ALBERT

Beschreibung: In this study MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Aqua retrievals of aerosol optical thickness (AOT) at 555 nm are compared to sun-photometer measurements from Svalbard for a period of 9 years. For the 642 daily coincident measurements that were obtained, MODIS AOT generally varies within the predicted uncertainty of the retrieval over ocean (ΔAOT = ±0.03 ± 0.05 · AOT). The results from the remote sensing have been used to examine the accuracy in estimates of aerosol optical properties in the Arctic, generated by global climate models and from in-situ measurements at the Zeppelin station, Svalbard. AOT simulated with the Norwegian Earth System Model (NorESM1-M)/ CAM4-Oslo global climate model does not reproduce the observed seasonal variability of the Arctic aerosol. The model overestimates clear-sky AOT by nearly a factor of 2 for the background summer season, while tending to underestimate the values in the spring season. Furthermore, large differences in all-sky AOT of up to one order of magnitude are found for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) model ensemble for the spring and summer seasons. Large differences between satellite/ground-based remote sensing of AOT and AOT estimated from dry and humidified scattering coefficients are found for the subarctic marine boundary layer in summer.

Beschreibung: Organisms in all domains, Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya will respond to climate change with differential vulnerabilities resulting in shifts in species distribution, coexistence, and interactions. The identification of unifying principles of organism functioning across all domains would facilitate a cause and effect understanding of such changes and their implications for ecosystem shifts. For example, the functional specialization of all organisms in limited temperature ranges leads us to ask for unifying functional reasons. Organisms also specialize in either anoxic or various oxygen ranges, with animals and plants depending on high oxygen levels. Here, we identify thermal ranges, heat limits of growth, and critically low (hypoxic) oxygen concentrations as proxies of tolerance in a meta-analysis of data available for marine organisms, with special reference to domain-specific limits. For an explanation of the patterns and differences observed, we define and quantify a proxy for organismic complexity across species from all domains. Rising complexity causes heat (and hypoxia) tolerances to decrease from Archaea to Bacteria to uni- and then multicellular Eukarya. Within and across domains, taxon-specific tolerance limits likely reflect ultimate evolutionary limits of its species to acclimatization and adaptation. We hypothesize that rising taxon-specific complexities in structure and function constrain organisms to narrower environmental ranges. Low complexity as in Archaea and some Bacteria provide life options in extreme environments. In the warmest oceans, temperature maxima reach and will surpass the permanent limits to the existence of multicellular animals, plants and unicellular phytoplankter. Smaller, less complex unicellular Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea will thus benefit and predominate even more in a future, warmer, and hypoxic ocean.

Beschreibung: Fragilariopsis kerguelensis, a dominant diatom species throughout the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, is coined to be one of the main drivers of the biological silicate pump. Here, we study the distribution of this important species and expected consequences of climate change upon it, using correlative species distribution modeling and publicly available presence-only data. As experience with SDM is scarce for marine phytoplankton, this also serves as a pilot study for this organism group. Southern Ocean. We used the maximum entropy method to calculate distribution models for the diatom F. kerguelensis based on yearly and monthly environmental data (sea surface temperature, salinity, nitrate and silicate concentrations). Observation data were harvested from GBIF and the Global Diatom Database, and for further analyses also from the Hustedt Diatom Collection (BRM). The models were projected on current yearly and seasonal environmental data to study current distribution and its seasonality. Furthermore, we projected the seasonal model on future environmental data obtained from climate models for the year 2100. Projected on current yearly averaged environmental data, all models showed similar distribution patterns for F. kerguelensis. The monthly model showed seasonality, for example, a shift of the southern distribution boundary toward the north in the winter. Projections on future scenarios resulted in a moderately to negligibly shrinking distribution area and a change in seasonality. We found a substantial bias in the publicly available observation datasets, which could be reduced by additional observation records we obtained from the Hustedt Diatom Collection. Present day distribution patterns inferred from the models coincided well with background knowledge and previous reports about F. kerguelensis distribution, showing that maximum entropy-based distribution models are suitable to map distribution patterns for oceanic planktonic organisms. Our scenario projections indicate moderate effects of climate change upon the biogeography of F. kerguelensis.

Beschreibung: Eulimnogammarus verrucosus is an amphipod endemic to the unique ecosystem of Lake Baikal and serves as an emerging model in ecotoxicological studies. We report here on a survey sequencing of its genome as a first step to establish sequence resources for this species. From a single lane of paired-end sequencing data, we estimated the genome size as nearly 10 Gb and we obtained an overview of the repeat content. At least two-thirds of the genome are non-unique DNA, and a third of the genomic DNA is composed of just five families of repetitive elements, including low-complexity sequences. Attempts to use off-the-shelf assembly tools failed on the available low-coverage data both before and after removal of highly repetitive components. Using a seed-based approach we nevertheless assembled short contigs covering 33 pre-microRNAs and the homeodomain-containing exon of nine Hox genes. The absence of clear evidence for paralogs implies that a genome duplication did not contribute to the large genome size. We furthermore report the assembly of the mitochondrial genome using a new, guided “crystallization” procedure. The initial results presented here set the stage for a more complete sequencing and analysis of this large genome.

