΔT, internal resistance of R0 = 9.41 Ω, with tolerance ΔRint = ±0.77 Ω, where Rint = 9.41 ± 0.77 Ω. The measurements were made on the condition that the maximum output was obtained at a temperature gradient of ΔT = 80 °C, resulting in a maximum power gain of Pout ≈ 29 W.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1554: Short-Term Load Forecasting Using a Novel Deep Learning Framework Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061554 Authors: Xiaoyu Zhang Rui Wang Tao Zhang Yajie Liu Yabing Zha Short-term load forecasting is the basis of power system operation and analysis. In recent years, the use of a deep belief network (DBN) for short-term load forecasting has become increasingly popular. In this study, a novel deep-learning framework based on a restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) and an Elman neural network is presented. This novel framework is used for short-term load forecasting based on the historical power load data of a town in the UK. The obtained results are compared with an individual use of a DBN and Elman neural network. The experimental results demonstrate that our proposed model can significantly ameliorate the prediction accuracy.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1570: Development of Building Thermal Load and Discomfort Degree Hour Prediction Models Using Data Mining Approaches Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061570 Authors: Yaolin Lin Shiquan Zhou Wei Yang Long Shi Chun-Qing Li Thermal load and indoor comfort level are two important building performance indicators, rapid predictions of which can help significantly reduce the computation time during design optimization. In this paper, a three-step approach is used to develop and evaluate prediction models. Firstly, the Latin Hypercube Sampling Method (LHSM) is used to generate a representative 19-dimensional design database and DesignBuilder is then used to obtain the thermal load and discomfort degree hours through simulation. Secondly, samples from the database are used to develop and validate seven prediction models, using data mining approaches including multilinear regression (MLR), chi-square automatic interaction detector (CHAID), exhaustive CHAID (ECHAID), back-propagation neural network (BPNN), radial basis function network (RBFN), classification and regression trees (CART), and support vector machines (SVM). It is found that the MLR and BPNN models outperform the others in the prediction of thermal load with average absolute error of less than 1.19%, and the BPNN model is the best at predicting discomfort degree hour with 0.62% average absolute error. Finally, two hybrid models—MLR (MLR + BPNN) and MLR-BPNN—are developed. The MLR-BPNN models are found to be the best prediction models, with average absolute error of 0.82% in thermal load and 0.59% in discomfort degree hour.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1582: Influence of Hydrothermal Carbonization on Composition, Formation and Elimination of Biphenyls, Dioxins and Furans in Sewage Sludge Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061582 Authors: Heiner Brookman Fabian Gievers Volker Zelinski Jan Ohlert Achim Loewen In many areas of application, the influence of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) on the composition of organic pollutants is still unexplored. In this study, sewage sludge (SS) was carbonized and the input as well as the hydrochar were examined for the organic pollutants: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs), and polychlorinated dibenzo-furans (PCDFs). The process temperatures of carbonization were 200 °C, 220 °C, and 240 °C and the holding time was 5 h for all tests. The total concentration of PCBs was relatively stable for all temperatures, whereas the toxicity equivalent (WHO-TEQ) at 200 °C and 220 °C increases compared to the input material. The strongest impact on toxicity was observed for PCDDs where concentrations were reduced for higher temperatures, whereas the toxicity increases by more than 16 times for temperatures of 240 °C. The concentrations and toxicity of PCDFs were reduced for all carbonization temperatures. In hydrochar from HTC at 240 °C, the limit values for the application of SS in German agriculture have been exceeded. The results indicate that the process conditions for HTC should be controlled also for SS with average contamination if the hydrochar is to be used as material, especially in agriculture.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1592: A Dual-Function Instantaneous Power Theory for Operation of Three-Level Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverter-Based Shunt Active Power Filter Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061592 Authors: Yap Hoon Mohd Amran Mohd Radzi Mohd Khair Hassan Nashiren Farzilah Mailah This paper proposes a simple yet effective reference current generation algorithm based on instantaneous power pq theory to enhance mitigation performance of a three-phase three-level neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverter-based shunt active power filter (SAPF). The proposed algorithm is developed for dual functionality: generate reference current and synchronization phase to effectively govern operation of SAPF in mitigating harmonic current and compensating