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  • Elsevier  (1,068,112)
  • International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
  • 2020-2022  (303,300)
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  • 1980-1984  (203,451)
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  • 1
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    Motivational psychology of human development : developing motivation and motivating development (2000)
    Amsterdam ; New York : Elsevier
    Advances in psychology  
    Details
    Keywords: Developmental psychology, Congresses. ; Human Development, Congresses. ; Motivation (Psychologie), Congrès. ; Motivation (Psychology), Congresses. ; Motivation, Congresses. ; Psychologie du développement, Congrès.
    Notes: Curiosity and anxiety as motivational determinants of cognitive development / Clemens Trudewind -- Attachment and behavioral inhibition : two perspectives on early motivational development / Axel Schölmerich -- Activity and motivation : a plea for a human frame motivation / Rolf Oerter -- Motivation and self-regulated learning / Falko Rheinberg, Regina Vollmeyer, and Bruce D. Burns -- Interest and human development during adolescence : an educational-psychological approach / Andreas Krapp -- Goal orientations : their impact on academic learning and their development during early adolescence / Olaf Köller -- A social-cognitive, control-value theory of achievement emotions / Reinhard Pekrun -- Training in empirical research methods : analysis of problems and intervention from a motivational perspective / Robin Stark and Heinz Mandl -- A theory of self-development : affective fixation and the STAR model of personality disorders and related styles / Julius Kuhl -- Developmental regulation across the life span : an action-phase model of engagement and disengagement with developmental goals / Jutta Heckhausen -- The interplay of work and family in young and middle adulthood / Bettina S. Wiese and Alexandra M. Freund -- Are discrepancies between developmental status and aspired goals a sufficient motivation for developmental progression? / Inge Seiffge-Krenke -- Cohort change in adolescent developmental timetables after German unification : trends and possible reasons / Rainer K. Silbereisen and Margit Wiesner -- Motivation and volition in pursuing personal work goals / Lutz von Rosenstiel, Hugo M. Kehr, and Günter W. Maier -- Self-starting behavior at work : toward a theory of personal initiative / Doris Fay and Michael Frese -- Stability and change in romantic relationships / Hans-Werner Bierhoff and Elke Rohmann -- Motivation for parenthood and early family development : findings of a five-year longitudinal study / Klaus A. Schneewind
    Pages: ix, 370 p.
    Edition: 1st ed
    ISBN: 0-585-47422-2
    URL: http://www.netLibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=91194
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
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    New methods for diffraction stress measurement: a critical evaluation of new and existing methods (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1059-1066 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: New methods of diffraction stress analysis of polycrystalline materials, consisting of cubic elastically anisotropic crystallites, are proposed and compared with existing methods. Whereas for the existing methods knowledge of the diffraction elastic constants is presupposed, three new methods are presented that require only knowledge of the (macroscopic) mechanical elastic constants. The stress values obtained with these new methods on the basis of the mechanical elastic constants are more reliable than those obtained with the methods on the basis of the diffraction elastic constants. New and existing methods are illustrated by means of measurements of X-ray diffraction from a magnetron-sputtered TiN layer.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800004258
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  • 3
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    Determination of lattice-transform density profiles for multilayered three-dimensional microcrystals in electron crystallography (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1102-1112 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Electron crystallography on multilayered three-dimensional microcrystals has been limited in application by the need to define precisely the three-dimensional shape of the diffraction density profiles. A new method is presented here to obtain this profile from experimental spot positions which are shifted in a characteristic way from the expected Bragg positions. While the Bragg positions are defined by the diffraction geometry, the characteristic shift additionally depends on the density profile in Fourier space. In general, these two effects are intermingled. A new correlation approach is presented which uses characteristic shift patterns to separate these effects. This technique also allows the determination of all three crystallographic unit-cell dimensions from a single tilted electron diffraction pattern. It was tested on simulated diffraction patterns and applied to experimental data of frozen hydrated crystals of the protein catalase. Since multilayered catalase crystals with different numbers of crystallographic layers were studied, an inhomogeneous data set had to be evaluated. Processing of such data is now possible using the new correlation approach.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800005963
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  • 4
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    Data smoothing and distortion of X-ray diffraction peaks. II. Application (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1136-1142 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Based on the analysis of geometric relations, it is found that the amplitude of the distortion of the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of a peak after smoothing is the largest among the distortions of the seven parameters of a peak: maximum intensity, FWHM, shape, asymmetry, integral intensity, peak position and integral width. Hence the FWHM distortion is used as a criterion of smoothing. The 1% and 5% error limits of smoothing are calculated. Quadratic and quartic polynomial Savitzky–Golay filters are compared. Aberrations of an X-ray diffraction (XRD) peak caused by using double, matched, 1.5 and 0.7 FWHM filters are described in more detail by means of the analyses of internal and external factors. It is found that the smoothing-induced distortions of an actual XRD peak trend towards those of ideal curves. The distortions are classified according to three types of peak. A possible method to obtain the actual peak parameters, called `system smoothing refinement', is presented.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800006944
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  • 5
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    Computing in macromolecular crystallography using a parallel architecture (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1154-1161 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Despite advances in computer technology, computing in macromolecular crystallography keeps pace in its demand for CPU power. Improvements in CPU speed, together with advances in computing methods that depend on it, often translate into the possibility to solve structures that would otherwise require additional experiments. Programs for data reduction, molecular-replacement programs employing multidimensional searches on a grid in real, Patterson or reciprocal space, and phasing and refinement programs, currently have, among others, the highest requirements for CPU power. For these and other programs, speed-up of calculations as a result of parallel execution on multiprocessor computers is possible. This paper outlines the use of the OpenMP programming interface and reports its successful application for parallelization of ESSENS [Kleywegt & Jones (1997). Acta Cryst. D53, 179–185] and SHELXL [Schneider & Sheldrick (1997). Methods Enzymol. 277, 319–343]. Parallel computing, which is possible as a result of the inherent parallelism of crystallographic algorithms, extends the range of problems in macromolecular crystallography that programs can be applied to and can significantly reduce the time required for progressing from a data set to a refined model.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S002188980000697X
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  • 6
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    Development of a graphical interface for the Rietveld refinement program DBWS (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1189-1189 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800005410
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  • 7
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    SUBGROUPGRAPH: a computer program for analysis of group–subgroup relations between space groups (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1190-1191 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800007135
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  • 8
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    Polar potassium rare earth nitrates K2[RE(NO3)5(H2O)2] (RE = La, Ce, Pr and Nd). II. Linear and nonlinear optical properties (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 380-386 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Linear and nonlinear optical properties of the four isomorphic orthorhombic (point group mm2) potassium rare earth nitrates K2[RE(NO3)5(H2O)2], with RE = La, Ce, Pr or Nd, have been investigated. Refractive indices in a wavelength range from 0.35 to 2.5 µm and the transmission spectra between 0.25 to 3.0 µm were measured. Using the Maker fringe technique, the d_{ijk}^{\rm\, SHG} coefficients of second-harmonic generation for a fundamental of the Nd–YAP laser (λ = 1079.5 nm) were determined for all four compounds. The d_{ijk}^{\rm\, SHG} coefficients of all four substances are about three times larger than those of KDP, as was first published by Ebbers et al. [IEEE J. Quantum Electron. (1993), 29, 497–507] for K2[La(NO3)5(H2O)2]. These nitrates are promising materials for application to nonlinear optics (e.g. second-harmonic generation of Nd laser radiation). The nonlinear optical properties of these compounds seem to have their origin mainly in the nitrate groups, as indicated by a simple model (summing the molecular hyperpolarizabilities of the NO3 group). Neglecting local field effects, the hyperpolarizability of the NO3 group was calculated as β222 = 2.52 × 10−40 m4 V−1.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S002188980000087X
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  • 9
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    The disordered structure of tetraferrocenyl-[3]-cumulene, (Fc)2C=C=C=C(Fc)2, by simulated annealing using synchrotron powder diffraction data (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1199-1207 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: In the molecular structure of tetraferrocenyl-[3]-cumulene, (Fc)2C=C=C=C(Fc)2, four ferrocene molecules are connected via a linear bridge consisting of four carbon atoms. At room temperature, the crystal structure has space group P21/a (Z = 1) with a = 13.104 (5), b = 6.121 (2), c = 11.194 (4) Å, β = 114.922 (1)° and V = 814.3 (8) Å3. A phase transition during cooling was not observed from room temperature to 75 K. From high-resolution X-ray powder diffraction data, the structure of the room-temperature phase was solved by the method of simulated annealing and refined by the Rietveld method using rigid bodies and restraints. The crystal structure was found to be highly disordered with the molecules occupying two orientations with equal probability and a 50% occupancy of the carbon atoms in the cumulene bridge. The disorder could be modelled by stacking faults in ordered structures. In contrast to other compounds of this class, the ferrocenyl groups are in a syn rather than in an up–down conformation with respect to the cumulene bridge.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800007470
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  • 10
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    Solving the generalized indirect Fourier transformation (GIFT) by Boltzmann simplex simulated annealing (BSSA) (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1212-1216 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The structure of colloidal particles can be studied with small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS and SANS). In the case of randomly oriented systems, the indirect Fourier transformation (IFT) is a well established technique for the calculation of model-free real-space information. Interaction leads to an overlap of inter- and intraparticle scattering effects, preventing most detailed interpretations. The recently developed generalized indirect Fourier transformation (GIFT) technique allows these effects to be separated by assuming various models for the interaction, i.e. the so-called structure factors. The different analytical behaviour of these structure factors from that of the form factors, describing the intraparticle scattering, allows this separation. The mean-deviation surface is defined by the quality of the fit for different parameter sets of the structure factor. Its global minimum represents the solution. The former non-linear least-squares approach has proved to be inefficient and not very reliable. In this paper, the incorporation of the completely different Boltzmann simplex simulated annealing (BSSA) algorithm for finding the global minimum of the hypersurface is presented. This new method increases not only the calculation speed but also the reliability of the evaluation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800008372