Beschreibung: In this study latent heat flux (λE) measurements made at 65 boreal and arctic eddy-covariance (EC) sites were analyses by using the Penman–Monteith equation. Sites were stratified into nine different ecosystem types: harvested and burnt forest areas, pine forests, spruce or fir forests, Douglas-fir forests, broadleaf deciduous forests, larch forests, wetlands, tundra and natural grasslands. The Penman–Monteith equation was calibrated with variable surface resistances against half-hourly eddy-covariance data and clear differences between ecosystem types were observed. Based on the modeled behavior of surface and aerodynamic resistances, surface resistance tightly control λE in most mature forests, while it had less importance in ecosystems having shorter vegetation like young or recently harvested forests, grasslands, wetlands and tundra. The parameters of the Penman–Monteith equation were clearly different for winter and summer conditions, indicating that phenological effects on surface resistance are important. We also compared the simulated λE of different ecosystem types under meteorological conditions at one site. Values of λE varied between 15% and 38% of the net radiation in the simulations with mean ecosystem parameters. In general, the simulations suggest that λE is higher from forested ecosystems than from grasslands, wetlands or tundra-type ecosystems. Forests showed usually a tighter stomatal control of λE as indicated by a pronounced sensitivity of surface resistance to atmospheric vapor pressure deficit. Nevertheless, the surface resistance of forests was lower than for open vegetation types including wetlands. Tundra and wetlands had higher surface resistances, which were less sensitive to vapor pressure deficits. The results indicate that the variation in surface resistance within and between different vegetation types might play a significant role in energy exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and atmosphere. These results suggest the need to take into account vegetation type and phenology in energy exchange modeling.

Beschreibung: A recent temperature reconstruction of global annual temperature shows Early Holocene warmth followed by a cooling trend through the Middle to Late Holocene [Marcott SA, et al., 2013, Science 339(6124):1198–1201]. This global cooling is puzzling because it is opposite from the expected and simulated global warming trend due to the retreating ice sheets and rising atmospheric greenhouse gases. Our critical reexamination of this contradiction between the reconstructed cooling and the simulated warming points to potentially significant biases in both the seasonality of the proxy reconstruction and the climate sensitivity of current climate models.

Beschreibung: The transient response of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) to a deglacial ice-sheet retreat is studied using the Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3), with a focus on orographic effects rather than meltwater discharge. It is found that the AMOC weakens significantly (41%) in response to the deglacial ice-sheet retreat. The AMOC weakening follows the decrease of the Northern Hemisphere ice-sheet volume linearly, with no evidence of abrupt thresholds. A wind-driven mechanism is proposed to explain the weakening of the AMOC: lowering the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets induces a northward shift of the westerlies, which causes a rapid eastward sea-ice transport and expanded sea-ice cover over the subpolar North Atlantic; this expanded sea ice insulates the ocean from heat loss and leads to suppressed deep convection and a weakened AMOC. A sea ice-ocean positive feedback could be further established between the AMOC decrease and sea-ice expansion.

Beschreibung: The impact of assimilating sea ice thickness data derived from ESA's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite together with Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS) sea ice concentration data of the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) in a coupled sea ice-ocean model is examined. A period of 3 months from 1 November 2011 to 31 January 2012 is selected to assess the forecast skill of the assimilation system. The 24 h forecasts and longer forecasts are based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm), and the assimilation is performed by a localized Singular Evolutive Interpolated Kalman (LSEIK) filter. For comparison, the assimilation is repeated only with the SSMIS sea ice concentrations. By running two different assimilation experiments, and comparing with the unassimilated model, independent satellite-derived data, and in situ observation, it is shown that the SMOS ice thickness assimilation leads to improved thickness forecasts. With SMOS thickness data, the sea ice concentration forecasts also agree better with observations, although this improvement is smaller.

Beschreibung: A new seismostratigraphic model has been established within the Arctic Ocean adjacent to the East Siberian Shelf on the basis of multichannel seismic reflection data acquired along a transect at 81°N. Ages for the sedimentary units were estimated via links to seismic lines and drill site data of the US Chukchi Shelf, the Lomonosov Ridge, and the adjacent Laptev Shelf. Two distinct seismic units were mapped throughout the area and are the constraints for dating the remaining strata. The lower marker unit, a pronounced high-amplitude reflector sequence (HARS), is the most striking stratigraphic feature over large parts of the Arctic Ocean. It indicates a strong and widespread change in deposition conditions. Probably, it developed during Oligocene times when a reorientation of Arctic Plates took place, accompanied by the gradual opening of the Fram Strait, and a widespread regression of sea level. The top of the HARS likely marks the end of Oligocene/early Miocene (23Ma). An age estimate for the base of the sequence is less clear but likely corresponds to base of Eocene (˜56Ma). The second marked unit detected on the seismic lines parallels the seafloor with a thickness of about 200ms two-way travel time (160 m). Its base is marked by a change from a partly transparent sequence with weak amplitude reflections below to a set of continuous high-amplitude reflectors above. This interface likely marks the transition to large-scale glaciation of the northern hemisphere and therefore is ascribed to the top Miocene (5.3 Ma).

Beschreibung: Aim Fossil pollen spectra from lake sediments in central and western Mongolia have been used to interpret past climatic variations, but hitherto no suitable modern pollen–climate calibration set has been available to infer past climate changes quantitatively. We established such a modern pollen dataset and used it to develop a transfer function model that we applied to a fossil pollen record in order to investigate: (1) whether there was a significant moisture response to the Younger Dryas event in north-western Mongolia; and (2) whether the early Holocene was characterized by dry or wet climatic conditions. Location Central and western Mongolia. Methods We analysed pollen data from surface sediments from 90 lakes. A transfer function for mean annual precipitation (Pann) was developed with weighted averaging partial least squares regression (WA-PLS) and applied to a fossil pollen record from Lake Bayan Nuur (49.98° N, 93.95° E, 932 m a.s.l.). Statistical approaches were used to investigate the modern pollen–climate relationships and assess model performance and reconstruction output. Results Redundancy analysis shows that the modern pollen spectra are characteristic of their respective vegetation types and local climate. Spatial autocorrelation and significance tests of environmental variables show that the WA-PLS model for Pann is the most valid function for our dataset, and possesses the lowest root mean squared error of prediction. Main conclusions Precipitation is the most important predictor of pollen and vegetation distributions in our study area. Our quantitative climate reconstruction indicates a dry Younger Dryas, a relatively dry early Holocene, a wet mid-Holocene and a dry late Holocene.