reactive power. Three key modifications are implemented: (1) replacement of numerical low-pass filter (LPF) with an average power detector to improve mitigation performance; (2) removal of needless reactive element to reduce algorithm complexity; and (3) integration of phase tracking feature to eliminate the needs of phase-locked loop (PLL). Simulation work of SAPF with the proposed algorithm was conducted and assessed in MATLAB–Simulink. In addition, to verify feasibility of the proposed algorithm, a laboratory prototype as constructed with TMS320F28335 digital signal processor (DSP) programmed as the controller. Performance of SAPF achieved by utilizing the proposed algorithm was thoroughly investigated and benchmarked with that demonstrated using the existing pq theory algorithm to evaluate the inherent advantages. Simulation and experimental results are obtained for different nonlinear loads and test conditions. Responses demonstrated by SAPF in both simulation and experimental works reveal superiority of the proposed algorithm over the existing algorithm.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1591: The Integration of 3D Modeling and Simulation to Determine the Energy Potential of Low-Temperature Geothermal Systems in the Pisa (Italy) Sedimentary Plain Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061591 Authors: Alessandro Sbrana Paola Marianelli Giuseppe Pasquini Paolo Costantini Francesco Palmieri Valentina Ciani Michele Sbrana Shallow, low-temperature geothermal resources can significantly reduce the environmental impact of heating and cooling. Based on a replicable standard workflow for three-dimensional (3D) geothermal modeling, an approach to the assessment of geothermal energy potential is proposed and applied to the young sedimentary basin of Pisa (north Tuscany, Italy), starting from the development of a geothermal geodatabase, with collated geological, stratigraphic, hydrogeological, geophysical and thermal data. The contents of the spatial database are integrated and processed using software for geological and geothermal modeling. The models are calibrated using borehole data. Model outputs are visualized as three-dimensional reconstructions of the subsoil units, their volumes and depths, the hydrogeological framework, and the distribution of subsoil temperatures and geothermal properties. The resulting deep knowledge of subsoil geology would facilitate the deployment of geothermal heat pump technology, site selection for well doublets (for open-loop systems), or vertical heat exchangers (for closed-loop systems). The reconstructed geological–hydrogeological models and the geothermal numerical simulations performed help to define the limits of sustainable utilization of an area’s geothermal potential.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1589: Approaches for Safety Analysis of Gas-Pipeline Functionality in Terms of Failure Occurrence: A Case Study Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061589 Authors: Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak Katarzyna Pietrucha-Urbanik Marek Urbanik Janusz R. Rak The development of appropriate assessment methods of gas-pipeline functionality contributes to the reduction of failure consequences and helps engineers to make the right decisions as to the optimal solution choice for technical facilities, as well as provides procedures to protect their users and the surrounding environment. This paper presents methods for the assessment of gas network operation. Pipe failure data were collected from a gas distribution network. A statistical analysis of the failure of gas networks was made. An attempt was made to isolate seasonal and accidental fluctuations in the tested failure stream. The Poisson distribution was proposed as a model of failure distribution of gas networks. The conducted analysis allowed us to propose the forecasting method of acceptable failure consequences using the homogeneous Markov chain. The obtained results are valuable for supporting the management of urban gas networks, mainly in terms of the strategic modernization plans and the rehabilitation techniques.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1586: Selection of Energy Efficiency Projects for Dwelling Stock to Achieve Optimal Project Portfolio at the Regional Level by Applying LCC. An Analysis Based on Three Scenarios in the South-Muntenia Region of Romania Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061586 Authors: Cezar-Petre Simion Ciprian Nicolescu Mihai Cioc The joint action of the European directives and the national strategies make the issue of energy efficiency of the dwelling stock one of the main research directions in the field. The purpose of this study is to create and apply a methodology for developing the portfolio of projects to increase the energy efficiency of the dwelling stock at a regional level through the use of life cycle cost. For this, eight types of energy efficiency improvement projects and three implementation scenarios were selected for the dwelling stock. For each project life cycle cost was determined in each county of the South-Muntenia region based on the estimation of the energy requirements, the costs of implementation and exploitation. In all three scenarios, the P3 Energy Efficiency Project (the reference building without shutters under the Romanian normative) had minimal life cycle cost in most counties in the region. For each scenario the life cycle cost was determined for the optimal portfolio of projects at regional level. The maximum scenario was chosen as the optimal scenario for regional implementation.