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  • 11
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    Synchrotron radiation X-ray powder diffractometer with a cylindrical imaging plate (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1241-1245 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A synchrotron radiation X-ray powder diffractometer for samples of very small amount has been developed to collect high-quality diffraction patterns under extreme conditions, i.e. at low temperature and/or high pressure. A new cylindrical imaging plate (CIP) is used as a detector, in addition to a conventional flat-type imaging plate (FIP). By using the CIP system, the diffraction data in a diffraction angle range −44 ≤ 2θ ≤ 122° are collected with a dynamic range of about 106. The alignment of the diffractometer, measurement and analysis are automatically operated by a workstation. A performance test shows that the CIP system has spatial resolution of about 0.07° with a dynamic range of 106. The diffraction pattern of a standard sample of Si measured by the CIP system has high quality; the refinement of the structure reaches Rw = 3.68% even in the case of a small amount of sample (about 2 µg) and a short exposure time (60 s). Examples of experiments at low temperatures under ambient and high pressures are also presented.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800009286
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  • 12
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    Response to de Graaff & de Gelder's comment on CRUNCH: a phase refinement program for high-resolution macromolecular structures (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1194-1194 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800008335
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  • 13
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    A tangent formula derived from Patterson-function arguments. VII. Solution of inorganic structures from powder data with accidental overlap (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1208-1211 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Accidental overlap constitutes one of the principal limitations for the solution of crystal structures from powder diffraction data, since it reduces the number of available intensities for direct-methods application. In this work, the field of application of the direct-methods sum function is extended to cope with powder patterns with relatively large amounts of accidental overlap. This is achieved by refining not only the phases of the structure factors but also the estimated intensities of the severely overlapped peaks during the structure solution process. This procedure has been specifically devised for inorganic compounds with uncertain cell contents and with probable severe atomic disorder, a situation often found when studying complex minerals with limited crystallinity. It has been successfully applied to the solution of the previously unknown crystal structure of the mineral tinticite. Finally, an estimation of the smallest ratio (number of observations to number of variables) for the procedure to be successful is given.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800007834
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  • 14
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    Microcrystallography with an X-ray waveguide (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1231-1240 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A waveguide microdiffraction setup is described for an undulator beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. The composite optics consists of a waveguide, which confines the beam vertically, and a horizontally focusing multilayer mirror. A beam size of about 0.1 × 3 µm (vertical × horizontal) at λ = 0.095 nm has been obtained. The sample stage comprises a three-axis gantry with micrometre precision and a three-axis piezo-scanner with about 0.1 µm repeatability. Diffraction experiments are demonstrated for selected inorganic and polymeric samples. Possibilities for scanning diffractometry and small-angle scattering experiments are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800009249
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  • 15
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    An imaging-plate detector for small-angle neutron scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1253-1261 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements have been performed on long-flight-path pinhole-collimation SANS instruments using, as a two-dimensional position-sensitive detector, both a neutron imaging plate, incorporating gadolinium, and a two-step transfer method, with dysprosium foil as the image transfer medium. The measurements are compared with corresponding data taken using conventional position-sensitive gas proportional counters on the SANS instruments in order to assess the viability of the imaging techniques. The imaging plates have pixel sizes of about two orders of magnitude smaller than those of the gas proportional counter. The reduced pixel size provides definite advantages over the gas counter in certain specific situations, namely when limited space necessitates a short sample-to-detector distance, when only small samples (comparable in size to the detector pixels) are available, or when used in conjunction with focusing beam optics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800009067
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  • 16
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    Peter Goodman (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1302-1302 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800011420
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  • 17
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    Extended pseudo-Voigt function for approximating the Voigt profile (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1311-1316 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The formula of the pseudo-Voigt function expressed by a weighted sum of Gaussian and Lorentzian functions is extended by adding two other types of peak functions in order to improve the accuracy when approximating the Voigt profile. The full width at half-maximum (FWHM) values and mixing parameters of the Gaussian, the Lorentzian and the other two component functions in the extended formula can be approximated by polynomials of a parameter ρ = ΓL/(ΓG + ΓL), where ΓG and ΓL are the FWHM values of the deconvoluted Gaussian and Lorentzian functions, respectively. The maximum deviation of the extended pseudo-Voigt function from the Voigt profile is within 0.12% relative to the peak height when sixth-order polynomial expansions are used. The systematic errors of the integrated intensity ΓG and ΓL, estimated by fitting the extended formula to Voigt profiles, are typically less than 1/10 of the errors arising from the application of the original formula of the pseudo-Voigt approximation proposed by Thompson et al. [J. Appl. Cryst. (1987), 20, 79–83], while the time required for computation of the extended formula is only about 2.5 relative to the computation time required for the original formula.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800010219
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  • 18
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    Estimating nanoparticle size from diffraction measurements (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1335-1341 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Nanometre-sized particles are of considerable current interest because of their special size-dependent physical properties. Debye–Scherrer diffraction patterns are often used to characterize samples, as well as to probe the structure of nanoparticles. Unfortunately, the well known `Scherrer formula' is unreliable at estimating particle size, because the assumption of an underlying crystal structure (translational symmetry) is often invalid. A simple approach is presented here which takes the Fourier transform of a Debye–Scherrer diffraction pattern. The method works well on noisy data and when only a narrow range of scattering angles is available.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800010888
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  • 19
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    Resolution calculations for novel neutron beam elements (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1393-1398 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: It is now possible to build new types of optical elements for neutron beams. These include monochromating crystals with rectangular mosaic profiles, `gradient' monochromating crystals with varying lattice spacing, and collimators with rectangular profiles. Phase-space methods are used to describe the resolution of a combination of two collimators and a monochromating crystal for various combinations of novel beam elements. The description of rectangular-profile elements in this formalism considerably simplifies the normal description of resolution effects and should thus prove useful as a teaching tool.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800013224
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  • 20
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    Kinematical two-dimensional multiple-diffraction intensity profiles. Application to ω–ψ scans obtained with Cu Kα radiation (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1405-1414 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Expressions for the calculation of multiple-diffraction patterns observed in ω–ψ scans of Bragg reflections are derived within the framework of the kinematical theory, taking into account the divergence and wavelength-spread of the incident beam as well as the mosaicity of the crystal sample. The theoretical results can be applied to X-ray tube radiation as well as synchrotron radiation experiments. A 189.9° experimental Cu Kα \bar2\bar2\bar2 ω–ψ scan of diamond is compared with the corresponding theoretical multiple-diffraction pattern.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S002188980001270X
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  • 21
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    Comments on Extinction-corrected mean thickness and integral width used in the program UMWEG98 by Rossmanith (2000) (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1447-1447 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Comments are made on a paper by E. Rossmanith [J. Appl. Cryst. (2000), 33, 330–333] concerning the use of asymptotic expressions for the extinction-corrected mean thickness.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800010980
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  • 22
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    European Crystallography Prize (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1450-1450 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800017660
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  • 23
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    X-ray topographic dislocation contrast visible in reflections orthogonal to the Burgers vectors of axial screw dislocations in hexagonal silicon carbide (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 20-26 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Contrast is associated with micropipes in X-ray topographs of SiC crystals obtained with prismatic reflections, representing an apparent violation of the g·b = 0 invisibility criterion. This is explained as a population of basal-plane dislocations with Burgers vectors of the set b = {\textstyle{1 \over 3}}〈11{\bar{2}}0〉 that occur in a high density within a few micrometers of the micropipes, below the resolution of X-ray topography. These basal-plane dislocations could be observed under an electron microscope. The presence of the surfaces of the micropipes influences the dislocation images in the topographs taken with prismatic reflections, often resulting in a band of light contrast along the axes of the micropipes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800017027
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  • 24
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    Automated matching of high- and low-resolution structural models (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 33-41 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A method is presented for automated best-matching alignment of three-dimensional models represented by ensembles of points. A normalized spatial discrepancy (NSD) is introduced as a proximity measure between three-dimensional objects. Starting from an inertia-axes alignment, the algorithm minimizes the NSD; the final value of the NSD provides a quantitative estimate of similarity between the objects. The method is implemented in a computer program. Simulations have been performed to test its performance on model structures with specified numbers of points ranging from a few to a few thousand. The method can be used for comparative analysis of structural models obtained by different methods, e.g. of high-resolution crystallographic atomic structures and low-resolution models from solution scattering or electron microscopy.
