ALBERT

Notes: Two trends in business currently receiving much practical and theoretical discussion are diversity and globalization. Issues related to these trends can create significant challenges for managers but may also represent potentially rich learning experiences. This paper explores the confluence of gender and globalization, particularly in the context of sexual harassment. Two hypothetical dilemmas are presented. Information on demographic and global trends is presented. The legal and economic status of women in a number of different countries is reviewed, as is the legal definition of sexual harassment in the United States. Finally, directions for future research focusing on diversity-related training and the issue of cultural relativism are discussed.

Notes: Quantitative research, with 1,000 organisations over four years, is the basis for an exploration of their views of future issues affecting them and, in particular, of changes in their structures and working patterns. The main impression, though is one of widespread conservatism, where they give a relatively low level of importance to the key issues which other research indicates may have the greatest impact on their long-term survival. Thus, they report that the current form of structure is still overwhelmingly that of the traditional hierarchy. Although they show one indication of a more radical approach, in expecting hierarchical organisation to halve its share by 2020 AD, they do not look for major changes in stakeholder power (currently dominated, as might be expected, by shareholders and senior managers) or in the work activities that are undertaken; though the most prevalent form of activity is already that of "communication" in some form or other.

Notes: Focuses on downsizing and reviews selected research on organizational change and downsizing. Addresses the issues of "survivors", and also covers the strategic concerns in planning a downsizing operation and attempts to determine some specific reasons why some companies succeed at downsizing while others do not. Discusses an organization's context, composed of culture, level of trust and level of leadership, since it has a profound effect on a company's downsizing strategy. Examines case studies of Compaq Computer, the State of Oregon, and Patagonia and supports the need for the concerns of the surviving employees to be listened to. In the case of these downsizings, the surviving employees were successfully shown that they should not feel victimized by the downsizing process, but instead should see this process as an opportunity for personal growth.

Notes: The use of information technology (IT) in organizations is subject to various kinds of potential risks. Explores the environment of IT in organizations, identifies the probable threats, and proposes a framework for integrated risk management. The risk management process has four major components -- risk identification, risk analysis, risk-reducing measures, and risk monitoring. The framework can be used to guide organizations in reducing the losses resulting from the realization of threats to IT use.

Notes: Analyses the extent of Cadbury compliance and its impact on corporate performance in the UK. Comparing 1992 and 1995, we find that UK public companies have, in general, complied with the Cadbury Committee's Code of Best Practice and have adopted the recommended governance structures. However, compliance is more common among larger firms. Thus we find that duality is less common, firms tend to have more than three non-executive directors and that there has been an almost universal adoption of board subcommittees such as the remuneration and audit committees. However, little evidence is found to suggest either that the board characteristics recommended by Cadbury lead to improved performance or that moving towards them improves performance. The only governance mechanism which does positively affect performance is the presence of remuneration and audit committees.

Notes: The purpose of this research is to review the perceptions of 359 front-line management personnel as to why their organizations fail to achieve desired results and to draw lessons for organizational practice on how to prevent failure and improve organizational performance. Managers from 30 organizations were asked to rate the impact that 25 different performance factors have on their ability to get desired results. The results of the study identified a variety of people and leadership factors as the primary causes of poor performance, while factors such as technology, finances, and government regulations ranked significantly lower in the rankings.

Notes: Examines varied empirical studies on downsizing which have revealed that, as a result of its aftermath, high percentages of companies have judged these efforts as unsuccessful. Corporate restructuring encompasses multiple forms of change, which are classified into three distinct categories: portfolio, financial and organizational. An analysis of the Freeman and Cameron theoretical framework on downsizing implementation processes is examined in terms of where the process occurs, during periods either of convergence and/or of reorientation, and the results associated with each approach. A case study of the Kansas Department of Health and Environment revealed that restructuring did not provide visible improvements in efficiency, economy and responsiveness. Cultural impact of this intervention revealed negative intergroup reactions, i.e. denial, dissatisfaction. An analysis of Richard Johnson's model of the antecedents, processes and outcomes of downsizing revealed the impact upon strategy, productivity, human resources and finance. Interrelationships suggested diminished performances of firms which downsized without a lucid blueprint, adversely impacting upon these businesses. Finally, 30 recommendations are given for the human resource executive for effective downsizing, focusing upon: approach, involvement, leadership, communication, preparation, support, cost cutting, measurement, and implementation.

Notes: Aims to review the literature pertaining to downsizing with an emphasis on the organization level, and establish the critical success factors of downsizing, that is, guidelines to the successful implementation of downsizing activities. Addresses these objectives by examining first, how downsizing is defined in the literature reviewed, then discusses the different ways in which or measures by which organizations carry out downsizing activities and the reasons that prompt companies to downsize. Addresses the rationale utilized by firms to downsize, the expected outcomes in terms of economic and human consequences, the approaches to downsizing (reorientation and convergence) and specific strategies such as workforce reduction, work redesign and systemic strategy. Also downsizing tactics, human resources as assets vs costs, planning, participation, leadership, communications, and support to victims/survivors are examined. Both laboratory experiments and empirical research concerning survivors' reactions are explored. The role of trust as well as the human resource professional in the process are included. Conclusions and recommendations complete the article.

Notes: In the context of the "year-2000" problem, focuses on the risk involved in real time clocks and their interactions with associated embedded processors and logic arrays, dedicated electronic control and monitoring logic incorporated into larger systems. These are essential to the operation of a vast portfolio of infrastructures, from medical equipment, to buildings (phone, security, heating, plumbing and lighting), to transportation, to financial networks, to just-in-time delivery systems, and so on. According to a recent study, the firmware (permanently loaded instructions) that enables these systems to run is date sensitive and not year-2000-compliant in less than 1 percent of the 50 billion microprocessors and microcontrollers used in embedded systems installed worldwide by the end of the twentieth century. This small fraction will fail, causing the systems they control to begin failing around 1 January 2000 and for the first few years of the next century. Presents a pessimistic, illustrative scenario, describing the disruption of essential infrastructure from electric power, to food and fuel distribution, to communications, to financial networks.

Notes: This paper sets out to question whether managers should really talk of a West/East style of management. It does so by first examining the practices across a variety of Eastern and Western countries. The paper then analyses key changes in the global business environment that are having a huge influence on the adoption of management practices across the globe. There is much evidence to suggest a degree of convergence and this needs to be taken very much on board by firms engaging further in global trade. To assess management practices, this will involve careful analysis of the main organisation of business across various countries, as well as analysis of the environment in which they operate.

Notes: The purpose of this paper is to examine the myriad ways record-keeping can affect the course and outcome of products liability litigation. The examination includes an overview of the civil jury system in the USA, as well as an analysis of the benefits gained from instituting quality concepts and principles regarding the creation, management, storage and protection of quality-related documents. Frequently the "star witness" in a products liability lawsuit is not a witness at all - it is a document. The written record a company generates plays a critical role in presenting a case to the jury in the event of litigation. With regard to retaining and storing company records, serious legal problems arise when documents are lost, damaged or destroyed without adequate explanation. Accordingly, embracing and implementing quality concepts and principles with regard to record-keeping provides numerous rewards in the event of litigation.

Notes: Since every organization's success is built on the participation and good work of its staff, this article advises leaders to view their organization as a country, and frames their primary management challenge as creating "organizational citizenship", defined as a voluntary consistent commitment to the goals, methods, and ultimate success of the organization. Most leadership strategies are designed to create specific business results; their effectiveness will depend on the creation of a culture of patriotism throughout the organization.

Notes: The management literature is replete with articles on total quality management, just-in-time manufacturing, strategic partnerships between customers and vendors, re-engineering the company, flattening the organisation, teams that replace individual decision making and horizontal organisational structures. The terms and descriptions used in the literature for these organisational changes vary, but the overall objective is the same, to increase organisational effectiveness and to ensure the future of these organisations by establishing more efficient operations. In many companies positive organisational change is often undertaken simultaneously with, or following on from a "downsizing" or "restructuring" programme. In business recreation, whether in Australia or any other country, operational efficiency built upon enhanced processes must not be seen as the final objective - the opportunities are much greater. Examples of successful Australian organisational recreation are given.

Notes: The notion of what is meant by "value" is explored and summarised in terms of its involvement in delivering the product/service attributes, considered necessary to create customer satisfaction. Investigates the business system in relation to the value chain, as well as citing the conflicting views of a number of authors upon this topic. A specific company is used as a template to bring out many of the notions that have been put forward. Concludes with the fact that the traditional value chain begins with the company's core competences, whereas evidence suggests that modern value chain analysis reverses this approach and uses customers as its starting point.

Notes: There is a growing interest in relationships in the marketing literature, which has resulted in increasing attention to relational aspects of business. How the actors perceive the relationship thus emerges as a key issue. Traditionally, customer perceptions, for example, perceived service quality, satisfaction and value have played an important role in service management. However, in a business setting it is more appropriate to study both the seller's and the buyer's perceptions. This paper proposes a configuration map to depict both parties' perceptions. This map can be used to capture both the composition and the dynamics of perception configurations, and it is generically applicable to dyadic perception studies.