Beschreibung: Ice shelves play an important role in stabilizing the interior grounded ice of the large ice sheets. The thinning of major ice shelves observed in recent years, possibly in connection to warmer ocean waters coming into contact with the ice-shelf base, has focused attention on the ice-ocean interface. Here we reveal a complex network of sub ice-shelf channels under the Fimbul Ice Shelf, Antarctica, mapped using ground-penetrating radar over a 100 km2 grid. The channels are 300–500 m wide and 50 m high, among the narrowest of any reported. Observing narrow channels beneath an ice shelf that is mainly surrounded by cold ocean waters, with temperatures close to the surface freezing point, shows that channelized basal melting is not restricted to rapidly melting ice shelves, indicating that spatial melt patterns around Antarctica are likely to vary on scales that are not yet incorporated in ice-ocean models.

Beschreibung: The variability of sea surface temperatures (SSTs) at multidecadal and longer timescales is poorly constrained, primarily because instrumental records are short and proxy records are noisy. Through applying a new noise filtering technique to a global network of late Holocene SST proxies, we estimate SST variability between annual and millennial timescales. Filtered estimates of SST variability obtained from coral, foraminifer, and alkenone records are shown to be consistent with one another and with instrumental records in the frequency bands at which they overlap. General circulation models, however, simulate SST variability that is systematically smaller than instrumental and proxy-based estimates. Discrepancies in variability are largest at low latitudes and increase with timescale, reaching two orders of magnitude for tropical variability at millennial timescales. This result implies major deficiencies in observational estimates or model simulations, or both, and has implications for the attribution of past variations and prediction of future change.

Beschreibung: Over the polar oceans, near-surface atmospheric transport of momentum is strongly influenced by sea-ice surface topography. The latter is analyzed on the basis of laser altimeter data obtained during airborne campaigns between 1995 and 2011 over more than 10,000 km of flight distance in different regions of the Arctic Ocean. Spectra of height and spacing between topographic features averaged over 10 km flight sections show that typical values are 0.45 m for the mean height and about 20 m for the mean spacing. Nevertheless, the variability is high and the spatial variability is stronger than the temporal one. The total topography spectrum is divided into a range with small obstacles (between 0.2 m and 0.8 m height) and large obstacles (≥0.8 m). Results show that large pressure ridges represent the dominant topographic feature only along the coast of Greenland. In the Central Arctic, the concentration of large ridges decreased over the years, accompanied by an increase of small obstacles concentration and this might be related to decreasing multiyear ice. The application of a topography-dependent parameterization of neutral atmospheric drag coefficients reflects the large variability in the sea-ice topography and reveals characteristic differences between the regions. Based on the analysis of the two spectral ranges, we find that the consideration of only large pressure ridges is not enough to characterize the roughness degree of an ice field, and the values of drag coefficients are in most regions strongly influenced by small obstacles.

Beschreibung: Large-scale patterns of net community production (NCP) were estimated during the late summer cruise ARK-XXVI/3 (TransArc, August/September 2011) to the central Arctic Ocean. Several approaches were used based on the following: (i) continuous measurements of surface water oxygen to argon ratios (O2/Ar), (ii) underway measurements of surface partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), (iii) discrete samples of dissolved inorganic carbon, and (iv) dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphate. The NCP estimates agreed well within the uncertainties associated with each approach. The highest late summer NCP (up to 6 mol C m-2) was observed in the marginal sea ice zone region. Low values (〈1 mol C m-2) were found in the sea ice-covered deep basins with a strong spatial variability. Lowest values were found in the Amundsen Basin and moderate values in the Nansen and Makarov Basins with slightly higher estimates over the Mendeleev Ridge. Our findings support a coupling of NCP to sea ice coverage and nutrient supply and thus stress a potential change in spatial and temporal distribution of NCP in a future Arctic Ocean. To follow the evolution of NCP in space and time, it is suggested to apply one or several of these approaches in shipboard investigations with a time interval of 3 to 5 years.

Beschreibung: A Spectral Radiation Buoy (SRB) was developed to autonomously measure the spectral incident, reflected, and transmitted spectral solar radiation (350-800 nm) above and below sea ice. The SRB was deployed on drifting first-year sea ice near the North Pole in mid-April 2012, together with velocity and ice mass balance buoys. The buoys drifted southward and reached Fram Strait after approximately 7 months, covering a complete melt season. At the SRB site, snowmelt started on 10 June, and had completely disappeared by 14 July. Surface albedo was above 0.85 until snowmelt onset and decreased rapidly with the progression of snowmelt. Albedo was lowest on 14 July, when the observed surface was likely a mixture of bare ice and melt pond(s). The transmitted irradiance measured under the ice was largest in July, with a monthly average of 20 W m(-2), compared to 〈0.3 W m(-2) premelt. Under-ice irradiance peaked on 19-20 July, with a daily average around 35 W m(-2). From mid-April to mid-September, the solar energy transmitted through the ice into the ocean contributed about two-thirds of the energy required for the observed bottom melt (0.49 m). The energy absorbed by the ice after snowmelt was enough to melt an additional 0.1 m of ice. Solar energy incident on open water and melt ponds provided significant additional heating, indicating solar heating could explain all of the observed bottom melt in this region in summer 2012.