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    Professor K. Banerjee Endowment Lecture Silver Medal (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1450-1450 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800017672
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    Velibor Marinkovic (1929-2000) (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 1450-1450 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889800017659
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    Alternative algorithm for the correction of preferred orientation in Rietveld analysis (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 16-19 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Texture effects caused by preferred orientation can be corrected in Rietveld analysis by an alternative algorithm presented in this contribution. This algorithm is equivalent to models using symmetrized linear combinations of spherical harmonic functions, but it is unique to all Laue classes and to all orders. Positive definiteness of the polar-axis density is achieved by the exponential method. The outlined algorithm was tested during Rietveld refinement of selected polycrystal samples. The algorithm was proven to be numerically robust and satisfactorily described deviations from the ideal intensity ratios of the Bragg reflections caused by the texture of the samples.
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    A modified Pinkerton-type helium gas-flow system for high-accuracy data collection at the X3 SUNY synchrotron beamline at NSLS (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 76-79 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: As the combination of high-intensity synchrotron sources and area detectors allows collection of large data sets in a much shorter time span than previously possible, the use of open helium gas-flow systems is much facilitated. A flow system installed at the SUNY X3 synchrotron beamline at the National Synchrotron Light Source has been used for collection of a number of large data sets at a temperature of ∼16 K. Instability problems encountered when using a helium cryostat for three-dimensional data collection are eliminated. Details of the equipment, its temperature calibration and a typical result are described.
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    Optimization of the energy constant of the methionine Sδ—Cε bond for X-PLOR refinement of protein structure (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 80-81 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The bond energy constant of methionine Sδ—Cε, 170.066 kcal mol−1 Å−2, is given as a default value in X-ray protein structure refinement with X-PLOR [Brünger (1992). X-PLOR Version 3.1. A system for X-ray Crystallography and NMR. New York University Press]. When the atomic parameters of 3564 amino acid residues of bovine heart cytochrome c oxidase were refined at 2.0 Å resolution by using X-PLOR with default restraining parameters, 36 bond lengths deviated by over 0.06 Å from their ideal values. Out of the 36 bonds, 25 were methionine Sδ—Cε bonds. Refinement with an energy parameter of 500.0 kcal mol−1 Å−2 for the methionine Sδ—Cε bond resulted in convergence of the Sδ—Cε bond lengths to within 0.06 Å from their ideal values and reduced the crystallographic R and free-R factors by 0.6 and 0.3%, respectively. Consequently, a strong bond energy constant for Sδ—Cε of 500.0 kcal mol−1 Å−2 is recommended instead of the default value of 170.066 kcal mol−1 Å−2.
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    Notes for Authors (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 89-94 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    Determination of the crystallized fractions of a largely amorphous multiphase material by the Rietveld method (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 114-118 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The Rietveld method has proved to be a very effective means to characterize and quantify the crystalline phases and the amorphous phase in glass ceramic materials using X-ray powder diffraction data. The technique was applied to a borosilicate glass of the type used for high-level nuclear-waste containment, in order to measure the proportions of the crystallized phases after heat treatment and, thus, to qualify the thermal stability of the glass. Six crystalline phases were analysed in this way in an almost entirely (〉95 wt%) amorphous material after adding a known proportion of an internal standard (TiO2). The quantitative analyses were corrected to allow for microabsorption effects resulting from grain-size and absorption-contrast effects. In addition to the quantitative data, unit-cell parameters and site-occupancy refinements revealed solid-solution and substitution phenomena in the crystal.
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    Porous structure of NiO-based xerogels (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 478-482 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: NiO-based xerogels were prepared by sol-gel processing starting from the NiCl2-BuOH-H2O system. Structural features associated to the porosity of xerogels were studied by small-angle X-ray scattering. Xerogels heat-treated at low temperatures (423 and 573 K) are composed of hydrated NiCl2 small crystals and exhibit an essentially single mode nanoporous structure with an average pore radius of ∼75 Å. Xerogels heat-treated at 973 and 1173 K are composed of aggregates of NiO crystals which only contain intergrain mesopores with radii exceeding 200 Å. A mixture of phases is observed in xerogels heat-treated at 773 K. Xerogels with a water concentration of 2 mol/(mol NiCl2) exhibit a narrow nanopore size distribution. Water concentrations higher or lower than 2 mol promote the formation of nanoporous structures with wider size distributions.
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    Nano-sized ceramics of coated alumina and zirconia analyzed with SANS (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 483-487 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The sintering behaviour of two new types of coated ceramics, made from alumina grains coated with a zirconia shell and from zirconia grains coated with an alumina shell, was analyzed with small angle neutron scattering (SANS). Measurements were performed both for the plain samples, and with contrast variation using D2 O as immersion liquid. The size distribution and the volume fraction of grains and pores were determined from the corrected scattering curves using a direct model fitting, applying two different approaches, a sphere model and a combined sphere/spherical shell model. Results are discussed in context with the macroscopic density of the samples. The sintering behaviour of the two ceramics types was found to be very different.
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    Small-angle neutron scattering investigation of the early stages of decomposition in Ni-rich Ni-Ti (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 488-491 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: In-situ small-angle neutron scattering was performed on polycrystals and single crystals of Ni-10 to 12 at.% Ti at temperatures between 900 and 1240 K. A plateau in the integrated intensity as a function of aging time for polycrystalline Ni-11.3 at.% Ti at 900 K indicates the presence of a precursor state γ'' preceding the formation of the metastable γ' state, with a Ti concentration of 16.5(1.0) at.% in the particles. In the scattering patterns of a Ni-12.0 at.% Ti single crystal aged at 1200 and 1240 K, strong scattering intensities along 〈100〉 related to the coherent γ''/γ' states, and sharp streaks along 〈111〉 related to plates of the stable η phase appear successively. At 1240 K, the presence of the L12-related intensities along 〈100〉 is unexpected, as this temperature lies above the metastable miscibility gap suggested in the literature.