Notes: Competitive advantage is the basis for superior performance. Understanding the anatomy of competitive advantage is of paramount importance to general managers who bear the ultimate responsibility for a firm's long term survival and success. Advances an integrative framework called SELECT to help general managers systematically examine the various facets of the anatomy of competitive advantage: its substance, expression, locale, effect, cause, and time-span. Analyzing the causes of competitive advantage helps a firm create and gain advantage. Studying the substance, expression, locale, and effect of competitive advantage allows the firm to better utilize the advantage. Examining the time span of competitive advantage enables the firm to fully exploit the advantage according to its potential and sustainability.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of Fayol's ideas on both British management thought and practice. Design/methodology/approach - The paper presents a schematic which seeks to illustrate the links between the various strands of scientific management theory, especially that of Fayol, in Britain between the 1920s and the 1960s/1970s and, for the same period, the links between the theory and practice of scientific management. The links indicated in the schematic are assessed first through an examination of the development of British management thought, in particular the exemplification of Fayol's ideas by Lyndall Fownes Urwick and the British neoclassical school. Using archival evidence from a small number of engineering companies, the impact on practice of the ideas of Fayol and other aspects of scientific management is then examined. Findings - The paper concludes that, while Fayol's theoretical influence has stood the test of time, his impact on practice was much more limited. Originality/value - By focusing on the historical impact on practice of management theory, this paper not only provides a basis for future research by business and management historians, but also throws light on the relevance for practice of theory, an issue of relevance for all theoreticians and management practitioners.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to reacquaint researchers and practitioners with Barnard's contributions to understanding of the moral conditions that underlie the authenticity of organizational leadership. Design/methodology/approach - The paper identifies Barnard's insights on leadership and uses them as inputs to theorizing about authentic leadership. Findings - As an outcome of theorizing, the paper identifies the conditions that are likely to lead to inauthentic, pseudo-authentic or authentic leader behavior. Research limitations/implications - Examining authentic leadership from a historical perspective can open promising avenues for future research. Practical implications - Leadership development programs should incorporate concepts of responsibility and conflicts of responsibility in order to provide executives with the knowledge base required for ethical decision making. Originality/value - By placing contemporary discussion of authentic leadership in its proper historical context, scholars can draw on a wealth of existing theory to advance the study of authentic leadership.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to trace Douglas McGregor's Theory Y thinking back from pre-industrial revolution philosophers up through McGregor and his contemporaries and to explore how Theory Y evolved after its introduction. Design/methodology/approach - This is a review article relying on literature reviews and synthesizing concepts and ideas from related sources. Findings - This article examines the emergence of Theory Y as one of the hallmark relationship management principles of the last half of the 20th century. McGregor stands in a unique place in management history. He has one foot in the early human relations movement, and another foot in the movement of scholars who advocated a heightened awareness of management's responsibility for the human side of employer-employee relations. McGregor serves as a true facilitator for growth and advancement in the field of management, in general, and human relations, in particular. Originality/value - This paper holds value to management scholars and practitioners in its utility as a means of tracing the evolution of one of the most important management concepts of the last half of the 20th century. While it may lack in originality (a flaw in many historical reviews) it certainly addresses important issues and provides a path for understanding the development of a key management concept (Theory Y).

Notes: Purpose - Interchangeable parts were a critical development in the advancement of industry and manufacturing. This paper traces its development, the factors that contributed to it, and answers the question of why did this innovation occur at the Springfield Armory. Design/methodology/approach - This is an illustrative case study. Findings - The fortunate combination of location, key people, government policy, and arms demand combined to enable the development of interchangeable parts at the Springfield Armory. Led by its Superintendent, Roswell Lee, Springfield became the epicenter for the development of this concept as skilled gunmakers captured arms making knowledge unfettered by patent protection. Lee promoted this free interchange of ideas through sharing designs and equipment, his hiring practices, and his willingness to experiment with new tools and technologies. This created a critical mass of factors that led to this important innovation occurring at the Springfield Armory. Research limitations/implications - The critical drivers of innovative activity seen at Springfield merit further investigation and research, individually and collectively to see if these findings can be used to inform policies that promote innovation. Originality/value - This case study identifies factors that contributed to the development of interchangeable parts at a particular location at a particular point in time. The value of this is to identity the important interplay of factors that can spur the innovative process and lead to important technological innovation.

Notes: Purpose - Synthesis of the customer lifetime value and the shareholder value (SHV) approach in order to develop an integrated, marketing-based method for corporate valuation. Design/methodology/approach - Discusses the limitations and assumptions of existing methods to estimate customer value components and examines the limitations of the SHV concept. By linking the customer equity (CE) and the SHV approach, a formal model to calculate corporate value is developed. The discounted cash flow method is used for modelling the profit streams. Findings - Provides formulas for the estimation of both the individual lifetime value of a customer and CE. Provides a comprehensive model to estimate corporate value based on customer-related cash flows and traditional financial metrics. Introduces typical cases, in which the use of a customer-based valuation seems beneficial. Illustrates how our approach can be applied by using a simple case study on M&A in the telecommunication industry. Gives suggestions on how to obtain the necessary data, partially even from publicly available sources. Research limitations/implications - Advancement of the quantitative techniques for modelling the customer value components would allow for relaxing some restrictive assumptions. The explicit modelling of the future growth of the customer base (the acquisition rate) would increase the applicability of the model. Additionally, taking into account heterogeneity within the customer cohorts is a task for future research. Finally, our model needs to be applied more extensively using real data for the input variables. Practical implications - A CE-based valuation approach can guide marketing investments and helps to avoid misallocation of resources. Based on an example in the field of M&A, we demonstrate the usefulness of the approach for obtaining a realistic indicator of firm value. It helps to assess whether an acquisition is economically sensible. We provide evidence for the superiority of a customer-based approach over traditional financial methods. Originality/value - While the traditional SHV method considers cash flows at a highly aggregated level, our approach employs disaggregated cash flows on the level of individual customers. Thereby we do incorporate the lifetime values of future customers by considering different cohorts. We do capture customer defection by incorporating retention rates. Our model enables a more detailed and valid estimation of corporate value by accounting for the single customer activities that drive marketing actions. This enables a better forecasting of the free cash flow. Incorporating customer-related drivers into financial valuation models makes easier to assess the return on marketing investments.

Notes: Purpose - The study aims at clarifying whether locus of control may act as a bias in organisational decision-making or not. Design/methodology/approach - Altogether 44 managers working at Skanska (a Swedish multinational construction company) participated in the study. They were asked to complete a booklet including a locus of control test and a couple of decision tasks. The latter were based on case scenarios reflecting strategic issues relevant for consultative/participative decision-making. Findings - The results revealed that managers with low external locus of control used group consultative decision-making more frequently than those with high locus of control. There was also a tendency showing that high externals more frequently used participative decision-making than low externals. This was in line with the general trend, indicating that managers on the whole predominantly used participative decision-making. Originality/value - The results of the present study are valuable for HRM practice, especially with regard to the selection of individuals to management teams.

Notes: Purpose - This paper reconsiders the criticisms of the most influential theory of the rise of the large corporations, and to see how these criticisms can be met without entirely abandoning the basic elements of the theory. Design/methodology/approach - This problem is approached by first analyzing the weaknesses inherent in Chandler's theory as presented in The Visible Hand, and then by reworking elements of the theory by relying on data generated by other historical accounts. Findings - The author found that the theory could be salvaged by reordering the evolution of managerial practices based on a variety of historical studies, many not considered by Chandler, but even some of his own earlier work. Given these changes in historical order, vital managerial reforms can be placed sufficiently early that organizational techniques existed to solve the problems and exploit the opportunities that Chandler identifies as creating the pressures necessary to generate the large industrial corporation, thus responding to one class of criticism. My approach can also incorporate other factors that critics see as missing in Chandler's account. Originality/value - What is new in this paper is that it reconciles Chandler's analysis with those of his critics by re-examining and correcting some of his assumptions. The result is a theory of corporate evolution that is less global but more realistic. Economic and business historians as well as sociologists of organizations will find this reassessment valuable.

Notes: Purpose - Unfamiliar with the Chinese culture and ways of doing business, foreign architects/engineers/contractors (AEC) firms will encounter differences with the local parties. With reference to the characteristics of Chinese culture on disputes, this paper studies the problem areas of dispute and of resolving disputes in international construction projects in China. The objectives are to: examine the fundamentals of Chinese culture and ways of doing business; examine the characteristics of international projects and investigate any differences in the dispute problems arising from China International Projects; identify the most popular dispute resolution mechanism(s) for international projects in China; and recommend possible ways to reduce and resolve disputes of these projects. Design/methodology/approach - After literature review, a questionnaire was designed for face-to-face interviews with 40 practitioners to collect their opinions. Findings - The results show that the problem areas giving rise to disputes are mainly related to contractual matters. To reflect the characteristics of international projects in China, cultural and legal matters are also found to be the sources of problem. Arbitration is the most popular method, after negotiation, for resolving disputes in international construction projects in China. Research limitations/implications - The number of interviewees in this study could be improved and further study could include experts in Mainland China. Originality/value - There is not much literature on dispute resolution management for international construction projects in China, with particular reference to cultural differences. This paper offers an invaluable reference for those foreign AEC firms interested in joining international projects in China.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of this paper is to promote the use of dynamic capabilities as a strategic tool of the highest order in terms of firm management. Design/methodology/approach - The content of the article is developed from a table that offers some insights into the relationship between the three theoretical perspectives analyzed in the paper: resource-based view, knowledge-based view and dynamic-capabilities view. Findings - The paper describes the evolution that can be discerned in the process of developing competitive advantage, from a resource-based view to a dynamic-capabilities framework. Originality/value - The objective of the article was not to bring to light any new revelations in this field of investigation, but is intended as a theoretical reflection on the implications of dynamic capabilities for firms and managers.