Beschreibung: The interpretation of seismic refraction and gravity data acquired in 2010 gives new insights into the crustal structure of the West Greenland coast and the adjacent deep central Baffin Bay basin. Underneath Melville Bay, the depth of the Moho varies between 26 to 17 km. Stretched continental crust with a thickness of 25 to 14 km and deep sedimentary basins are present in this area. The deep Melville Bay Graben contains an up to ~11km thick infill of consolidated and unconsolidated sediments with velocities of 1.6 to 4.9 km/s. Seawards, at the ~60 km wide transition between oceanic and stretched continental crust, a mount-shaped magmatic structure is observed, which most likely formed prior to the initial formation of oceanic crust. The up to 4 km high magmatic structure is underlain by a ~2 km thick and ~50 km wide high velocity lower crust. More to the west, in the oceanic part of the Baffin Bay basin, we identify a 2-layered, 3.5 to 6 km thin igneous oceanic crust with increasing thickness toward the shelf. Beneath the oceanic crust, the depth of the Moho ranges between 11.5 and 13.5 km. In the western part of the profile, oceanic layer 3 is unusually thin (~1.5 km) A possible explanation for the thin crust is accretion due to slow spreading, although the basement is notably smooth compared to the basement of other regions formed by ultra-slow spreading. The oceanic crust is underlain by partly serpentinized upper mantle with velocities of 7.6 to 7.8 km/s.

Beschreibung: Stratospheric ozone depletion and emission of greenhouse gases lead to a trend of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) towards its high-index polarity. The positive phase of the SAM is characterised by stronger than usual westerly winds that induce changes in the physical carbon transport. Changes in the natural carbon budget of the upper 100 m of the Southern Ocean in response to a positive SAM phase are explored with a coupled ecosystem-general circulation model and regression analysis. Previously overlooked processes that are important for the upper ocean carbon budget during a positive SAM period are identified, namely export production and downward transport of carbon north of the Polar Front (PF) as large as the upwelling in the south. The limiting micronutrient iron is brought into the surface layer by upwelling and stimulates phytoplankton growth and export production, but only in summer. This leads to a drawdown of carbon and less summertime outgassing (or more uptake) of natural CO2. In winter, biological mechanisms are inactive and the surface ocean equilibrates with the atmosphere by releasing CO2. In the annual mean, the upper ocean region south of the PF loses more carbon by additional export production than by the release of CO2 into the atmosphere, highlighting the role of the biological carbon pump in response to a positive SAM event.

Beschreibung: Ice shelves are formed by the viscous flow of inland ice into the ocean, they are floating and loosing mass by iceberg calving. There are two different kinds of calving: large tabular icebergs detach as singular events in time, and small scale calving occuring on a rather continuous time scale. Three visco-elastic approaches are discussed, in order to derive a general law for calving rates applicable to small scale calving. The results are highly dependent on the termination criterium for each approach, hence the computed calving rate has to be adapted and validated with measurements to get the most qualified value.

Beschreibung: Break-up events in ice shelves have been studied extensively during the last years. One popular assumption links disintegration events to surface melting of the ice shelf in conjunction with growing melt-water ponds, leading to hydro-fracture. As this explanation only holds during warm seasons [1], the possibility of frost wedging as forcing mechanism for autumn and winter break-up events is considered. Frost wedging can only occur if a closed ice lid seals the water inside the crack. Hence, the present study of frost wedging in a single crack uses ice lid thicknesses to evaluate the additional pressure on the crack faces. The investigation of the resulting stress intensity factor as a measure of crack criticality follows consequently. The results show that freezing water inside a crack can result in unstable crack growth of an initially stable water filled crack.

Beschreibung: Ensemble experiments with a climate model are carried out in order to explore how incorporating a stochastic ice strength parameterization to account for model uncertainty affects estimates of potential sea ice predictability on time scales from days to seasons. The impact of this new parameterization depends strongly on the spatial scale, lead time and the hemisphere being considered: Whereas the representation of model uncertainty increases the ensemble spread of Arctic sea ice thickness predictions generated by atmospheric initial perturbations up to about 4 weeks into the forecast, rather small changes are found for longer lead times as well as integrated quantities such as total sea ice area. The regions where initial condition uncertainty generates spread in sea ice thickness on subseasonal time scales (primarily along the ice edge) differ from that of the stochastic sea ice strength parameterization (along the coast lines and in the interior of the Arctic). For the Antarctic the influence of the stochastic sea ice strength parameterization is much weaker due to the predominance of thinner first year ice. These results suggest that sea ice data assimilation and prediction on subseasonal time scales could benefit from taking model uncertainty into account, especially in the Arctic.

Beschreibung: Whereas millennial to submillennial climate variability has been identified during the current interglacial period, past interglacial variability features remain poorly explored because of lacking data at sufficient temporal resolutions. Here we present new deuterium data from the EPICA Dome C ice core, documenting at decadal resolution temperature changes occurring over the East Antarctic plateau during the warmer-than-today last interglacial. Expanding previous evidence of instabilities during the last interglacial, multicentennial subevents are identified and labeled for the first time in a past interglacial context. A variance analysis further reveals two major climatic features. First, an increase in variability is detected prior to the glacial inception, as already observed at the end of Marine Isotopic Stage 11 in the same core. Second, the overall variance level is systematically higher during the last interglacial than during the current one, suggesting that a warmer East Antarctic climate may also be more variable.