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    Reversion of precipitates in phase separated soda lime silica glass (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 492-495 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The glass with composition 13Na2O-11CaO-76SiO2 (mol%) undergoes subliquidus phase separation via a binodal mechanism. At temperatures below the binodal temperature, Tb = 978 K, the glass separates into two amorphous phases, silica-enriched droplets and a silica-poor matrix. Small-angle X-ray scattering was used to study the formation of the droplet phase at 923 K as well as the process of reversion where the precipitates dissolve after an increase in temperature. After a heat treatment of 48 h at 923 K the system is in the stage of coarsening. However, the equilibrium volume fraction of the droplet phase, we = 0.073, has not yet precipitated. The reversion of the droplets was studied at T = 983 K and T = 963 K. For T 〉 Tb, the precipitates dissolve completely by an interdiffusion process resulting in a decrease of the silica concentration of the droplets, while the phase boundary is preserved over long times. For T 〈 Tb, the reversion process shows two distinct stages. In the first stage, the silica concentration inside the droplets decreases and all precipitates shrink until the concentration in the matrix reaches its new equilibrium value. Afterwards, the largest droplets grow again by slow coarsening.
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    Dynamical scaling property of colloidal aggregation in a zirconia-based precursor sol during gelation (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 496-499 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Zirconia precursor gels, prepared in the zirconium n-propoxide, n-propanol, acetylacetone and water system, are studied by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The SAXS intensity pattern exhibits a pronounced maximum for a scattering vector q different from zero. The intensity maximum of the finite q-vector peak increases during gelation while its position qm moves towards smaller and smaller q—vectors. The SAXS intensity distribution is well accounted for by recent direct numerical calculations of diffusion-limited cluster aggregation (DLCA). The structural aspects of cluster growth can be described by scaling assumptions. The position qm of the intensity maximum and the structure function S(q/qm,t) are shown to scale according to S(q/qm,t) = qm(t)−d F(q/qm) where F(q/qm) is a time-independent scaling function. This scaling requires d=Df, the fractal dimension of the clusters, instead of d=3 for spinodal decomposition. The gel structure is made up of connected fractal clusters, around 50 nm in size, with an apparent fractal dimension of 1.7, resulting from the aggregation of very small primary particles about 2.5 nm in diameter.
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    Concentration and temperature dependence of decomposition in supercooled liquid alloys (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 500-503 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Small-angle neutron scattering experiments were performed on the bulk amorphous alloy Zr41.2Ti13.8Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5 (Vit1®, subscripts indicate at.%) and on other alloys, where the (Zr,Ti) and (Cu,Be) contents were varied by following the line in composition space connecting Vit1 and Zr46.8Ti8.2Cu7.5Ni10Be27.5 (Vit4®). The small-angle neutron scattering data of the samples, annealed at temperatures between 603 K and 663 K, show interference peaks, giving evidence for spatially correlated arrangements of inhomogeneities. The Q values of the interference peaks, Qmax, decrease with increasing annealing temperature Ta and, at a given annealing temperature, with composition following the connecting line from Vit1 to Vit4. Down to the glass transition temperature Tg, the data follow a relation 1/L2 ∝ (Ts − Ta) as predicted by the linearized Cahn theory, with L = 2π/Qmax the characteristic wavelength of the decomposition and Ts the apparent spinodal temperature. Below Tg, a different behavior is observed, which may be either due to a change in atomic diffusion or due to an insufficient relaxation of the samples.
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    Comparison of different methods in microstructural characterization of porous silicon (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 504-506 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Results obtained using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method, small-angle x-ray scattering and wide angle x-ray diffraction in the study of porous silicon are compared. The BET method seems to fail when the porosity of samples is smaller than 50%, giving unrealistically large values for the specific surface area, but giving results similar to SAXS when the porosity is larger than 50%. In the comparison of the WAXD and SAXS data quite large differences between the average particle size and chord length were observed in low-porosity samples. The possible origin of the differences is discussed.
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    Agglomeration of nano-MgAl2O4 spinel from microemulsion and CVD techniques (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 507-510 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: MgAl2O4 nanoparticles have been prepared using a microemulsion synthesis technique (ME) and a chemical vapour deposition (CVD) approach. In the wet-chemical route, the chain length of the surfactant molecules used to stabilise the microemulsion as well as the annealing conditions (temperature and time) after preparation were varied. For CVD samples, the influence of the target temperature and the consecutive annealing temperature were investigated. A pinhole small-angle X-ray scattering camera was employed to determine the size and size distribution of primary particles as well as agglomerates. ME material is primarily obtained in the form of amorphous non-agglomerated particles; CVD raw material is crystalline and agglomerated. Upon annealing, agglomerates of ME material form and then grow faster than the primary particles do; in CVD material the agglomerates do not grow. Agglomeration is suppressed if the CVD process is carried out at elevated target temperature.
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    Human tissue analysis by small-angle X-ray scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 511-514 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Molecular structure of pathologically changed biological tissue differs greatly from the normal one. It gives the opportunity to diagnose different diseases by using methods of structural tissue analysis. The present paper is based on Ultra-Low Angle X-ray (ULAX) coherent scattering data from 1000 paired samples of mammary gland tissue dissected during the surgical treatment from 500 patients with different types of breast tumours (malignant or benign) and tumour-like formations (fibrocystic change). The medical data (histological and histostereometrical analysis) and the digital scattering information have been compared by regression analysis to produce the scattering pattern recognition code that demonstrates the high sensitivity of the ULAX method.
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    Structural studies of the 30S subunit of ribosomes Thermus thermophilus by small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 515-518 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Three different small-angle neutron scattering facilities, the "YUMO" camera at JINR (Dubna, Russia), the V4 camera at HMI (Berlin, Germany) and D11 camera at ILL (Grenoble, France), were used in the investigation of 30S ribosomal subunit from Thermus thermophilus. Parallel X-ray measurements on X33 camera at DESY (Hamburg, Germany) were used to control the identity of deuterated particles. The neutron and x-ray contrast variation data were interpreted by direct method using spherical harmonics. Structural models of the 30S ribosomal subunit from Thermus thermophilus and its RNA -rich core with the resolution 3.5 nm were constructed. A comparison between the 30S Thermus thermophilus and 30S E.coli models shows that primary difference between them consists in the special distributions of the protein component whereas the special distributions of the RNA component coincide well in both models.
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    In situ structure determination of the ribosomal protein L14 in the large 50S subunit of Escherichia coli (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 524-525 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    SAXS, SANS and X-ray crystallography as complementary methods in the study of biological form and function (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 519-523 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: X-ray crystallography is the single most powerful method for the determination of accurate and precise macromolecular structures. The study of macromolecular motions, however, is, despite some successes with time-resolved crystallography not within the realms of the method. Further, the study of large macromolecular complexes sometimes poses tremendous problems of various kinds for x-ray crystallography and many laboratories approach large structures by solving individual domains. We herein present two examples employing small-angle x-ray and/or neutron scattering (SAXS, SANS) to study (i) conformational changes, and (ii) protein-lipid complexes complementing information from x-ray crystallography. The structural changes of creatine kinase upon substrate binding were investigated as an example of conformational changes not comprehensible from crystallography in the absence of crystal structures of the substrate-ligated enzyme. We also present studies of apolipoprotein E, reconstituted with lipid, in which a combined approach using SAXS/SANS, x-ray crystallography and other techniques yields a model of the complex not accessible by either of the methods alone.
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    The diameter of the DNA superhelix decreases with salt concentration: SANS measurements and Monte Carlo simulations (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 526-529 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: We have measured the static form factor of superhelical DNA by SANS in dilute aqueous solution as a function of salt concentration. Theoretical static form factors were calculated by Monte Carlo simulations. Simulated and measured form factors are in very good agreement and can be interpreted in terms of the superhelix diameter, which decreases from (16.0±0.9) nm at 10 mM to (9.0±0.7) nm at 100 mM Na+ concentration. This result contradicts a lateral collapse of the DNA superhelix in physiological salt concentrations as recently found by cryo-electron microscopy.
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    Advanced solution scattering data analysis methods and their applications (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 530-534 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: A method for ab initio low-resolution shape and internal structure retrieval from contrast variation solution scattering data is described. The method uses a multiphase model of a particle build from densely packed dummy atoms and employs simulated annealing to find a compact interconnected configuration of phases that fits the available experimental data. In the particular case of a single phase particle (shape determination) the method is compared to another ab initio method using low resolution envelope functions. Examples of the shape determination of several proteins from experimental X-ray scattering data are presented.