Notes: Purpose - More and more foreign companies, including multinational companies, open business in China. The staff management under the local culture of China is one of the critical points affecting the success of foreign invested companies in China. This paper aims to illustrate the effective methods of staff management for foreign invested companies in China. Design/methodology/approach - For this purpose, a survey on concrete practices of staff management was conducted among three multinational company affiliates in China, whose parent companies are located in the USA, Japan, and Europe, respectively, by the in-depth interviews with the high-level executives of the affiliates. Findings - It was found that although the staff management experiences of the surveyed affiliates show differences in operation, the affiliates have a common sense on how to balance culture difference, how to effectively communicate with staff, and how to appraise the performance. The active and passive factors of these experiences were further analysed from the needs level under current Chinese economic situation and from the invisible impacts on human behaviour of Chinese culture. Research limitations/implications - This study surveyed only three multinational company affiliates in China and therefore, the understanding obtained is limited in scope. The comprehensive knowledge of the subject depends on more case studies. Practical implications - The analysis reveals that the active factors and localization, especially localization of the management team, are very important to the staff management of foreign invested companies in China. Originality/value - The paper contributes to the research on effective methods for staff management in multinational companies.

Notes: Purpose - To provide a structured and integrated framework of corporate strategy in order to help practitioners and researchers identify critical issues related to the Chinese construction industry and analyze its dynamics from a holistic viewpoint. Design/methodology/approach - A brief review of the major themes of strategy mostly developed by western researchers is first presented. This is then supplemented by a review of the pertinent characteristics of the construction industry in general, and those related to China's context in specific, which affect management decision-making. Two case studies are used to illustrate the concepts implied by the proposed framework. Findings - The cases of Guangsha and the Shanghai Construction Group demonstrate that there is no hard and fast rule in developing a coherent strategy. This is even truer considering the fact that China's circumstances are still evolving. Practical implications - The critical elements identified in the proposed framework serve as a good starting point for individual firms to further develop a more detailed execution plan. Originality/value - This paper bridges a management gap that exists between mainstream management researchers, who have few precedence of studying the construction industry, and traditional construction management researchers, who tend to focus on project-level issues rather than corporate-level issues.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to offer insights into a tool that one of the authors has developed to help map, and thus visualise, stakeholder power and influence within the performing organisation. Design/methodology/approach - The concept described in this paper has been tested at several large international gatherings to well over 200 active professional project managers. The feedback to date has been very positive. This positive feedback led to testing of these ideas through research being conducted during 2004/2005 by one of the authors who is a candidate for the doctor of project management (DPM) at RMIT. Findings - The research is centred around this tool, the stakeholder circle, as a means to provide a useful and effective way to visualise stakeholder power and influence that may have pivotal impact on a project's success or failure. The stakeholder-circle tool is developed for each project through a methodology that identifies and prioritises key project stakeholders and then develops an engagement strategy to build and maintain robust relationships with those key stakeholders. An example of the tool is presented. Originality/value - Future papers will provide case study examples currently under way of the use of this tool. The implication for this tool's use is that project managers can clearly visualise and map stakeholder influence patterns that have significant impact on stakeholder outcome expectations.

Notes: Purpose - There has been much interest in evidence-informed decision making in education - identifying effective ways of increasing the use of research evidence to provide a basis for management decision making, in both the private and public sectors. However, in education, although there has been much speculation and discussion, there has been a paucity of recent empirical research evidence that provides insights into the characteristics, practice and mechanisms of successful research utilisation strategies. This study aimed to explore how research evidence was successfully disseminated and how the barriers to research use by head teachers (principals) were successfully addressed. The study was qualitative and exploratory in nature and aimed to identify examples of projects led by, and supported by, local education authorities (LEAs), that aimed to help education practitioners to access, engage with, and use the findings from published research and research carried out by themselves, and shared with others. Design/methodology/approach - This paper presents and discusses the findings from an empirical study conducted in eight local authorities in England and Wales. Findings - The research evidence suggests that to improve research use among managers in education, strategies should focus on facilitating communication networks, partnerships and links between researchers and practitioners, with the key long-term objective of developing a culture that supports and values the contribution that research can make to management decision making in education. Originality/value - Managers in local education authorities (LEAs) can help to build networks, develop partnerships between professionals locally, nationally and internationally, and also act as change agents in the dissemination and adoption of new ideas. However, the research focused on illustrative examples of research use - and further research is needed to evaluate the impact of using research for decision making in education.

Notes: Purpose of this paper - The purpose of this investigation is to help establish: whether or not strong relationships between suppliers and customers improve performance; and if prescriptive frameworks on outsourcing radical innovations are dependent on industry clockspeed. Design/methodology/approach - A survey of UK-based manufacturers, followed by a statistical analysis. Findings - Long-term supplier links seem not to play a role in the development of radical innovations. Moreover, industry clockspeed has no significant bearing on the success or failure of any outsourcing strategy for radically new technologies. Research limitations/implications - Literature about outsourcing in the face of radical innovation can be more confidently applied to industries of all clockspeeds. Practical implications - Prescriptions for fast clockspeed industries should be applied more broadly: all industries should maintain a high degree of vertical integration in the early days of a radical innovation. Originality/value - Prior papers had explored whether or not a company should outsource radical innovations, but none had determined if this is equally true for slow industries and fast ones. Therein lies the original contribution of this paper.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to explain the effect of firm size on company innovation inside one industry context: the wood products industry. Design/methodology/approach - The strategic issues under study (innovation, corporate strategy) are typically managed by the firm's top executives. Also important is the fact that the response rates of questionnaires targeting this group are generally very low. Consistently, the data for the project were obtained from 43 in-person interviews with top executives of wood products companies of different sizes in two countries, i.e. the USA and Chile. Findings - Finds that firm size does impact the innovation type pursued by companies, at least in the wood products industry. Indeed, large companies of this study clearly outrun smaller companies in process innovation. However, our analysis also shows that small companies level the field with larger companies when considering all three innovation types (process, product, business systems). Practical implications - The capital enjoyed by large companies allows them to excel in process innovation. This article suggests that managers of small companies should compete in a different arena from large companies and emphasize product and business systems innovation, as they can do very well in these areas even with limited resources. Originality/value - There is very little research about innovation in the wood products industry. This article contributes to the knowledge in this area, also providing new insights about the validity of Schumpeter's assertions regarding the role of company size in innovation.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of this paper is to compare the railway and internet revolutions. What do they have in common and what is different between them, considering the 150-year time difference in their occurrence? As time passes, can internet developers learn something from the railway industry? Findings - The two industries have a lot of common. Both railways and the internet represent national infrastructures that cannot be managed just based on business management principles. As both are concerned with traffic, either that of physical goods or of messages, the two industries also seem to have a lot in technical terms when one takes a sufficiently abstract point of view. The main message is that in the long term, the railway revolution vanished and the industry turned into a low profit/interest field. The internet might follow the same path. Research limitations/implications - The paper in its current form is based on a literature review only. Its quality could be improved with a detailed empirical study. Other similar infrastructure-type industries could also be involved. Practical implications - There are several things that could be improved in the management of the internet, but they are large-scale issues needing co-operation between the many stakeholders in the internet. Examples are those of avoiding the digital divide and catering for critical "last mile" connections, as well as managing the diversity of different standards. Originality/value - As far as the author knows this is the first paper of its kind comparing these two industries. The message is that more cross-industrial studies need to be performed. Also, the message of the paper - that the internet might turn into a low-interest business in the long run - has not been discussed sufficiently.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to understand better the formation of an industry and the movement toward agglomeration by examining the development of the furniture manufacturing industry of Western North Carolina and Virginia. Design/methodology/approach - In this general review, the initiation and growth of the furniture industry is traced, applying the theory of agglomeration and noting isomorphic tendencies and the primacy of the search for legitimacy among constituents. Findings - The paper finds first of all, the pioneering efforts of Thomas Wrenn in High Point brought the industry to the region. An initial wave of furniture manufacturers followed closely behind Wrenn as the industry gained legitimacy and status in North Carolina. Important elements in building the industry included the establishment of the Southern Furniture Manufacturers Association and the Southern Furniture Market in High Point. A second wave of furniture producers arrived on the scene after the First World War. This group benefited from cooperative actions of the survivors of the first wave and brought the Western North Carolina and Virginia area to the forefront of the furniture manufacturing industry in the USA. Finally, the paper comments on the current state of the industry in relation to the threat of foreign competition. Originality/value - The furniture industry is not alone in the need to understand the impact of globalization. Practitioners and researchers alike should be aware of the costs to stakeholder groups, such as employees and local communities.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explain thought leadership and show how it compares with its positional counterpart. Design/methodology/approach - The objective is achieved through a conceptual comparison of thought leadership with conventional positional leadership to show that the latter contains managerial elements or overtones that are lacking in thought leadership which is simply the championing of new directions. Findings - Thought leadership is the championing of new ideas rather than anything to do with managing people or helping a group achieve a goal. It can be directed upwards and ends once senior managers accept the proposed ideas. Such leadership cannot be defined in terms of enabling or managing a team to achieve a task, because those who show upwards leadership normally do not manage their superiors. Practical implications - Regardless of how important it is for knowledge workers to be self-managing, my claim is that thought leadership must be cultivated as the key form of distributed leadership in any organization that depends on continuous improvement and constant innovation to prosper. The practical implication is that managers need to move beyond simply empowering employees to manage themselves and start fostering bottom up leadership conceived as championing new ideas. Originality/value - Highlights a type of leadership that is widely distributed throughout all organizations that compete on the basis of innovation or wherever all employees need to be initiating process improvements. Thought leadership is very different from what is commonly conceived as distributed leadership, such as "shared leadership" or "leaderful" behavior both of which are based on the usual mixture of management and leadership ideas whereby the person in charge of a group, formally or otherwise, both initiates new directions and manages their implementation.