Beschreibung: We analyze simulated sea ice changes in eight different Earth System Models that have conducted experiment G1 of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP). The simulated response of balancing abrupt quadrupling of CO2 (abrupt4xCO2) with reduced shortwave radiation successfully moderates annually averaged Arctic temperature rise to about 1°C, with modest changes in seasonal sea ice cycle compared with the preindustrial control simulations (piControl). Changes in summer and autumn sea ice extent are spatially correlated with temperature patterns but much less in winter and spring seasons. However, there are changes of ±20% in sea ice concentration in all seasons, and these will induce changes in atmospheric circulation patterns. In summer and autumn, the models consistently simulate less sea ice relative to preindustrial simulations in the Beaufort, Chukchi, East Siberian, and Laptev Seas, and some models show increased sea ice in the Barents/Kara Seas region. Sea ice extent increases in the Greenland Sea, particularly in winter and spring and is to some extent associated with changed sea ice drift. Decreased sea ice cover in winter and spring in the Barents Sea is associated with increased cyclonic activity entering this area under G1. In comparison, the abrupt4xCO2 experiment shows almost total sea ice loss in September and strong correlation with regional temperatures in all seasons consistent with open ocean conditions. The tropospheric circulation displays a Pacific North America pattern-like anomaly with negative phase in G1-piControl and positive phase under abrupt4xCO2-piControl.

Beschreibung: Sea level variations prior to the launch of satellite altimeters are estimated by analyzing historic tide gauge records. Recently, a number of groups have reconstructed sea level by applying EOF techniques to fill missing observations. We complement this study with alternative methods. In a first step gaps in 178 records of sea level change are filled using the pattern recognition capabilities of artificial neural networks. Afterward satellite altimetry is used to extrapolate local sea level change to global fields. Patterns of sea level change are compared to prior studies. Global mean sea level change since 1900 is found to be inline image on average. Local trends are essentially positive with the highest values found in the western tropical Pacific and in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar where it reaches about inline image. Regions with negative trends are spotty with a minimum value of about inline image south of the Aleutian Islands. Although the acceleration found for the global mean, inline image, is not significant, local values range from inline image in the central Indian Ocean to inline image in the western tropical Pacific and east of Japan. These extrema are associated with patterns of sea level change that differ significantly from the first half of the analyzed period (i.e., 1900–1950) to the second half (1950–2000). We take this as an indication of long period oceanic processes that are superimposed to the general sea level rise.

Beschreibung: Geochemical evidence from boreholes suggests enhanced transport of Northern Component Water (NCW) to southern latitudes from about 6 Ma onwards. However, information on how this change in transport influenced the intensity and position of current systems is sparse. Here we use seismic reflection profiles interpreted together with bathymetric data to investigate current derived deposits at the central Argentine Margin. Upslope migrating mudwaves overlying a late Miocene erosional unconformity provide evidence that Circumpolar Deepwater (CDW) flow slowed down with the onset of NCW inflow. During the last ~3 Ma changes in dimensions and migration rates of the waves are small indicating continuous bottom current flow conditions similar to today with only minor variations in flow speed, suggesting that the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) in the western south Atlantic as observed today, has been a pervasive feature of the global thermohaline circulation system during the Plio-/Pleistocene.

Beschreibung: The response of the oceanic circulation to mesoscale atmospheric forcing is studied by comparing integrations of a global sea ice-ocean model with high-resolution European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts analysis data (0.4◦) to those with the same forcing coarse grained to a resolution typically employed in climate models and atmospheric reanalyses (1.8◦). It is shown that the representation of mesoscale features in atmospheric forcing fields leads to an increase in the strength of the wind-driven gyres in the North Atlantic and North Pacific regions of about 5–10% of its mean value. An increase of similar magnitude is found for the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. From the results of this study it is argued that small-scale atmospheric phenomena such as fronts, mesoscale cyclones, and topographic jets play an important role in driving the mean oceanic circulation.

Beschreibung: Concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), total alkalinity (TA), nutrients, and oxygen in subsurface waters of the central Arctic Ocean have been investigated for conceivable time trends over the last two decades. Data from six cruises (1991–2011) that cover the Nansen, Amundsen, and Makarov Basins were included in this analysis. In waters deeper than 2000 m, no statistically significant trend could be observed for DIC, TA, phosphate, or nitrate, but a small rate of increase in apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) was noticeable. For the individual stations, differences in concentration of each property were computed between the mean concentrations in the Arctic Atlantic Water (AAW) or the upper Polar Deep Water (uPDW), i.e., between about 150 and 1400 m depth, and in the deep water (assumed invariable over time). In these shallower water layers, we observe significant above-zero time trends for DIC, in the range of 0.6–0.9 µmol kg-1 yr-1 (for AAW) and 0.4–0.6 µmol kg-1 yr-1 (for uPDW). No time trend in nutrients could be observed, indicating no change in the rate of organic matter mineralization within this depth range. Consequently, the buildup of DIC is attributed to increasing concentrations of anthropogenic carbon in the waters flowing into these depth layers of the Arctic Ocean. The resulting rate of increase of the column inventory of anthropogenic CO2 is estimated to be between 0.6 and 0.9 mol C m-2 yr-1, with distinct differences between basins.

Beschreibung: Forecast experiments with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts model with and without relaxation of the Arctic troposphere toward reanalysis data are carried out in order to explore the influence that improved Arctic forecasts during wintertime would have on the skill of medium-range and extended-range prediction of 500 hPa geopotential height in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. It turns out that the largest midlatitude improvements are found over eastern Europe, northern Asia, and North America; no discernible impact is found over the North Atlantic and North Pacific, where midlatitude and tropical dynamics appear to be more important. The strength of the linkage between the Arctic and the midlatitudes is found to be flow dependent, with anomalous northerly wind leading to a stronger Arctic influence. Finally, the results are discussed in the context of the possible impact of Arctic sea ice decline on midlatitude weather and climate.