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1593: A Class of Control Strategies for Energy Internet Considering System Robustness and Operation Cost Optimization Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061593 Authors: Haochen Hua Chuantong Hao Yuchao Qin Junwei Cao Aiming at restructuring the conventional energy delivery infrastructure, the concept of energy Internet (EI) has become popular in recent years. Outstanding benefits from an EI include openness, robustness and reliability. Most of the existing literatures focus on the conceptual design of EI and are lack of theoretical investigation on developing specific control strategies for the operation of EI. In this paper, a class of control strategies for EI considering system robustness and operation cost optimization is investigated. Focusing on the EI system robustness issue, system parameter uncertainty, external disturbance and tracking error are taken into consideration, and we formulate such robust control issue as a structure specified mixed H2/H∞ control problem. When formulating the operation cost optimization problem, three aspects are considered: realizing the bottom-up energy management principle, reducing the cost involved by power delivery from power grid (PG) to microgrid (MG), and avoiding the situation of over-control. We highlight that this is the very first time that the above targets are considered simultaneously in the field of EI. The integrated control issue is considered in frequency domain and is solved by a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. Simulation results show that our proposed method achieves the targets.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1616: The Future of Fossil Fired Power Plants in Germany—A Lifetime Analysis Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061616 Authors: Peter Markewitz Martin Robinius Detlef Stolten In many German energy projections, the assumption of power plant lifetimes plays a central role, since it is often used in projections for the existing fleet of power plants or as a criterion for decommissioning in model-based investigations. The result of these analyses is a power plant capacity retirement graph, which is then used to determine the replacement demand. Especially in the context of the German Energy transition (“Energiewende”) the amount and dynamics of replacement play an important role. Against this background, a large number of studies have been evaluated and fleet developments compared. Many studies refer to empirical values for the assumption of lifetimes without specifying them in greater detail. This approach was used to conduct an ex post lifetime analysis—accurate to each number of units—of German power plants that have been decommissioned since 1990. The analysis is conducted with the aid of a power plant database, which has been continuously updated for each individual unit since 1985. In addition to the power plants currently in operation, the database includes also includes power plant units that have been successively decommissioned over the past decades. The ex post analysis presents the first lifetime analysis for decommissioned German plants, which can serve as a basis for future power plant fleet projections. The analyses show that the lifetime of fossil-fired power plants has extended considerably. For example, whereas the real lifetimes of coal-fired power plants were in a range of 30 to 35 years in the 1990s, today they amount to 40 to 45 years on average.

Description: Energies, Vol. 11, Pages 1613: Fully-distributed Load Frequency Control Strategy in an Islanded Microgrid Considering Plug-In Electric Vehicles Energies doi: 10.3390/en11061613 Authors: Xiao Qi Yan Bai Huanhuan Luo Yiqing Zhang Guiping Zhou Zhonghua Wei With large-scale integration of electric vehicles, this paper investigates the load frequency control problem in an islanded microgrid with plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), which can be regarded as mobile battery energy storages to provide a valuable contribution to frequency regulation. A novel fully-distributed control strategy is proposed to achieve fast frequency regulation of islanded microgrids and effective coordination control of distributed energy sources. Firstly, distributed control based on an improved linear active disturbance rejection algorithm is realized through a multi-agent system, and it greatly enhances the anti-disturbance capability of the microgrid. Then, in order to guarantee the effectiveness of PEVs in frequency regulation, PEVs are controlled following the controllable power rate (CPR) calculated from the consensus-based multi-agent system. Furthermore, the system control construction in this paper is well designed to avoid the negative effects caused by system communication time delay. Finally, numerical simulations under different disturbances are carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in comparison with other previous control strategies.