Notes: Purpose - The author has the objective of demonstrating how decision-making conversations that are not guided by a process can lead to misunderstandings, wasted time, and a lack of results. These undisciplined exchanges will be contrasted with communications between and among people who use a common language and follow an agreed-on, step-by-step approach to the decision at hand. Design/methodology approach - The author uses a partially hypothetical example of a leader who failed to involve her team in a major decision as a starting point for discussion of who should be involved in decisions, why, how, and when. Findings - Decision making happens through conversations that people have, either one-on-one, with teams, or in cross-functional groups. Unfortunately, many decision-making conversations end up as free-for-alls, with people talking at cross-purposes, sharing information haphazardly, and covering the same ground over and over without coming to any conclusions. Decision makers are far more successful when they are focused and equipped with a process to guide them through their conversations than if they let these conversations just "happen". Two of the most important roles leaders can play are those of role model and coach, to individuals and groups, to ensure that their decision-making conversations proceed in a rational, organized manner. Originality/value - Practical ideas will be offered to help leaders transform their organization's decision-making conversations from undisciplined exchanges to results-oriented encounters.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this article is to provide a pragmatic example of multi-stage leadership education model. Leadership education that is multidisciplinary, global, and ethics oriented is a remedy for many of the leadership challenges we are currently facing in the business world. Design/methodology/approach - This article discusses whether we can teach leadership, and if so, what essential skills should be taught in business schools. It also examines the shortcomings of current leadership education curriculum and recommends some major changes that need to be made. This article provides a descriptive overview and historical examination of these issues and techniques. Findings - A major finding can be drawn from this paper is that the present leadership education curriculum in business schools is not adequate in many regards and more work needs to be done. Research limitations/implications - Business schools need to focus on revitalizing the leadership education curriculum to come up with a program that prepares students with practical and dynamic skills that enables them to be the future business leaders. A long-term approach to leadership education rather than a short-term effort is suggested. Originality/value - By incorporating multidisciplinary, global-oriented and ethical leadership education, we believe that this article on leadership education can effectively address the major challenges of the new millennium.

Notes: Purpose - Has the objective of examining why the focus given to leadership should be severely curtailed in research and teaching, and replaced by concepts that are better defined, understood and whose positive contributions are clearly and consistently attainable. Education and research should firmly alter its focus to concentrate on empowerment, a concept that has been consistently tied to important organizational outcomes. Greater benefit can be attained by refining and advancing our understanding of empowerment (while instructing students/practitioners with our current knowledge), than by continuing to devote massive resources to the morass that is leadership. Design/methodology approach - These concepts are supported by prior studies and theoretical development rather than empirical evidence. Findings - Finds that we are infinitely better off teaching people what we know about using and encouraging empowerment than what we do not know about leadership, as traditionally defined. Moreover, in the twenty-first century with flatter hierarchies and less variance in knowledge, power and resources, perhaps "leadership" should be defined by one's ability to respond to empowered situations with self-leadership, as opposed to the traditional characterizations, which were derived from and are rooted in a more hierarchical view of work and organization. Originality/value - This paper calls for a radical shift in our thinking about leadership research and teaching. Its value and originality to leadership scholars should be high.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to link empirically the value of intellectual capital and intellectual property to firm performance. Design/methodology/approach - Survey data from managers in the (German) pharmaceutical industry is used to conduct a regression analysis focusing on the correlation between human, structural and relational capital, intellectual property and firm performance. Findings - The results of the study show that including intellectual property in models linking intellectual capital to firm performance enhances the statistical validity of such models and their relevance for management. Practical implications - Intellectual capital is an important source of an organization's economic wealth and is therefore to be taken into serious consideration when formulating the firm's strategy. This strategy formulation process can be enhanced by fully integrating intellectual property and intellectual capital into management models, as shown in this paper. Originality/value - This empirical paper builds on and extends the Bontis research on the relationship between intellectual capital and firm performance. Contrary to Bontis the authors include intellectual property into the intellectual capital framework and focus on the role of intellectual property in the relationship between intellectual capital and firm performance.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical method to be used in team decision making when allocating resources. Design/methodology/approach - The paper proposes the following hypothesis: the selected team consensus strategy from among all available strategies must have minimum sum of squares of monetary regrets. A general algebraic representation of the above hypothesis is developed. Findings - This hypothesis can be interpreted as a Nash equilibrium involving mixed strategies when the entire problem is viewed in game theoretic framework. The paper provides an explanation in quantitative terms of the reasoning process pursued by five business college department chairs faced with three strategies, in an actual consensus decision making to illustrate the above hypothesis. By making observations of the behavior of decision makers in the selection of a budget allocation formula, the paper shows that the hypothesis holds true for the specific reasoning process pursued by the chairs in arriving at the consensus solution. However, the chairs' consensus solution is found to be a local solution vis-à-vis the global optimal solution found by solving the game theoretic model. Research limitations/implications - The authors plan to conduct further empirical testing of the hypothesis using allocation strategies found in diverse decision-making environments involving diverse decision makers such as business executives, government officers, education administrators, and others. Practical implications - If this hypothesis can be validated to be true, decision makers should propose for consideration only those rational strategies that have minimal or low variance in monetary regrets since these are the strategies that would most likely be selected in team decision making. Originality/value - Team decision making involving resource allocation abounds in all organizations, at all levels and in diverse applications. The practical procedure proposed in this paper, based on analytical foundation of game theory, provides decision makers a viable tool for allocating resources that results in consensus of all rational parties involved.

Notes: Purpose - To test the ability of situational variables, manageable pre-decline resources, and specific firm responses to decline to classify performance outcomes (turnaround vs non-turnaround) in declining firms. Design/methodology/approach - Using a longitudinal methodology and a multi-firm sample, the paper studies the relative role of situational factors concerning the environment and a firm's decline, along with various internal resources and strategies that can enable a firm to recover from decline. Findings - The results indicate that contextual factors such as the urgency and severity of decline, firm productivity and the availability of slack resources, and firm retrenchment can determine the ability of sample firms to turnaround. Overall, factors under the control of managers contribute more to successful turnarounds than situational characteristics. Research limitations/implications - This study does not identify the exact cause of firm decline. The authors believe this is beyond the scope of this multi-firm study. Originality/value - This study contributes to the existing research by theoretically explicating and empirically testing the influences of multiple situational and organizational factors on turnaround outcomes. While several studies have investigated conceptually unique sets of actions applied by managers attempting to turn around declining firms, this paper integrate these actions as they can often impact each other and the eventual turnaround. The authors believe their research design affords a more holistic view to the turnaround process. In order to direct executives efforts, the findings are summarized into some practical applications.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to provide a three-dimensional framework to facilitate future definitions of intellectual capital (IC). The concept of IC is often ill-defined and there is a multitude of different definitions for the construct of IC. The lack of a common platform for dialogue has negative implications for research and practice in the field as it has hinders cross-disciplinary learning. This paper aims to presents a flexible framework in order to make important differences explicit and therefore, if adopted, facilitates the creation of a cohesive body of knowledge. Design/methodology/approach - The paper utilises a systematic review process. This methodology was initially developed in the medical science to produce a replicable, scientific, and transparent analysis of evidence in the literature and has recently been broad into management science. A total of 938 papers were analysed to extract findings. The summary of the review protocol can be found in the Appendix. Findings - Analysing the literature allowed the necessary components of a definition together with a list of possible sub-components to be extracted. Definitions of IC need to be explicit about the: component parts of the construct; role IC will take in an organisation; and disciplinary perspective taken for the discussion. Research limitations/implications - This paper presents the necessary components of a definition of IC. If widely used, it would be able to facilitate cross-disciplinary understanding and hopefully inter-disciplinary research. It is seen as a starting point and open for future extension and development. A systematic review aims to limit bias and random error, however, it is limited by its scope on the basis of the defined research question and therefore delimited by factors outlined in the research protocol. Practical implications - The major implication for practitioners is the understanding that IC can mean very different things for different people. Insights outlined in this paper will enable anyone to understand better the important construct of IC from different perspectives, which in turn should facilitate dialogue and avoid many unnecessary misunderstandings. Originality/value - The paper is a first attempt to present a framework to facilitate future definitions of IC. If used, discussed, and extended in the future, it could present an important corner stone for better cross-disciplinary dialogue and the establishment of a research field of IC.