Beschreibung: The results of numerical simulations of the Eltanin impact are combined with the available geological data in order to reconstruct the impact dynamics and to get some constraints on the impact parameters. Numerical simulations show that the Eltanin projectile size should be less than 2 km for a 45° oblique impact and less than 1.5 km for a vertical impact. On the other hand, we demonstrate that the projectile diameter cannot be considerably smaller than 1 km; otherwise, the impact-induced water flow cannot transport eroded sediments across large distances. The maximum displacement approximately equals the water crater radius and rapidly decreases with increasing distances. Numerical simulations also show that ejecta deposits strongly depend on impact angle and projectile size and, therefore, cannot be used for reliable estimates of the initial projectile mass. The initial amplitudes of tsunami-like waves are estimated. The presence of clay-rich sediments, typical for the abyssal basins in cores PS2709 and PS2708 on the Freeden Seamounts (Bellingshausen Sea, Southern Ocean) combined with numerical data allow us to suggest a probable point of impact to the east of the seamounts. The results do not exclude the possibility that a crater in the ocean bottom may exist, but such a structure has not been found yet

Beschreibung: Sedimentary proxies used to reconstructmarine productivity suffer fromvariable preservation and are sensitive to factors other than productivity. Therefore, proxy calibration is warranted. Here we map the spatial patterns of two paleoproductivity proxies, biogenic opal and barium fluxes, from a set of core-top sediments recovered in the Subarctic North Pacific. Comparisons of the proxy data with independent estimates of primary and export production, surface water macronutrient concentrations, and biological pCO2 drawdown indicate that neither proxy shows a significant correlation with primary or export productivity for the entire region. Biogenic opal fluxes, when corrected for preservation using 230Th-normalized accumulation rates, show a good correlation with primary productivity along the volcanic arcs (τ =0.71, p = 0.0024) and with export productivity throughout the western Subarctic North Pacific (τ = 0.71, p = 0.0107). Moderate and good correlations of biogenic barium flux with export production (τ = 0.57, p = 0.0022) and with surface water silicate concentrations (τ =0.70, p = 0.0002) are observed for the central and eastern Subarctic North Pacific. For reasons unknown, however, no correlation is found in the western Subarctic North Pacific between biogenic barium flux and the reference data. Nonetheless, we show that barite saturation, uncertainty in the lithogenic barium corrections, and problems with the reference data sets are not responsible for the lack of a significant correlation between biogenic barium flux and the reference data. Further studies evaluating the factors controlling the variability of the biogenic constituents in the sediments are desirable in this region.

Beschreibung: The fascinating ability of algae, insects, and fishes to survive at temperatures below normal freezing is realized by antifreeze proteins (AFPs). These are surface-active molecules and interact with the diffusive water-ice interface thus preventing complete solidification. We propose a dynamical mechanism on how these proteins inhibit the freezing of water. We apply a Ginzburg-Landau-type approach to describe the phase separation in the two-component system (ice, AFP). The free-energy density involves two fields: one for the ice phase with a low AFP concentration and one for liquid water with a high AFP concentration. The time evolution of the ice reveals microstructures resulting from phase separation in the presence of AFPs. We observed a faster clustering of pre-ice structure connected to a locking of grain size by the action of AFP, which is an essentially dynamical process. The adsorption of additional water molecules is inhibited and the further growth of ice grains stopped. The interfacial energy between ice and water is lowered allowing the AFPs to form smaller critical ice nuclei. Similar to a hysteresis in magnetic materials we observe a thermodynamic hysteresis leading to a nonlinear density dependence of the freezing point depression in agreement with the experiments.

Beschreibung: Recent models of South Atlantic opening history focus on early plate divergence by incorporating intracontinental deformation, which is poorly constrained. Aiming to avoid the uncertainties in this approach, we model the entire divergence history with a joint inversion for seafloor spreading data. For this history, the pre-Campanian motion parameters are the first to feature formal uncertainty estimates. We date the onset of spreading at 138 Ma, with movement along intracontinental accommodation zones leading to the assembly of South America by 123 Ma and Africa by 106 Ma. Part of the ridge in the Agulhas Basin jumped westward soon afterward toward the Bouvet plume, initiating the motion of a short-lived Malvinas Plate. The NE Georgia and Maud rises and Agulhas Plateau formed as a large igneous province over the plume. Farther north, part of the ridge jumped eastward toward the Tristan plume around 94–93 Ma but seems not to have resulted in independent plate motion. Our results show that the South Atlantic grew by diachronous breakup of continents on just two plates. Cretaceous intracontinental deformation in South America and Africa can be interpreted in terms of the accommodation of stress associated with northward propagation of this process. The pattern of accommodation is usually envisaged as focusing all of the strain in narrow belts. With our rotations, a commonly used set of such belts accounts instead for just 42–67% of the implied total strain. We suggest that the remainder was accommodated at all scales within the continental interiors and the extended continental margins.

Beschreibung: Freshwater in the Arctic Ocean plays an important role in the regional ocean circulation, sea ice, and global climate. From salinity observed by a variety of platforms, we are able, for the first time, to estimate a statistically reliable liquid freshwater trend from monthly gridded fields over all upper Arctic Ocean basins. From 1992 to 2012 this trend was 600 ± 300 km3 yr−1. A numerical model agrees very well with the observed freshwater changes. A decrease in salinity made up about two thirds of the freshwater trend and a thickening of the upper layer up to one third. The Arctic Ocean Oscillation index, a measure for the regional wind stress curl, correlated well with our freshwater time series. No clear relation to Arctic Oscillation or Arctic Dipole indices could be found. Following other observational studies, an increased Bering Strait freshwater import to the Arctic Ocean, a decreased Davis Strait export, and enhanced net sea ice melt could have played an important role in the freshwater trend we observed.