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    Small-angle neutron scattering of aggregated whey protein colloids with an exocellular polysaccharide (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 540-543 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: We have investigated the scattering properties of mixtures of aggregated-whey-protein colloid (AWC) particles and an exocellular polysaccharide (EPS) from a lactic acid bacterium. Exceeding a certain concentration leads to a phase separation, which can be explained by an effective depletion attraction between the AWCs due to non-adsorbing EPS. The measured scattering intensity of a AWC/EPS mixture shows that the structure factor of the AWC particles increases at low wave vectors with increasing EPS concentration. The measurements can be described qualitatively in terms of the structure factor, calculated using integral theory including an expression for the depletion interaction potential.
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    On planarity and similarity restraints (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 480-483 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Planarity and similarity restraints are described using a unified framework for the computation layout. In both cases, the gradient and Hessian of the restraint residual with respect to atomic coordinates are derived. All computed quantities (residual, gradient, Hessian, normal and distance to the plane for planarity restraints, rotation and translation in the case of similarity) can be obtained directly, without iterative procedure.
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    Monte Carlo simulation of a reactor-based neutron strain scanning diffractometer (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 613-624 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: A Monte Carlo code for the simulation of neutron strain scanning experiments on a reactor-based two-axis diffractometer is described. In order to validate this code, several experiments have been performed. A comparison is made between experimental and simulated results for instrumental resolution, primary beam divergence and wavelength distribution in the incident neutron beam. Finally, the application of the simulation results to the analysis of a real neutron strain scanning experiment is outlined.
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    A monolithic monochromator–collimator for high-resolution X-ray diffraction (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 608-612 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The possibility of finding, for a given X-ray wavelength, the conditions for obtaining multiple coplanar reflections in a single block of crystal is investigated. It is found that by introducing a small relative tilt between two parts of the crystal, the conditions for a high-resolution X-ray monochromator for conventional and synchrotron X-ray sources can be obtained. The design of a new high-resolution monochromator–collimator based on a single crystal, which takes advantage of the existence for almost any wavelength of n and m planes in the single crystal that lie near the Bragg condition, is presented. A weak link between the two reflecting surfaces is used to align the crystal planes and to obtain efficient reflections in the dispersive configuration. DuMond diagrams are used to evaluate the total diffracted intensity and the resolution of such a monochromator. The experimental results obtained from prototypes made of single crystals of silicon and germanium are in good agreement with theoretical predictions. This new type of monochromator offers the advantages of a compact design and simple alignment.
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    Sagittal focusing of high-energy synchrotron X-rays with asymmetric Laue crystals. II. Experimental studies (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 646-653 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The use of bent asymmetric Laue crystals to focus synchrotron X-rays sagittally from 15 to 50 keV is described. A four-bar bender, bending a rectangular planar crystal, produced the necessary sagittal and meridional bending for this unique application. Adjustments of the tilt angle and height of the bent crystal resulted in first- and second-order corrections, respectively, to the dependence of the angle of diffraction on the horizontal position on the crystal. After these corrections, the remaining variation of the diffraction angle was of the order of 10 µrad. The theoretical sagittal focal length was verified. A prototype of a double-crystal sagittally focusing monochromator was constructed and tested, using two identical Laue crystals. A horizontal divergence of 3 mrad was focused to a horizontal dimension of about 0.4 mm. The X-ray flux density at the focus was a few hundred times larger than that of unfocused X-rays.
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    Micro X-ray diffraction on capillary powder samples: a novel and effective technique for overcoming preferred orientation (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 663-665 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: In past years, both experimental and analytical approaches have been developed for eliminating preferred orientation effects on powder X-ray diffraction patterns. The state of the art does not allow one to face the problem without difficult sample treatments, mechanical randomization, pole-figure study or pattern fitting based on the Rietveld approach. These methods are time consuming or need the knowledge of all the structural parameters, and, moreover, must be managed by specialized operators. Besides, none of the above techniques can be applied to powder samples of drugs loaded into polymeric carriers, the diffraction patterns of which present a structured amorphous halo from which the crystalline drug peaks rise up. In this paper, it is shown that micro X-ray diffraction on capillary powder samples, combined with a two-dimensional detector, is a promising solution to preferred orientation problems, since it provides easy and rapid preparation of randomly oriented powder samples, fast measurements (acquisition times of a few minutes) and correct powder diffraction patterns.
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    Robust Rietveld refinement in the presence of impurity phases (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 691-698 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A modified least-squares analysis is presented that allows reliable structural parameters to be extracted from a powder diffraction pattern even in the presence of a substantial unmodelled impurity contribution. The algorithm is developed within the context of Bayesian probability theory. Experimental points that fall above those calculated, and are thus more probably from impurity peaks, are systematically down-weighted. This approach is illustrated with a two-phase example.
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    A new method for analysing peak broadening caused by compositional fluctuation in X-ray diffraction measurements (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 681-690 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A new method for analysing X-ray peak broadening caused by compositional fluctuation is proposed. The method is applicable to epitaxial layers with diamond or zinc-blende structure on (001) substrates. In the new method, a rescaling procedure with a difference variable ΔA is applied to measured X-ray profiles and the dependence of the profiles on various reflection indices hkl is analysed. The theoretical formula reveals that X-ray peak profiles become independent of hkl after the rescaling. A new criterion is proposed; an experimental examination based on the criterion makes it possible simply to judge whether or not X-ray peak broadening is caused by compositional fluctuation. The method is verified experimentally and demonstrated by applying it to an InGaAs multilayer sample having artificial compositional fluctuation.
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    Solution structure of detergent micelles at conditions relevant to membrane protein crystallization (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 577-581 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: In this study small angle neutron scattering was used to characterize the formation of micelles in aqueous solutions of the detergents DMG and SPC as a function of detergent concentration and ionic strength of the solvent. The effects on the micelle structure of the additives glycerol and PEG, alone as well as in combination typical for membrane protein crystallization, were also explored. This study suggests that the micelles are rod-like in form at the concentrations studied. The size of the micelles was observed to increase with increasing ionic strength but decrease with the addition of glycerol or PEG.
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    Measurement of sugar depletion from uncharged lamellar phases by SANS contrast variation (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 569-573 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: We applied small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) contrast variation to samples where a microphase separation occurred. The samples contain multilamellar vesicles in equilibrium with excess "solvent" that produce a very common powder pattern in SANS: a Debye-Sherrer ring produced by the regular bilayer packing superposed to a sharply decaying Porod behaviour. These two features of the SANS pattern have distinct contrast match points (CMP). We exploit here the small angle signal to determine the partition of sugars between two coexisting microphases. The net result is an exclusion of small sugar molecules from the liquid crystalline domains of the sample. We discuss this exclusion in relation with the observed maximum swelling, headgroup hydration and bilayer softening induced by the presence of the sugar molecules.
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    Combining USAXS with osmotic pressure measurements: a tool for investigating the equation of states of diluted charged colloids (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 582-586 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: We have developed a cell allowing in situ measurement of the osmotic pressure of solutions under Ultra Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS) examination. The coupled set-up made of a Bonse/Hart camera and a deionisation close circuit allows the combined determination of the structure factor and the equation of state of colloidal suspensions. A precise control of ions concentration inside the reservoir allows to vary the ionic strength of the suspensions from the very pure case of colloidal crystals to sols with tunable screening of electrostatic repulsive interactions. We describe in detail the experimental set-ups and the data treatment methodology that we have been developing in the last years to allow detailed measurements of interactions and correlations between spherical particles. A review of our recent results obtained on the model system of negatively charged parabromostyrene latex particles forming solutions, crystals and microcrystals, is given as an illustration.