Notes: Purpose - The paper examines the importance and pervasiveness of formal organizations in contemporary society. Design/methodology/approach - An examination of the historical, classic, and modern theorists' perspectives was undertaken to determine the relevancy of the theories in dealing with the changing social, technological and cultural values of today's organization and society. Findings - Understanding the importance and pervasiveness of formal organizations in contemporary society would enable individuals to influence better factors associated with changing values. Practical implications - The findings suggest that an intrinsic understanding of the various dimensions, which help, create and shape an organization, can be influenced at both the micro and macro levels. Originality/value - This paper presents an overview of the literature which both enhances personal knowledge and understanding at the theoretical and practical levels so as to enable individuals to gain insight on the inherent factors that may be influenced to advance organizational goals and objectives.

Notes: Complexity of the organizations has created an immense diversity of approaches for research and consultancy. Based on a review of previous work, proposes a new theoretical model for organizational analysis which examines three levels of organizational consultancy. The first level is the level of business organization. The second level focuses on the internal management and organization of resources. The third level examines the individuals and the human behaviour at work. Presents the situational analysis in organization as an evaluation procedure allowing in-depth analysis of problems in work situations. The ultimate goal of this procedure is to enable consultants to map out the key elements for evaluation in work situations and to test existing relationships between different factors considered in organizational re-design. The proposed methodology has been developed as part of a consultancy project based on participant observation and conducted by the author in Bulgaria in 1988.

Notes: Previous leadership studies indicate that stereotypically masculine behaviours characterize task-oriented leadership style and that stereotypically feminine behaviours (relations-oriented leadership style) are devalued. However, it has been frequently observed in the past that organizational goals could not be exclusively achieved by either masculine or feminine characteristics of leaders. Suggests that an integration rather than a polarization becomes necessary for leaders and organizations. That is, an androgynous leadership style can be the most appropriate for achieving high performance in many organizations.

Notes: Presents an extended study of the transformation of a university research group into a learning organization. The transformation process was realized during the rapid development of a small group into a medium-sized organization through the addition of major projects, necessitating change from a hierarchy to a matrix organization. Central to the development of the organization and its learning ethos was the introduction of a hypermedia groupware system (PD1). Documents the cycles of evaluation and change up to assessment of PD1. Concludes that the evolutionary transformation of an organization can be a managed and a learning process, involving, and depending on, all participants and their constructive use of an enabling information technology infrastructure in a period of change and transition.

Notes: Discusses how, in Part 1 the research group was at a "pioneering crisis" stage with considerable role and task ambiguity. An organizational development process was initiated aiming for greater systemization: a matrix structure was introduced and a groupware tool, the plan-document (PD1), was implemented, as part of the group's strategy to develop into a learning organization. States that the plan-document was designed to enable information sharing and co-ordination throughout the group, ranging over the short- and long-terms. Usage was, however, low and PD1 was not widely adopted, although usage varied according to timescales and the personal relevance of objectives. A second plan-document (PD2) was designed, aimed at being more "personal" and accessible, attuned to the new matrix structure and including reporting as well as planning functions. Looks at the introduction of PD2 and evaluates its contribution to the transition of the research group into both a systematized and a learning organization. Posits that groupware can go some way towards helping organizations meet the challenges of an uncertain environment through supporting open access between groups and individuals and fostering the group cohesiveness and interdependence.

Notes: The United States Air Force's (USAF) unpaid civilian auxiliary, the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) wears USAF uniforms and performs search and rescue missions looking for downed aircraft. After CAP members miswore the USAF uniform (Cheng, 1996), the USAF instituted a top-down uniform change making the CAP uniform more distinct from the USAF uniform. CAP members, who affirmed that they were to be motivated solely by a desire to perform CAP's mission, and not motivated by wearing USAF uniforms, quit and withdrew commitment. This participant observation ethnography studies how USAF's misunderstanding of volunteer motivation and the symbolism of organizational uniforms led to dysfunctional organizational change. An alternative solution that makes positive symbolic change is proposed.

Notes: This study empirically tested Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (SLT) among 151 senior executives within service and manufacturing businesses of a large Fortune 100 company. SLT focuses on the interaction of the leader's behaviour and follower readiness to determine leader effectiveness. SLT suggests that the appropriate level of task and relationship behaviour is the one that "matches" the level of follower readiness. A variety of statistical techniques were used to test the central hypotheses of SLT and the matching concept. The study produced 18 matches and 126 mismatches. One statistical technique, the partitioned test, was found to provide the most insight about SLT and the concept of matching. The researchers recommend its utilization in future research of SLT. The researchers conclude that SLT remains intuitively appealing and empirically contradictory. The concepts of SLT and matching are engaging and further research is recommended.

Notes: Leadership has been a major topic in management and business literature over the last few years. The rapid changes in business, technology, political and social factors has required the development of effective leadership skills. As a result leadership development programs have become an increasing priority for business and government organisations. This article puts forward an integrated model for leadership development. The major focus of this model is to develop leadership competencies which directly contribute to the strategic imperatives of the business. In addition, it describes the key elements that contribute to a successful leadership experience such as changing mindsets, a global focus, personal development and improved business and leadership skills. Finally, the most widely used leadership methods and processes are covered under three major themes; contributing to the strategic business direction, building leadership and team skills, and self-development. The ideas put forward in this paper provide senior managers and human resource professionals with an integrated and comprehensive framework to plan and build a leadership development program in their organisation.

Notes: Reports the initial exploratory studies in a programme of research that aims to investigate the role of mental models in leadership. Drawing from a cognitive approach, the studies use metaphors as tools to illustrate the models of the leadership construct that are prevalent in lay psychology in an atheoretical, decontextualised manner. The findings show that lay concepts of leadership are less complex and more robust than academic concepts. Implications for both research and the transfer of knowledge to industry are discussed.

Notes: States that two goal orientations may be held by individuals: a performance goal and a learning goal (Ames and Archer, 1988; Dweck and Leggett, 1988). The much-discussed learning organisation requires individuals either to possess or to develop a learning orientation. Leadership theorists (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) have identified characteristics of leadership which may be classified as transactional or transformational. The links between leadership and goal orientation are explored. It was conjectured that transformational leadership would be associated with a learning-goal orientation and transactional leadership would be associated with a performance-goal orientation. These propositions are supported by evidence from an empirical study of professional accountants in the UK. The findings suggest that desirable leadership behaviour for a learning organisation is transformational and desirable follower behaviour should include a learning orientation.

Notes: The purpose of this article is to examine how senior leaders in organizations can play a greater role in the development of leadership within their organizations. Innovative "leaders developing leaders" programs in PepsiCo, General Electric and Shell are described as examples of tangible and effective ways that can be used for successful leadership development which can also contribute to strategic change and business profitability. Suggestions and various options to incorporate senior executive involvement in leadership development programs are put forward as well as factors that need to be considered when first implementing this approach. At a time when leadership development is recognised as a vital ingredient for organization success, the involvement of senior leaders in the teaching and learning of future leaders has been shown to be a powerful and effective tool.

Notes: Individual culture shock is a well known and evidenced phenomenon. It describes the psychological and also physical reactions of a person staying abroad. These reactions are the result of confrontation with a foreign culture. According to the authors such reactions also exist on the level of society as a whole. This "collective culture shock" influences management and business relations and causes problems. A theory of the collective culture shock is developed that analyses these problems and provides a framework for solutions. This theory suggests that cultural processes and features in transition countries that are usually attributed to the communist heritage are the result of collective culture shock.

Notes: This study is concerned with the determination of the most common and effective leadership style in a non-Western culturally mixed environment, and with the exploration of the correlates of leadership style in such a context. Results indicate that consultative style was the most common and effective leadership style in such an environment. Furthermore, findings indicate that leaders' personal attributes such as national culture, experience, education and age; subordinates' personal attributes such as gender, national culture, age and tenure in present organization and organizational factors such as the organization's ownership have a significant relationship with leadership style. Additionally, leaders' personal attributes such as gender, marital status and tenure in present organization, and subordinates' personal attributes such as education, experience and marital status, in addition to organizational factors such as the organization's activity and age have no relationship with leadership style.

Notes: Reflects on an organizational development (OD) intervention which addressed strategic culture change with the senior management team of a UK-based international manufacturing organization. In line with emergent theory and practice OD consultants, authors intervened at the three levels: strategy, culture and top team dynamics. Whilst the client seemed happy with the outcomes, the authors believed that the intervention had failed to effect transformational change and were thus motivated to re-examine practice in the light of recent contributions to the OD and organizational learning literature. This analysis suggests that future OD practice should be grounded in processes of dialogue permeating all phases of the intervention. At the diagnostic phase, there is a need to identify more clearly the enablers and barriers to productive learning. Subsequently, during implementation, the boundaries of the intervention with particular reference to politics, authority and task should be managed more carefully and explicitly.

Notes: The effectiveness of the Competing Values Framework (CVF) as a means to determine human resource development needs was examined. Members of the board of directors and all full-time employees of a Cooperative assessed the current status of the organizational culture and the nature of culture desired in the future utilizing a CVF based instrument. Both groups desired a future culture different from the present state, and both groups desired movement in the same directions. The study concludes that CVF analysis is a beneficial means for determining information about human resource skills needing to be developed and/or activated and which activities need to be rewarded or reduced in order to effect this movement.