Beschreibung: The large-scale boreal winter climatic patterns associated with interannual variability in a coral oxygen isotope (δ18O) record from the southern Red Sea (Klein et al. [1997]) covering most of the last century are investigated. From the early 1930’s to the early 1960’s, the winter coral δ18O record, reflecting temperature and salinity variations in southern Red Sea surface waters, is associated with global (or large scale) sea surface temperature (SST) and 850mb geopotential height (Z850) anomalies which project on the corresponding patterns associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). In contrast, since the early 1960’s the winter coral δ18O record is related to a Z850 pattern that reflects the ENSO-independent part of the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM), which includes the Siberian High, the East Asian through and the East Asian upper-tropospheric Jet. Our results indicate a weakening of the ENSO control on interannual temperature/salinity variations in southern Red Sea surface waters in the early 1960’s, due to the warming of the Indian Ocean, and suggest that information about the non-stationarity in the relationship between ENSO and two distinct modes of EAWM can be documented in southern Red Sea coral δ18O records.

Beschreibung: Die ursprünglich marine und auch heute noch vorwiegend im Meer lebende Crustaceen-Gruppe der Decapoda hat es im Laufe ihrer Evolution geschafft, auch festes Land sowie Süßwasser zu besiedeln. Den mit diesen Lebensräumen verbundenen Stressfaktoren konnten die langlebigen Juvenil- und Erwachsenen-Stadien mit strukturellen und physiologischen Anpassungen entgegengewirken. Sehr viel schwächer ausgeprägt ist die evolutive Anpassungsfähigkeit der ursprünglich planktischen, physiologisch empfindlichen und von planktischer Nahrung abhängigen Larven-Stadien. Terrestrische und limnische Dekapoden haben verschiedene “Export-Strategien” entwickelt, die auf ausgeprägten Wanderungen der erwachsenen Weibchen und/oder des ersten Larvenstadiums beruhen und auf eine Stressvermeidung in der Larvalphase hinzielen. Um die Larvalentwicklung ganz im Süßwasser vollenden zu können, müssen schon in frühen Entwicklungsstadien spezielle Strukturen und physiologische Funktionen ausgebildet werden, die der Aufrechterhaltung der osmotischen Homöostase durch Osmoregulation sowie einer Unabhängigkeit von planktischer Nahrung dienen. Decapod Crustaceans, which are by origin a marine group that still occurs mainly in the sea, invaded during their evolution also firm land and freshwater habitats. Stress factors associated with those non-marine environments have successfully been countervailed by long-lived benthic juvenile and adult life-history stages, which were able to evolve structural and physiological adaptations. By contrast, the adaptability of the short-lived planktonic larval stages has been much weaker, remaining physiologically fragile and mostly dependant on planktonic food sources. Terrestrial as well as limnic decapods have evolved various ”export strategies" based on extended migrations. These are performed by the adult females and/or the first larval stage, being aimed at an avoidance of stress conditions during the larval phase. In order to successfully complete the larval phase in freshwater, already the earliest developmental stages must express special structures and physiological functions aiding to the maintenance of osmotic homeostasis and to an independance from planktonic food sources.

Beschreibung: The temperature variability simulated by climate models is generally consistent with that observed in instrumental records at the scale of global averages, but further insight can also be obtained from regional analysis of the marine temperature record. A protocol is developed for comparing model simulations to observations that account for observational noise and missing data. General consistency between Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 model simulations and regional sea surface temperature variability is demonstrated at interannual timescales. At interdecadal timescales, however, the variability diagnosed from observations is significantly greater. Discrepancies are greatest at low latitudes, with none of the 41 models showing equal or greater interdecadal variability. The pattern of suppressed variability at longer timescales and smaller spatial scales appears consistent with models generally being too diffusive. Suppressed variability of low-latitude marine temperatures points to underestimation of intrinsic variability and may help explain why few models reproduce the observed temperature trends during the last 15 years.

Beschreibung: Air-sea gas exchange plays a key role in the cycling of greenhouse and other biogeochemically important gases. Although air-sea gas transfer is expected to change as a consequence of the rapid decline in summer Arctic sea ice cover, little is known about the effect of sea-ice cover on gas exchange fluxes, especially in the marginal ice zone. During the Polarstern expedition ARK-XXVI/3 (TransArc, Aug/Sep 2011) to the central Arctic Ocean, we compared 222Rn/226Ra ratios in the upper 50m of 14 ice-covered and 4 ice-free stations. At three of the ice-free stations, we find 222Rn-based gas transfer coefficients in good agreement with expectation based on published relationships between gas transfer and wind speed over open water when accounting for wind history from wind reanalysis data. We hypothesize that the low gas transfer rate at the fourth station results from reduced fetch due to the proximity of the ice edge, or lateral exchange across the front at the ice edge by restratification. No significant radon deficit could be observed at the ice-covered stations. At these stations, the average gas transfer velocity was less than 0.1 m/d (97.5% confidence), compared to 0.5-2.2 m/d expected for open water. Our results show that air-sea gas exchange in an ice-covered ocean is reduced by at least an order of magnitude compared to open water. In contrast to previous studies, we show that in partially ice-covered regions, gas exchange is lower than expected based on a linear scaling to percent ice cover.