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    Analysis of the volume transition in thermosensitive core-shell particles by synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 574-576 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: We discuss the analysis of the volume transition in thermosensitive colloidal core-shell particles by synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering. The latex-particles are dispersed in water and consist of a solid poly(styrene) core (diameter: 107 nm) and a shell of a thermosensitive crosslinked polymer chains. The thermosensitive shell is built up from poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) chains (PNIPA) crosslinked by N,N'-methylenbisacrylamide (BIS). The scattering intensities measured as function of temperature may be decomposed into a part deriving from the overall structure and a part originating from the fluctuations within the network. The analysis of the overall structure leads to the volume fraction of the swollen network at different temperatures. The intensity caused by the fluctuations of the network becomes the leading contribution at high scattering angles. It may be described by a Lorentzian below and above the volume transition. The analysis demonstrates that critical fluctuations of the network around the transition temperature are fully suppressed. This finding is explained by the strong steric constraint of the network by its confinement within a shell of colloidal dimensions: i) The swelling and shrinking can only take place along the radial direction, and ii) the chains are bound to the solid surface of the cores which remains constant during the transition.
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    The precision of diffraction peak location (2001)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 34 (2001), S. 737-743 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Much of crystallography is concerned with the accurate location of the centre of diffraction peak profiles. Simple analytical expressions are derived for estimating the precision of diffraction peak location that can be achieved for Gaussian diffraction peaks with a flat background, in terms of the standard deviation, integrated intensity and peak height (H) to background (B) ratio. Two formulations are derived using standard methods: one for the case of very low background, the other for significant backgrounds. It is found that in cases of significant background, peak position is less well determined by a factor of [1+2(21/2)B/H]1/2 compared with the case of no background. The applicability of the expression has been demonstrated by Monte Carlo simulation of Gaussian profiles and by the analysis of real data collected at a large number of neutron and synchrotron sources, largely as part of the VAMAS TWA20 project. While the solution is presented for Gaussian peak shapes, it is believed to be approximately correct for a wide range of other common diffraction peak shapes (Lorentzian, Voigtian etc.). The method is applied to the assessment of the variation in optimal measuring time as a function of the depth of the gauge volume for residual strain scanning measurements.
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    Scattering from biopolymers with helical symmetry in solution (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 659-663 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Small angle X-ray fibre diffraction on aligned elongated macromolecules has been a routine tool for the structure of materials that either can not be crystallized or in cases in which one wants to study the structure of the molecule as close as possible to those occurring in solution. One of the problems with this approach is that quite often it is not possible to obtain completely aligned samples but only samples in which there is an angular distribution around the main orientation axis. This has as a consequence that atlarger scattering angles the contributions from different layer lines start to overlap. A possible method to overcome this problem can be found in combining results from small angle solution scattering with small angle fibre diffraction from molecules aligned with their long axis parallel with respect to the X-ray beam. In the latter case one only observes the projection of the molecule on the basal plane. We show how this method can be applied to hydrated microtubules.
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    The internal structure of single carbon fibers determined by simultaneous small- and wide-angle scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 695-699 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Simultaneous small-angle scattering and wide-angle diffraction using a synchrotron radiation microbeam was applied for the first time to investigate single carbon fibers in a position-resolved way. Taking into account the exact X-ray beam profile and examining the fibers in two scattering geometries allowed a discrimination between different models for the internal arrangement of carbon layers and pores. For a fiber based on polyacrylnitrile the carbon layers were randomly oriented within the fiber cross section, whereas in a mesophase-pitch based fiber the layers were arranged in a radial structure.
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    Synchrotron studies of polymers at DND-CAT (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 704-708 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Two examples are presented that illustrate the capabilities of DND-CAT instrumentation for the study of the effects of processing on polymers. Firstly, a thermoplastic elastomer, Hytrel®, was stretched while 2-D data were collected simultaneously. The Hytrel® data show that the yield point of the stress-strain curve is associated with the sudden appearance of a four-point pattern. At higher deformations, strain-induced crystallization and the destruction of the hard segment domains lead to a substantial decrease of the contrast as monitored by the SAXS invariant. Prior to breakage, the extent and intensity of an equatorial streak develops as the material fibrillates. Secondly, SAXS and WAXS data were collected from quenched and annealed Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) samples mounted on a DSC cell, to characterize the pre-melting shoulder in this material. Results show that substantial melting and re-crystallization occurs within the range of this shoulder in the quenched sample.
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    Small and wide-angle X-ray scattering study of metallocene isotactic poly(propylene) (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 714-717 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: We report a study of metallocene isotactic poly(propylene) (m-iPP) which crystallizes into α and γ crystal modifications. Simultaneous in-situ small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS and WAXS) were used to study kinetics during crystallization. Both techniques provide information about time development of crystallinity, while WAXS gives also kinetics of formation of α and γ crystals. During the earliest stages of crystal formation, the SAXS Bragg peak occurs simultaneously, or slightly lags, the appearance of crystalline WAXS reflections. We conclude crystallization occurs by a nucleation and growth process in this m-iPP.
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    Droplet interfacial structure studied by SANS contrast variation (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 749-752 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Details of structure and composition at interfaces may be obtained by Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS) contrast variation. At the curved oil/surfactant/water interfaces of microemulsion droplets useful results may be obtained by simultaneous fits of core-shell models to SANS data measured at different scattering contrasts. Results for small ethyl octanoate/dimethyldodecylamineoxide/water droplets, where the oil core penetrates the surfactant layer, will illustrate this method. For block-copolymer micelles with deuterated poly(lactic acid) core, the composition profiles of thicker poly(ethylene glycol) shells were obtained using a model with a vertical step and two diffuse shells. One of the three water contrasts used was close to the "mean contrast" match point for the whole micelle, as opposed to "shell" contrast, providing a peak in the form factor very sensitive to the model used.
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    The new SANS instrument at the Swiss spallation source SINQ (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 804-806 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: With the start-up of the neutron spallation source SINQ at PSI an instrument for small angle neutron scattering became operational and is open for the user community. The instrument is equipped with state-of-the-art components and compares well with the world's largest and most powerful facilities of this kind. Great emphasis was put on providing a flexible, universal multi-user facility which guaranties a comfortable and reliable operation. In the present paper, the layout of the instrument is presented, the main components are described, and the performance is illustrated by selected examples
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    sasCIF: an extension of core Crystallographic Information File for SAS (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 812-816 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Data acquisition packages developed at different small angle scattering facilities use different formats both for raw and processed data storage. To facilitate the data exchange between laboratories, a consensus in the small angle scattering community has been reached on an ASCII format for one-dimensional data which includes a self-describing header containing relevant information about the sample and instrumental conditions followed by raw or reduced data in a tabular form. This format called sasCIF was implemented as an extension of core CIF (Crystallographic Information File) dictionary.
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    Evaluation of double-crystal SANS data influenced by multiple scattering (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 824-828 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Evaluation of small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) data is often complicated by multiple scattering effects if large particles of relatively high volume fraction have to be studied and dilution or contrast reduction is impossible. The use of pin-hole SANS instruments is often limited due to the contradictory requirements of high resolution and short wavelength needed to keep scattering contrast as low as possible. Double crystal (DC) SANS diffractometers of Bonse-Hart and bent-crystal type are useful alternatives in such cases, as they permit reaching very high resolution with thermal neutrons. A method for SANS data evaluation suited to DC instruments is presented. It includes the common scheme of the indirect Fourier transformation method, but takes multiple scattering into account. The scattering medium is described by the frequency function g(x) defined as the cosine Fourier transform of slit-smeared data. Although a simplistic model of polydisperse spheres is used to represent g(x), resulting g(x) function and some integral parameters are independent of this model. Tests on simulated data show, that the method reproduce well true values of microstructural parameters, though systematic errors are observed in the cases when the unscattered part of incident beam completely disappears. If the scattering power 〈N〉 is known and kept fixed during fitting, then other parameters are reproduced well also in the regime of strong multiple scattering. The evaluation procedure permits simultaneously fitting to several sets of data measured for different Q-regions, resolutions and sample thicknesses. It has proved to provide reliable results for particle sizes ranging from about 100 Å to several microns and 〈N〉 〈 10.
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    Distance distribution function of interacting uniform spheres (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 839-842 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The scattering intensity equals the Fourier-transform of the distance distribution function p(t) = t2Δ\tilde{\rho}2(t) of the sample, where Δ\tilde{\rho}2(t) is the autocorrelation function of the scattering contrast Δρ(r). Δ\tilde{\rho}2(t) carries information both on the structure of the elementary scatterers and on their spatial distribution. In the present paper a method is described how to separate the two types of information in a system of interacting hard spheres.