Notes: In the workplace, emotional dissonance is the conflict between emotions experienced by the employee and those required by the organization. Earlier studies have established that emotional dissonance reduces job satisfaction and exacerbates emotional exhaustion. Emotional dissonance typically occurs during interactions between employees and customers in service industries. As Western economies are dominated by service industries, emotional dissonance may result in rising numbers of dissatisfied and burned out employees. This study examined the process by which emotional dissonance operates, and the impact of self-esteem on emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance was found to induce job tension leading, in turn, to emotional exhaustion. Employees with innately low self-esteem were more likely to experience emotional dissonance and suffer from emotional exhaustion. Other employees found that emotional dissonance reduced their self-esteem leaving them dissatisfied.

Notes: This study focuses primarily on exploring the role of organizational culture and level of technology used in the organization as predictors of decision-making styles in a non-western country, the United Arab Emirates. Results suggest that organizational culture, and level of technology used in the organization in addition to decision-maker's education and management levels are good predictors of decision-making styles in such an environment. Results also indicate that a tendency towards the participative style prevails among Arab, young, middle management and highly educated managers.

Notes: Reports on the UMIST-Institute of Management five-year study into the changing experiences of UK managers and the impact of organizational change. Examines the patterns of actual working hours generally and by managerial level before going on to explore the reasons managers give to explain their work patterns (over contract hours, evening and weekend working). Contains an assessment of how managers trade-off work and non-work activity and the impact of long working hours on managers' health, morale, productivity, social life and relationships with their partners and children. The analysis reveals a strong relationship between actual hours worked and an increasingly negative impact on all the factors tested.

Notes: This paper contributes to the study of ethics programmes by the building of a theoretical model for implementing an ethics programme and examining the application of this model to an actual implementation case study. Ethics programmes aim at stimulating ethical behaviour in the organisation and assisting employees to act in a morally responsible way. It is proposed that for an organisational ethics programme to be effective, five dominant conditions are necessary: awareness of formal organisational goals and corresponding informal norms; suitable procedures for decision making; correct distribution of resources; presence of necessary skills; and personal intentions for ethical behaviour. Following detailed discussion of each condition, and with reference to an actual case example, the conditions will be further developed and supplemented with suggested organisational activities that could be used to support these conditions.

Notes: Although much has been written on skills and strategies of management consultants, little research has been done on what management consultants actually do. In this study, three senior consultants were shadowed, each for a one week period. Management consultancy turns out to be a hectic and highly interactive job. Important interaction partners are clients, colleagues, and secretaries, although only the first are highlighted in literature. Catalytic intervention is the most dominant approach in client contacts. The relatively rare desk work sessions of management consultants are even more interrupted than those of managers. An important function of their desk work (and of their work as a whole) is structuring information gained in client contacts.

Notes: Progressive stages in the evolution of organizations correspond to progressively deeper aspects of the mind. The stage of task-based management emphasized the more superficial sensorimotor and concrete thinking capacities; this approach of rigid rules and structures is now unsuited for an increasingly knowledge-based economy. The next stage, process-based management, makes greater use of the intellect of organizational members to design, implement, and evaluate systemic productivity improvements. A few organizations today demonstrate the lasting success of values-based organizing, managing on the level of feelings and ego. The new millennium will see organizations that utilize the deepest level of human consciousness, connecting the human mind to the intelligence of natural law which spontaneously organizes for optimal simplicity, synergy, and holistic progress.

Notes: Contemporary organisational realities challenge consultants to develop: more up-to-date motivational knowledge; the ability and willingness to work with change agents unsympathetic to applied social science; and, facility with methodologies for both cultural and structural change. Changes over the last two decades have resulted in a more diverse motivational picture than the 1950s to 1970s humanistic motivational theories that underlie most organisational development theory and practice. In response, consultants need to develop a portfolio of consultancy methods that enable them to address not only cultural changes (e.g. attitudinal and change) but also structural changes (e.g. organisational design). Today, most clients who hire organisational consultants do so to complement technological and strategic changes anticipated or already undertaken. OD practitioners need to increase their ability to understand and work with change managers, and their consultants, who see the world predominantly through technological and economic eyes.

Notes: Conventional wisdom suggests that a consultant serving a joint union-management organization development (OD) change effort acts as a third-party neutral. However, this paper documents why both parties may distrust the OD consultant and other dangers associated with claims of neutrality. Drawing on the OD literature and that of psychotherapy, as well as over 20 years of experience that the authors have had as consultants to joint efforts, this paper suggests that OD change agents should take on the role as advocates not neutrals. The advantages of actively advocating for the differing and joint interests of union and management are outlined. Clear strategies for using the advocacy approach are identified.

Notes: Strategic alliances and networks have become an integral part ofcontemporary strategic organizational thinking. Their spread seems tocorrespond with the increasing rate of joint venture formations andoutsourcing endeavours that have dominated the business arena in thepast decade or so. Examines the widening scope of networking in thelight of the underlying economic, sectoral and social dimensions. Arguesthat outsourcing remains a fundamental economic ingredient in networkformation, and shows that networking, as a novel form of organization,is far-reaching and gaining unprecedented expansion throughout a widerange of economic sectors, as well as on a global scale. Examines anddiscusses the role of informal (social) networking and the importantissue of trust. Outlines and discusses issues relating to the success offuture networks.

Notes: Uses a questionnaire survey sent to CEOs of US and Japanesesubsidiaries located in North America to assess the amount of influenceexerted on such companies by corporate headquarters and the effect ofthis influence on leadership styles of subsidiary management. USsubsidiaries are found to be insignificantly influenced by their parentcompanies and to practise a professional style of leadership. However,Japanese subsidiaries are found to be significantly influenced byoverseas parent companies and to practise a corporate style ofleadership (when the CEO is Japan-educated) and a professional style ofleadership (when the CEO is US-educated). These findings reinforce theperceived link between leadership style and cultural upbringing andeducation.

Notes: Examines organizational culture and organizational performance viaa discussion of the models of culture and the empirical researchconducted to investigate the causal relationship between them. Despiteclaims of a causal relationship, the culture-performance link remainsunclear. There is a need to improve on the application of the conceptsinvolved. Methodological issues as well as the influence of moderatorvariables are suggested for consideration in future research.

Notes: Major downsizing efforts are now taking place in multinationalbusiness firms in virtually every corner of the world, despite theeconomic recovery that seems to be occurring in many countries. Thosemultinational firms that have been turned around most effectivelythrough downsizing activities have based their decision making on afoundation of creative excellence and strategic leadership. The keys toorganizational excellence in the downsized workplace centres on fourvariables - care of customers, constant innovation, committedpeople, and management leadership. A research study conducted by theauthors has focused on leadership strategies followed by managersdirecting successful downsizing efforts in multinational firms. Thesestrategies are: attention through vision, meaning through communication;trust through positioning; and confidence through respect. Each of thesedownsizing leadership strategies is discussed with some depth ofanalysis.

Notes: Compares the development and characteristics of three groups ofhighly successful British senior executives - self-madeentrepreneurs and intrapreneurs, and a group of intrapreneurs who aremembers of the family owning the company for which they work, but notthe company's founder. One important common factor within the first twogroups (which distinguishes them from the third group) is the overcomingof adversity in childhood. This seems to set a pattern of behaviourthroughout life which contributes to their success by giving them theability to cope with and learn from different situations and setbacksduring their careers. Other factors which discriminate between thegroups are the degree of risk taking, innovation and political style.All three groups have much in common. They are all good communicatorswho work extremely hard and are intrinsically motivated.

Notes: Examines the issue of leadership succession in a non-profitorganization founded 24 years ago by a charismatic leader. Based on astudy of organizational leadership, a model of succession was developed.Discusses the selection process based on factors such as longevity,specialized competences and loyalty. Considers implications forleadership.

Notes: There is an explosion of interest in programmes to help women gain mentors in organizations. Despite the haste to jump on the "mentoring bandwagon", there is little information on the barriers women face in obtaining a mentor. Discusses these barriers and the results of a study addressing this issue. Presents practical implications for organizations.

Notes: Explores perspectives on mentoring, including the mentor, the protégé and the organization. Emphasizes key benefits to each of these parties. Addresses the question of why mentors engage in mentoring. Discusses the role of leadership in the development of leader-supported mentoring processes.

Notes: Describes a three-track process for executive leadership development (TTL) intended to develop a cadre of strategic business leaders for the next decade. TTL consists of three simultaneous tracks of activity requiring as much as 18 months, during which participants also perform their regular jobs. It has three objectives, corresponding to the tracks of activity: the business track - solves real-life business problems thereby supporting the business while providing each individual participant with increased expertise in an area previously unknown to him or her; the leadership track - enables participants to lead individuals, groups and organizations more effectively; and the personal track - helps participants appreciate and more effectively utilize their innate personal skills, values, predispositions and traits. Examines results to date and shows that this leadership development process has already provided substantial returns to many individuals and organizations.

Notes: Explores the roles of sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender mentoring relationships. Today's leaders are concerned about controlling sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender work relationships and there is an increased awareness of the sexual harassment aspect of sexuality in today's society. Describes sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender mentoring relationships and explores the sex role spillover model's explanation for sexuality in these relationships. Views sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender mentoring relationships along a continuum ranging from non-sexual, psychologically intimate relationships to the extreme of sexual harassment. Includes mentors', protégés' and co-workers' perceptions of sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender mentoring relationships in this discussion along with the impact of these perceptions on cross-gender mentoring relationships. Finally, considers ways to manage sexuality and intimacy in cross-gender mentoring relationships.

Notes: Investigates the relationship of employees to founding board members in voluntary organizations. Argues that unresolved conflicts are the source of much of the difficulty experienced in this field by the organizations. Concludes that because of this destructive element it is important that such organizations resolve these struggles at key stages in their growth.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to explore the relationship between employee perceptions of servant leadership and leader trust, as well as organizational trust. Design/methodology.approach - Uses Laub's Organizational Leadership Assessment along with Nyhan and Marlowe's Organizational Trust Inventory. Findings - Perceptions of servant leadership correlated positively with both leader trust and organizational trust. The study also found that organizations perceived as servant-led exhibited higher levels of both leader trust and organizational trust than organizations perceived as non-servant-led. Originality/value - The findings lend support to Greenleaf's view that servant leadership is an antecedent of leader and organizational trust, and to aspects of other servant leadership models.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to apply organizational systems perspectives to discuss the three types of organizational development (OD) and management control systems (MCS): normative, coercive and remunerative-instrumental (utilitarian) that affect the operating performance of teams. Design/methodology/approach - The paper examines the effect that managerial power relations, cultural process and structural change intervention of these three types of control systems have on the formation (size, composition, and strategies), and operational activities (functions and assignment of tasks) of teams. The paper uses library archives research to study OD, MCS and teams. It has applied an organizational systems perspective that examines the effects of OD and MCS on teams' management. Findings - Recent new directions in management control systems and OD process and structural intervention strategies have transformed management accounting control systems as the new administrative control innovations mechanisms for managing teams' performance and activities in industrial organizations. Accordingly, the traditional mechanistic control approach has been substituted or replaced by organic-based processes and structures of team-based control systems. Practical implications - In organizations, the management of teams is multi-dimensional, involving the simultaneous use of normative, remunerative and coercive control mechanisms. The paper advances the views that the effectiveness of team management in organizations is contingent upon several structural and process factors including the mix of these three types of compliance systems and the form of organizational setting, i.e. manufacturing or professional organizations. Originality/value - In the management control literature, the management of teams has centered on normative or remunerative or coercive control systems. This paper shows that OD's cultural process and structural intervention strategies provide new directions to address these three types of management control system for teams in industrial organizations.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to explain how application of organizational development (OD) can facilitate compliance with regulations imposed by an external government agency on university operations. Design/methodology/approach - A total of 2,000 students and 150 staff were directly affected by the regulation, with the remaining university population potentially affected. The strategy utilized project management and change agent processes where analysis of the problem, design and implementation of interventions, and evaluation of intervention effect were carried out through a project working party with highly centralized leadership by senior management. There was regular progressive and summative evaluation of project goal attainment. Findings - Use of project management, change agents and centralized senior project leadership provided the practical means to support successful OD. OD worked well within the devolved, multi-campus, multidisciplinary and organizationally complex environment of the university. OD proved to be an effective and efficient approach for large-scale change in technical organizational sub-systems, in particular structure and technology. By the end of the 18-month intervention, no staff incidents had been reported, and of 2,000 students directly affected, only seven incidents had been identified and these were ultimately resolved by the project management group. Practical implications - OD can be used effectively and efficiently to facilitate mandated change in multi-site, multidisciplinary, large organizations. This case study demonstrated that project management, centralized leadership and the use of change agents were practical, efficient and effective within the OD framework. Originality/value - This is the first study to describe and evaluate the use of OD to facilitate mandated change in universities in response to regulation.

Notes: Purpose - This paper applies organizational development (OD) process-cultural and structural change strategies to synthesize Etzioni's three approaches to power and compliance: normative, coercive and remunerative to study the management control systems of teams in organizations. Design/methodology/approach - The paper uses library-archives research. Findings - OD's process and structural differences have affected team members' commitment and operating performance in these three control systems. Advances in information technology have introduced new forms of normative: surveillance control. Research limitations/implications - If MCS are viewed as adaptive systems, the design and implementation of MCS center on identifying those contingent OD process and structural conditions that support team management in these three control systems. Originality/value - The management control literature has not applied Etzioni's basis of power and compliance typologies to study the administrative control of teams. This paper fills this research gap by synthesizing and integrating the OD and MCS literature.

Notes: Purpose - This paper examines the relationship between credibility, the dimensions of power and a number of knowledge acquisition attributes. Design/methodology/approach - The study involves a questionnaire-based survey of employees from a number of organisations operating in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A total of 130 useable questionnaires were received from employees who are engaged in self-managing activities from seven companies. These were subjected to a series of correlational and regression analyses. Findings - There are three major findings in this research. First, the relationship between expert power and the knowledge acquisition attributes of personal traits, control and negotiation is positive and significant. Second, the constructs of coercive and referent power are likely to have a negative influence on employees' knowledge acquisition and knowledge sharing. Finally, the findings have clearly shown that the management dimension of credibility has a positive and significant impact on the knowledge acquisition attributes of control and negotiation. Practical implications - The study shows that the real challenge for organisations in the UAE is to provide a working environment that encourages and fosters expert power and credibility and, by extension knowledge acquisition and knowledge sharing. Originality/value - There is a paucity of research in this area and this paper makes a contribution towards filling this gap.

Notes: Purpose - Western researchers have concluded that generational groups of workers have different work characteristics and prefer different leadership styles. This paper investigates whether Western research applies equally to generational groups in Taiwan's workplaces, specifically in the higher education sector and manufacturing industry. Design/methodology/approach - A total of 20 higher education institutions and 148 manufacturing SMEs in machinery manufacturing in Taipei were identified. After operational definitions for constructs were defined, a questionnaire was developed and administered. After data had been processed through editing, coding and tabulation, a statistical technique was selected where research expectation tests could be conducted. In order to test construct validity, factor analysis was also performed. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test for any significant differences between the variables under investigation. Findings - The research shows that generational groups in manufacturing industry have different work characteristics and require different leadership styles, while there were no differences in work characteristics and preferred leadership style for generational groups in the education sector. Originality/value - The results of this research provide some direction for leaders and researchers. Leaders should recognise the different work characteristics between generational groups and apply leadership styles that will positively contribute to employee motivation.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to present a conceptual framework for understanding how leaders develop. Design/methodology/approach - The arguments are derived from the assumption that leadership, like many other human manifestations, is a function of a given potential, relevant motivation, and ongoing developmental processes. It is argued that three developmental psychological principles are essential for leaders' development, i.e. experiential learning, vicarious learning, and the suitability of certain developmental aspects to relevant critical periods. Findings - These developmental principles, along with Schon's modalities of learning and reflections ("follow me", "joint investigation" and "hall of mirrors"), serve as a conceptual framework for discussing main implications and practices related to developing leaders. Originality/value - Leaders' development is a process that occurs continuously in an organization. Many organizations attempt to confine it artificially to courses and supplementary training. This limits the range of developmental possibilities, since leadership experiences and vicarious learning take place all the time over a broad range throughout the organization.

Notes: Purpose - To extend understanding of the influence of contextual factors on: power and influence; creativity and innovation; and leadership behaviour. Design/methodology/approach - The review has been compiled following a search of seven electronic databases from 1999 to 2004. The author also uses her experience as a physiotherapy manager within a children's hospital NHS Trust to reflect on some of the theories in the workplace. Findings - While the literature is contradictory in places, some trends do emerge. Bureaucratic organizations can inhibit an empowering environment, as can those that are poor at disseminating information or communicating a vision. Hierarchical structures, high staff turnover and lack of resources are likely to stifle creativity and innovation. Organic structures tend to facilitate a more transformational leadership style, whereas bureaucratic structures encourage a more transactional style. The quality of leader-member exchange is thought to be related to work group size, work group cohesiveness and organizational climate. Research limitations/implications - Care is needed in applying these findings to the National Health Service as theory that is developed in one organisation or culture may not be transferable to another. The author suggests that an empirical investigation should be undertaken in different National Health Service units. Originality/value - This paper explores an aspect of leadership that is often neglected. Organizations that wish to nurture and develop their leaders and managers will need to be mindful of the environmental context within which this takes place.

Notes: Purpose - Leaders are challenged with the efficient and effective management of their own and their employees' disputes. These are often managed inadequately using "fight", "flight", or management intervention. This paper aims to present the findings of a study into an effective alternative, "one-to-one dispute resolution". The method involves two employees resolving their dispute through face-to-face communication and without direct intervention by management. Design/methodology/approach - Using the Critical Incident Technique, incidents of one-to-one dispute resolution (n =249) were reported by 88 employees. The contents were analysed, and skill-related findings were validated using a questionnaire (n =106). Findings - The findings are presented in a descriptive model of the skilful process of one-to-one dispute resolution. The model is built on eight skill-sets that were central to the dispute resolution process. Research limitations/implications - How and when to effectively coach employees in the use of one-to-one dispute resolution, and the resulting personal and organisational outcomes, need to be examined. In addition, research into the practical application of the model, and in specific organisational contexts, is required. Practical implications - The study highlights the potential for more employees (including both the leaders and the led) to effectively "face" their own disputes without using "fight" or "flight". It challenges those leaders, who often act as third-party interveners, instead to coach their employees in the one-to-one resolution of disputes, while modelling the method themselves. Originality/value - Employees are offered a research-based model of dispute resolution that differs from problematic models in the dispute resolution literature and skills-training programs. A workable alternative to the methods of fight, flight and intervention is provided.