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    Use of Cr Kα radiation to enhance the signal from anomalous scatterers including sulfur (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 876-881 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The anomalous signals from scatterers such as sulfur (S) and arsenic (As) were compared in diffraction data sets collected from an X-ray source with three different targets, Au, Cu and Cr, on a multi-target rotating anode. HIV-1 integrase crystals served as the test case for this study. The crystalline specimen of HIV-1 integrase contains in each protein molecule two As atoms, each covalently bound to a cysteine S atom, and two additional S atoms derived from methionine. It was found that the Cr Kα radiation gave the clearest peaks in anomalous difference Fourier maps, although the signal-to-noise ratios of the anomalous signal for the Cu Kα and Cr Kα data were similar but better than that for Au Lα. This result was in spite of the fourfold higher flux from the Cu anode versus the Cr anode. For all three X-ray wavelengths, anomalous difference Fourier maps calculated with bias-removed phases derived from the known atomic model revealed clear peaks at the two As sites. However, only in the map calculated using the Cr Kα data were both peaks of the expected ellipsoidal shape, enveloping the As atom and the adjacent S atom. None of the S sites was apparent in difference maps calculated using the Au Lα data. The ability to enhance the S-derived anomalous signal using Cr Kα radiation has particularly useful applications in the structure determination of proteins, for example in resolving ambiguities in the chain tracing of a protein with numerous disulfide bonds and in assigning amino acid identities. Additionally, anomalous difference Patterson maps calculated from the Cr Kα data were sufficiently clear to identify the As-related peaks. These results form the groundwork for in-house phase determination with the multi-wavelength anomalous diffraction method.
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    Whole-profile structure solution from powder diffraction data using simulated annealing (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 899-908 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Techniques and methods to facilitate the solution of structures by simulated annealing have been developed from the starting point of a space group and lattice parameters. The simulated-annealing control parameters have been systematically investigated and optimum values characterized and determined. Most significant is the inclusion of electrostatic-potential penalty functions in a non-linear least-squares Rietveld refinement procedure. The long-range electrostatic potentials are calculated using a general real-space summation which can be used for all space groups. In addition, a general weighting scheme for penalty functions negates the need to determine weighting schemes experimentally. Also investigated and improved is the non-linear least-squares minimization procedure used in the refinement of structural parameters. The behaviour and success of the techniques have been tested on X-ray diffraction powder data against the known structures of AlVO4 in P1 with 18 atoms in the asymmetric unit, K2HCr2AsO10 in P31 with 15 atoms in the asymmetric unit excluding hydrogen, and [Co(NH3)5CO3]NO3.H2O in P121 with 15 atoms in the asymmetric unit excluding hydrogen.
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    Displacements from Cu4Ti in a Cu–Ti single crystal using small-angle and diffuse X-ray scattering: a synchrotron radiation study (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 928-937 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Single crystals of Cu–2.5 at.% Ti have been studied by small-angle and large-angle X-ray scattering to determine the displacements induced by the formation and the coarsening of ordered Cu4Ti precipitates. The variation of the atomic scattering factor of Cu near its absorption edge was used to confirm the nature of the precipitates and to show that the scattering appearing near Bragg peaks was due to the displacements of the atoms from their ideal positions, induced by the formation of the precipitates, and not to the segregation of the Ti atoms. The displacement field was found to be dependent on the precipitate mean size, with a single component aligned along a soft 〈100〉 direction: it is composed of a region of dilatation, where the Cu-atom positions follow the increase of the atomic distance induced by the Cu4Ti precipitate formation, followed by a region of contraction. This effect is responsible for the pile-up of the precipitates along the soft directions: the interaction between precipitates is repulsive at long distances and attractive at shorter distances.
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    Effect of a crystallite size distribution on X-ray diffraction line profiles and whole-powder-pattern fitting (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 964-974 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A distribution of crystallite size reduces the width of a powder diffraction line profile, relative to that for a single crystallite, and lengthens its tails. It is shown that estimates of size from the integral breadth or Fourier methods differ from the arithmetic mean of the distribution by an amount which depends on its dispersion. It is also shown that the form of `size' line profiles for a unimodal distribution is generally not Lorentzian. A powder pattern can be simulated for a given distribution of sizes, if it is assumed that on average the crystallites have a regular shape, and this can then be compared with experimental data to give refined parameters defining the distribution. Unlike `traditional' methods of line-profile analysis, this entirely physical approach can be applied to powder patterns with severe overlap of reflections, as is demonstrated by using data for nanocrystalline ceria. The procedure is compared with alternative powder-pattern fitting methods, by using pseudo-Voigt and Pearson VII functions to model individual line profiles, and with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data.
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    OASIS: a computer program for breaking phase ambiguity in one-wavelength anomalous scattering or single isomorphous substitution (replacement) data (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 980-981 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The phase problem is reduced to a sign problem once the anomalous-scatterer or the replacing-heavy-atom sites are located. OASIS adopts the CCP4 format [Collaborative Computational Project, Number 4 (1994). Acta Cryst. D50, 760–763]. It applies a direct-method procedure to break the phase ambiguity intrinsic to one-wavelength anomalous scattering (OAS) or single isomorphous replacement (SIR) data.
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    Ionization chambers for monitoring the position and tilt of X-ray beams (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 986-987 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: An air-filled ionization chamber with a three-way split anode can be used to measure the tilt and the translation of a collimated X-ray beam with respect to the chamber axis.
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    GraphEnt: a maximum-entropy program with graphics capabilities (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 982-985 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A maximum-entropy formalism aimed at the production of a `maximally noncommittal' map is a standard method in fields of science like radioastronomy, but a rare exception in both X-ray crystallography and electron microscopy (or crystallography). This is rather unfortunate, given the wealth of information that a maximum-entropy map can reveal, especially when the map itself is the end product (for example, low-resolution electron or potential density maps, Patterson functions, deformation maps). The program GraphEnt attempts to automate the procedure of calculating maximum-entropy maps, with emphasis on the calculation of difference Patterson functions for macromolecular crystallographic problems, while providing a useful graphical output of the current stage of the calculation.
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    A simple technique to control macromolecular crystal nucleation efficiently using a standard vapour-diffusion setup (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 988-989 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Excessive nucleation often leads to a large number of small macromolecular crystals that are not useful for X-ray diffraction analysis. Crystals with dimensions suitable for data collection can be reproducibly obtained by releasing, for a discrete amount of time, the vapour pressure in both hanging- and sitting-drop experiments, set up at lower precipitant concentrations than those required for crystallization.
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    Tcl/Tk-based programs. IV. CALCRYS: crystallographic calculator (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 992-992 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    ORTHON: transformation from triclinic axes and atomic coordinates to orthonormal ones (2000)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 33 (2000), S. 994-994 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Misorientation contrast of crystal subgrain boundaries in Berg–Barrett X-ray micrographs (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 29-36 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: A stereographic projection method of analysis has been developed for analyzing the misorientation contrast of crystal subgrain boundaries which are observed in Berg–Barrett X-ray micrographs. The boundary appearance is described in terms of the geometry of the boundary with respect to the crystal surface, the angular misorientation of the adjacent subgrains, and the X-ray diffraction conditions. The rotation axis for the misorientation of adjacent subgrains, including the sense of the rotation, and the amount of misorientation is determined from the width and relative contrast of the boundary in various images. Experimental results are described for subgrain boundaries in zinc crystals solidified along different crystallographic growth directions. The Burgers vectors of the dislocations composing the subgrain boundary are indirectly determined by this method.
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    Measurement of strain and lattice parameter in epitaxic layers (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 42-44 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: A means of measuring strain and lattice parameter directly in epitaxic layers by `double-crystal' X-ray diffraction is presented. The method described has three major advantages; that it is achieved by a simple addition to a commercial goniometer; that the area of sample illuminated is defined solely by the collimator; and that single or double-crystal diffraction can be selected, simultaneously if needed, on exactly the same specimen area.
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    A silicon powder diffraction standard reference material (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 45-48 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A silicon powder Standard Reference Material, SRM-640, has been prepared for use as a standard in powder diffractometry. Powder diffraction measurements were performed with a tungsten internal standard and a high-angle goniometer. The measured a/λ is 3.525176. With λ(Cu Kα1 peak) taken as 1.5405981 Å, a = 5.430880 (35) Å, uncorrected for refraction. Comparison of a with values obtained with a single-crystal from one of the boules reveals a difference of 3 parts in 105. This difference suggests a subtle systematic error in powder diffractometry or a change in lattice spacing near crystal boundaries. Use of the SRM should permit individual measurements of lattice parameters to be made reproducible to near 1 part in 105 and an absolute accuracy of at least 3 parts in 105.
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    The separation of displacement and substitutional disorder scattering: a correction for structure-factor ratio variation (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 111-114 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The assumptions in the Borie & Sparks [Acta Cryst. (1971). A27, 198–201] procedure for the separation of order- and displacement-dependent components of diffuse X-ray scattering from a binary system AB are examined with the use of the concentration deviation (spin-like) notation. The more limiting assumption, that the structure-factor ratio η = (mAfA + mBfB)/(fA−fB) is constant in reciprocal space, is shown to produce an incomplete separation for normal variations in η. A matrix-inversion method for completing the separation is suggested for those cases in which the approximate equality of the Debye–Waller factors (DWF) of the individual atomic species indicates that some terms of the scattering equation may be neglected. The extension suggested by Ramesh & Ramaseshan [Acta Cryst. (1971). A27, 569–572] that anomalous dispersion induced changes in η could be used to separate the atomic static displacement properties of the various atomic pairs is shown to require a change in η greater than the variation of η across the reciprocal-space volume. Some difficulties of obtaining such a change are pointed out.
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    Positional information in solid-solution models (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 121-126 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The role of positional information in determining the thermodynamics of crystalline solid solutions is considered. It is noted that, with certain exceptions (e.g.b.c.c. Fe–B), such solutions can be classified as being exclusively either substitutional or interstitial with respect to each solute. Calculation of thermodynamic properties of intersitital solutions requires knowledge of the types of sites preferentially occupied by the solute. The problem of determining that occupancy is considered for several binary systems. A cumulant expansion technique, which meets with good success in describing dilute, high-temperature, interstitial solutions, is applied to the case of high-temperature binary substitutional systems of similar metals. The technique is shown to be of limited utility in this application.
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    Scattering of X-rays by correlated defect distributions (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 127-127 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: It may be essential in certain cases (e.g. non-dilute alloys and dislocations) to take into account the (pair and higher-order) correlations in the defect distribution. To this end the kinematic expression for the total scattered intensity is rewritten.
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    Linear local order (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 132-132 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: If the occurrence of one or two-dimensional local order in alloys or in neutron-irradiated materials has been known for many years, the observation by X-ray and neutron scattering of quasi-one-dimensional order due to displacements or correlated motions of atoms along independent chains is more recent. Examples to be discussed are given.
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    Crystallographers (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 75-75 
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    Tenth General Assembly and International Congress of Crystallography (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 76-76 
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    ISSN: 1600-5767
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    Elastic diffuse neutron scattering on Ih ice (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 128-128 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Structural studies showed that oxygen atoms in Ih ice are well ordered whereas hydrogen atoms are `statistically' distributed on two possible sites on each O–H–O bond.
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    Diffuse scattering studies of defects in irradiated copper (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 185-185 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The integral Huang diffuse X-ray scattering from crystals containing small dislocation loops can be analyzed to obtain two types of information: (1) the size distribution of the loops and (2) the total number of point defects contained in the loops. This technique has been applied to copper crystals irradiated under a number of conditions of neutron irradiation flux, dose and temperature, for which loops are produced, and to selected annealing studies of these loops, with all X-ray measurements made at room temperature.
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    Quantitative interpretation of X-ray line broadening of plastically deformed crystals (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 191-192 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Explanations for the broadening of X-ray line profiles of plastically deformed crystals in terms of the density and the distribution of the dislocations introduced during deformation are given.
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    Study of the \def\lambdabar{\ifvmode\noindent\fi{\hbox{$\lambda$}\kern-0.35em\raise0.7ex\hbox{-}\kern0.2em}}\lambdabar" phase in Zr–Nb alloys by Mössbauer and X-ray diffuse scattering (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 140-140 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The ω phase transformation in Zr–Nb alloys has been studied by measuring the X-ray diffuse scattering in the (110) plane and the Mössbauer diffuse scattering along the 〈111〉 direction of separate single crystals with compositions ranging from 8 to 30% Nb.
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    The relation between displacive disorder, premartensitic instabilities and the martensitic transformation in β-Cu–Zn alloys (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 141-141 
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    Notes: A simple crystallographic approach in obtaining the final martensitic structure [3R, 1R, 2H) from the initial displacive modes is presented.
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    Theory of diffuse scattering from crystals with point defects (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 142-142 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: The theory of the diffuse scattering from crystals with small concentrations of point defects and small clusters is reviewed.
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    Analytic expressions for displacement fields of dislocation loops in anisotropic cubic crystals (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 143-143 
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    Notes: Analytic expressions for the dilation and the stress tensor in reciprocal space are discussed.
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    An investigation of the nature of the -X,Z growth sector boundary in synthetic quartz (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 203-203 
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    Notes: The boundary between the −X and Z growth regions in synthetic quartz has been studied using X-ray topography and other techniques and it has been found that the crystal lattice remains coherent at the boundary.
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    Electron-diffraction and electron-microscopy methods for the study of ordering in crystals (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 204-204 
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    Notes: The diffraction of electrons is, in principle, a very sensitive probe of the relative atomic positions in ordered or disordered crystals. The full potential of electron diffraction and electron microscopy methods for the study of local atomic arrangements has not been realised because of the difficulties of conducting experiments under sufficiently well defined conditions and because of the complications introduced by the dynamical diffraction processes involved.
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    Investigation of the strain field of bismuth in lead by diffuse elastic neutron scattering (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 183-183 
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    Notes: The diffuse elastic neutron scattering due to distortion of the Pb host lattice around Bi substitutional atoms has been measured at the HFR in Grenoble and the results discussed.
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    Measurement of diffuse X-ray scattering between reciprocal-lattice points as a new experimental method in determining interstitial structures (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 175-183 
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    Notes: For interstitials the scattering cross section between the Bragg reflections is very sensitive to the position of the defect atom and the displacements of the neighbouring lattice atoms. In contrast to this the scattering near the Bragg reflections (Huang scattering) is mainly governed by the displacement field at large distances from the defect and gives information about defect symmetry and strength [Trinkaus, H. (1972). Phys. Stat. Sol. (b) 51, 307–319]. For determining structures of point defects a measurement of scattering far from reciprocal-lattice points is therefore the best suited and most direct method. X-ray measurements of point-defect scattering in this region far from reciprocal-lattice points are difficult. With conventional X-ray set-ups it is not possible to separate the defect scattering from the thermal diffuse and Compton background scattering which is up to two orders of magnitude larger in the case of typical defect concentrations of some 10−4. Such measurements, however, become possible if large X-ray sources of high luminous density are used in connexion with multidetector arrangements. As an example an experimental arrangement [Haubold, H.-G. & Schilling, W. (1975). To be published; Haubold, H.-G. (1974). Rep. Kernforschungsanlage Jülich, JUL-1090-FF] is reviewed, in which the scattering cross-section of self-interstitials in aluminium was measured in samples containing an atomic density of interstitials up to 5 × 10−4.
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    Pseudopotential calculations of lattice distortions around impurities in simple metals (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 184-184 
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    Notes: Second-order pseudopotential calculations are known to reproduce fairly well the structure and phonon spectra of many simple metals. The validity of the underlying assumption of linear screening for impurities with valences and core radii close to those of the host can be checked a posteriori and by comparing calculated properties with measurements on dilute alloys, and, especially, coherent elastic neutron scattering.
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    Theory of the scattering from crystals containing strongly distorting defect clusters (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 185-185 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Analytical methods to describe the scattering from crystals containing defect clusters with strong displacement fields are reviewed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889875010047
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    Small-angle scattering in neutron irradiated copper (1975)
    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 8 (1975), S. 193-194 
    Details
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Work which has been started at Pelindaba on small-angle scattering in neutron irradiated copper is described.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0021889875010084
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