Notes: Purpose - This study seeks to survey managers of an Australian government-owned enterprise undergoing organisational change as a result of public sector reform, specifically, National Competition Policy and Corporatisation. The purpose of the study is to examine the extent/type of organisational change and leadership style adopted to implement this change. Design/methodology/approach - To understand the effect of reforms, the researcher explored the extent of change and leadership style through the use of an intra-organisational survey in a government-owned Electricity Supply Corporation in Queensland, Australia. The instrument also included qualitative components to enable the researcher to qualify the statistical results. Findings - Within the public sector, there is an uneasy tension between the need for a revolution of outdated bureaucracies in order to enhance flexibility and innovation, on the one hand, and the desire to maintain the standards and procedures that are necessary for quality civic service for a broad range of stakeholders, on the other. The results of this study indicate that there was significant organisational change and, according to responses, a change of leadership style indicative of this dilemma. Research limitations/implications - The implications suggest the consideration of embedded factors while determining the processes and directions of change. Furthermore, it is necessary to choose a leadership style that is indicative of the type of change to be implemented. Additionally, greater participation by organisational members can increase the success of organisational change. The limitations of the study include the measurement of organisational change and leadership style. This instrument was originally used in structured interviews; however, measures were taken to validate the instrument in its altered setting. Further, the study is confined to a single electricity organisation. Fertile fields for future research projects could include a larger quantitative study conducted with multiple states or nation-wide electricity distribution companies. Originality/value - The study provides empirical evidence of the extent of change as a result of public sector reform. In doing so the study utilises organisational change and leadership style models within a public sector environment.

Notes: This paper investigates the long-run relationship between Iranian trade balance and the black market value of Iranian rial by employing cointegration technique. It is shown that in a oil producing country like Iran due to rent-seeking opportunities, depreciation of the rial in the black market has an adverse effect on the Iranian trade balance.

Notes: Reproduces the main texts of hitherto unpublished reminiscences of the style and influence, as a teacher, of Allyn Abbott Young (1876-1929) by 17 of his distinguished students. They include Bertil Ohlin, Nicholas Kaldor, James Angell, Lauchlin Currie, Colin Clark, Howard Ellis, Frank Fetter, Earl Hamilton, and Melvin Knight (brother of Frank Knight who, with Edward Chamberlin, was perhaps Young's most famous PhD student). There has recently been a revival of interest in Young's influence on US monetary thought and in his theory of economic growth based on endogenous increasing returns. These recollections of his students (addressed to Young's biographer, Charles Blitch) shed light on why Young has, at least until recently, been renowned more for his massive erudition than for his published writings.

Notes: Analyses the influence of export share and domestic contentpolicies on the level of capital investment undertaken by amultinational firm both in its home country and in the foreign countryin which it operates. These protective policies, in force in bothdeveloping and industrialized countries, require the firm to employ acertain proportion of inputs from the foreign country in which itoperates and to export a certain proportion of its output abroad. Casesexamined in the analysis include those for which the firm facesuncertainty in the production process in the host and home countries;and in neither country. Finds that both of these policies can havespillover effects to the home country as well, i.e. when there isuncertainty in production in the home country, these policies can reducethe optimal level of investment in the home country, too.

Notes: Develops a general equilibrium model of the growth of governmentbased on the attempts of various socio-economic groups to redistributeincome in their own favour. In the non-cooperative equilibrium of ourmodel under free political competition, every group in the economy paystaxes at rates which maximize the net contribution of each to theirgovernment's budget. On the basis of this model, argues that the recentgrowth of government can be explained by the increased role of humancapital as a factor of production; the rise in the population share ofthe elderly; and the reductions in the relative value of non-market usesof labour caused by increased specialization and population pressure.Human capital, which has been both an important source of growth inincome and the main factor behind the expansion of the middle class,seems to be a relatively easy-to-tax asset. This finding may resolve thepuzzle of simultaneous growth of government and increase in incomeequality in developed countries that has challenged recent models ofredistributive taxation.

Notes: Former socialist economies, as they are trying to engage in a process of transition from state socialism towards forms of a market economy, and as they are trying to open themselves up to international trade, find that extreme social tensions accompany this process which go right to the heart of national identity. This is being discussed with the example of Hungary in mind.

Notes: Understanding chances of reforming the common agricultural policy (CAP) of the European Union, for instance, requires an appreciation of its intellectual roots. Seeking such an understanding is the purpose of this article, which has the following structure. Next to this introduction and the conclusions at the end, there are three parts. Part I details what an economist may want to know about Count von Kanitz and the context of his political and intellectual work. Part II explains the proposal first by staying close to its original verbiage, then, however, by translating this proposal into modern micro-economic and public finance analytical terms. Part III gives an account of the scholarly literature on the proposal. The only piece of theoretical and practical relevance is found to be Gustav (von) Schmoller's article of 1895: this article is briefly summarized and appreciated as being a classic piece in agricultural political economy.

Notes: Based on the proceedings of a conference organised by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Chicago, 1999. The Editors demonstrate, through contributions from business historians and economists, that "advanced research" has superceded the neo-classical theory of the firm.

Notes: Roscher believed that human existence is rooted in organic nature.In his view, a national society can be regarded as an organism in whichhouseholds function as mutually dependent organs. Examines the nature ofRoscher's organicism, which to a certain extent is characteristic of thehistorical school through its link with historicism. Outlines the rootsand development of Roscher's organicism. Considers the related ideas ofother economic theorists.

Notes: Streissler considers Roscher's theory of crisis to be highlyoriginal and important. Schumpeter, on the other hand, considers it onlya rehash of the ideas of others. Examines this contradiction, beginningwith a reflection on the essential elements of the debates on Keynes,Say's law and classical economics. Continues by analysing the statementsof German economists before Roscher on the issues of the general glutcontroversy. Ends with a closer inspection of Roscher's own theory ofcrisis.

Notes: Attempts to shed new light on the relation between the terms oftrade and effective exchange rate using cointegration analysis and datafrom 25 countries. Findings could be summarized by saying that there isno long-run relation between exchange rate and the terms of trade.

Notes: Applies the two-factor version of the Heckscher-Ohlin-Vanek (HOV)theorem. Two hypotheses are derived. The empirical analysis offerssupport for the second but not for the first hypothesis when trade ofeach Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)country with the rest of the world is analysed. Examines the factorcontent of net trade with data on foreign trade between the OECDcountries and then determines average capital-labour ratio as the OECDaverage. Both the hypotheses receive empirical support. Finds that thetwo-factor version of the HOV theorem performs well when applied to theenvironment where it is supposed to apply.

Notes: Analyses smuggling through legal entry points in the context of aRicardo-Viner (RV) economy. Posits that smuggling will improve welfareif the benefits of a reduced domestic price distortion exceed theresource cost of smuggling. Strengthening of anti-smuggling activityneed not improve welfare if it induces the devotion of additionalresources to activities designed to reduce detection.

Notes: Survey data on expected and actual prices received by individualvegetable growers in Florida, Michigan and Texas in 1990 are used totest the rational expectations hypothesis. The use of individual growerdata overcomes many of the issues that have limited previous tests ofthis hypothesis in agriculture. Overall, finds that price expectationsof vegetable growers are inconsistent with the rational expectationshypothesis for the majority of vegetable/state combinations studied.

Notes: Estimates a three-equation model to test various economic hypotheses regarding the relationship between unemployment rate and defence spending in 18 OECD countries during the period 1962-1988. Reveals that the relationship which exists between unemployment rate and defence spending is not uniform across countries. Defence spending has a favourable impact on unemployment rate in Germany and Australia, whereas in Denmark it worsens the employment situation. In Australia, Germany and Belgium, non-defence spending and the unemployment rate are causally independent. Defence spending appears to act as a stablization tool in response to changes in the unemployment rate only in the UK. No significant causal relationship between unemployment rate and either type of spending is revealed in Japan, The Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Austria, New Zealand, Sweden, Canada and the USA. Observes a few cases of bi-directional causality between unemployment rate and defence/non-defence spending. Gives possible explanations for the observed cross-country variability in causal relation.

Notes: Purpose - Although economic theory generally does not support government intervention in international trade, casual observation shows that many developing countries adopt certain trade policies to promote their exports. The objective of this paper is to answer the question that whether developing countries can benefit from export promotion. Design/methodology/approach - This paper considers a developing country which has to import new technology from the world market to improve its productivity. If it has certain economic rigidities, the country is short of foreign exchange and domestic firms cannot import an adequate amount of new technology. Even if there is no rigidity, domestic firms may not have sufficient incentive to invest in new technology. Therefore, the government can step in to subsidize exports. Through an analytical model, this paper investigates in what conditions the measures of export promotion can stimulate production and employment, and improve efficiency and social welfare. Findings - This paper analyzes two effects of export promotion: raising the incentive of capital investment and reducing capital goods shortage caused by foreign exchange constraint. These effects might be the economic rationale for developing country governments to promote exports. It is found that export promotion can definitely raise employment and productivity, but whether these measures can stimulate the supply to the domestic market and improve domestic welfare depends on the sufficient and necessary condition given in the paper. Originality/value - Establishes an analytical model to investigate in what conditions the measures of export promotion such as export subsidies and domestic currency devaluation can stimulate production and employment, and can improve efficiency and social welfare.