Beschreibung: Two parameterizations of turbulent boundary layer processes at the interface between an ice shelf and the ocean beneath are investigated in terms of their impact on simulated melt rates and feedbacks. The parameterizations differ in the transfer coefficients for heat and freshwater fluxes. In their simplest form, they are assumed constant and hence are independent of the velocity of ocean currents at the ice shelf base. An augmented melt rate parameterization accounts for frictional turbulence via transfer coefficients that do depend on boundary layer current velocities via a drag law. In simulations with both parameterizations for idealized as well as realistic cavity geometries under Pine Island Ice Shelf, West Antarctica, significant differences in melt rate patterns between the velocity-independent and velocity-dependent formulations are found. While patterns are strongly correlated to those of thermal forcing for velocity-independent transfer coefficients, melting in the case of velocity-dependent coefficients is collocated with regions of high boundary layer currents, in particular where rapid plume outflow occurs. Both positive and negative feedbacks between melt rates, boundary layer temperature, velocities, and buoyancy fluxes are identified. Melt rates are found to increase with increasing drag coefficient inline image, in agreement with plume model simulations, but optimal values of Cd inferred from plume models are not easily transferable. Uncertainties therefore remain, both regarding simulated melt rate spatial distributions and magnitudes.

Beschreibung: A critical question regarding the organic carbon cycle in the Arctic Ocean is whether the decline in ice extent and thickness and the associated increase in solar irradiance in the upper ocean will result in increased primary production and particulate organic carbon (POC) export. To assess spatial and temporal variability in POC export, under-ice export fluxes were measured with short-term sediment traps in the northern Laptev Sea in July-August-September 1995, north of the Fram Strait in July 1997, and in the Central Arctic in August–September 2012. Sediment traps were deployed at 2–5 m and 20–25 m under ice for periods ranging from 8.5 to 71 h. In addition to POC fluxes, total particulate matter, chlorophyll a, biogenic particulate silica, phytoplankton, and zooplankton fecal pellet fluxes were measured to evaluate the amount and composition of the material exported in the upper Arctic Ocean. Whereas elevated export fluxes observed on and near the Laptev Sea shelf were likely the combined result of high primary production, resuspension, and release of particulate matter from melting ice, low export fluxes above the central basins despite increased light availability during the record minimum ice extent of 2012 suggest that POC export was limited by nutrient supply during summer. These results suggest that the ongoing decline in ice cover affects export fluxes differently on Arctic shelves and over the deep Arctic Ocean and that POC export is likely to remain low above the central basins unless additional nutrients are supplied to surface waters.

Beschreibung: While wave heights globally have been growing over recent decades, observations of their regional trends vary. Simulations of future wave climate can be achieved by coupling wave and climate models. At present, wave heights and their future trends in the Arctic Ocean remain unknown. We use the third-generation wave forecast model WAVEWATCH-III forced by winds and sea ice concentration produced within the regional model HIRHAM, under the anthropogenic scenario SRES-A1B. We find that significant wave height and its extremes will increase over different inner Arctic areas due to reduction of sea ice cover and regional wind intensification in the 21st century. The opposite tendency, with a slight reduction in wave height appears for the Atlantic sector and the Barents Sea. Our results demonstrate the complex wave response in the Arctic Ocean to a combined effect of wind and sea ice forcings in a climate-change scenario during the 21st

Beschreibung: Assessment of marine downscaling of global model simulations to the regional scale is a prerequisite for understanding ocean feedback to the atmosphere in regional climate downscaling. Major difficulties arise from the coarse grid resolution of global models, which cannot provide sufficiently accurate boundary values for the regional model. In this study, we first setup a stretched global model (MPIOM) to focus on the North Sea by shifting poles. Second, a regional model (HAMSOM) was performed with higher resolution, while the open boundary values were provided by the stretched global model. In general, the sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the two experiments are similar. Major SST differences are found in coastal regions (root mean square difference of SST is reaching up to 2°C). The higher sea surface salinity in coastal regions in the global model indicates the general limitation of this global model and its configuration (surface layer thickness is 16 m). By comparison, the advantage of the absence of open lateral boundaries in the global model can be demonstrated, in particular for the transition region between the North Sea and Baltic Sea. On long timescales, the North Atlantic Current (NAC) inflow through the northern boundary correlates well between both model simulations (R~0.9). After downscaling with HAMSOM, the NAC inflow through the northern boundary decreases by ~10%, but the circulation in the Skagerrak is stronger in HAMSOM. The circulation patterns of both models are similar in the northern North Sea. The comparison suggests that the stretched global model system is a suitable tool for long-term free climate model simulations, and the only limitations occur in coastal regions. Regarding the regional studies focusing on the coastal zone, nested regional model can be a helpful alternative.

Beschreibung: The horizontal and vertical circulation of the Weddell Gyre is diagnosed using a box inverse model constructed with recent hydrographic sections and including mobile sea ice and eddy transports. The gyre is found to convey 42 +/- 8 Sv (1 Sv = 10^6 m3 s–1) across the central Weddell Sea and to intensify to 54 +/- 15 Sv further offshore. This circulation injects 36 +/- 13 TW of heat from the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to the gyre, and exports 51 +/- 23 mSv of freshwater, including 13 +/- 1 mSv as sea ice to the midlatitude Southern Ocean. The gyre’s overturning circulation has an asymmetric double-cell structure, in which 13 +/- 4 Sv of Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) and relatively light Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) are transformed into upper-ocean water masses by midgyre upwelling (at a rate of 2 +/- 2 Sv) and into denser AABW by downwelling focussed at the western boundary (8 +/- 2 Sv). The gyre circulation exhibits a substantial throughflow component, by which CDW and AABW enter the gyre from the Indian sector, undergo ventilation and densification within the gyre, and are exported to the South Atlantic across the gyre’s northern rim. The relatively modest net production of AABW in the Weddell Gyre (6 +/- 2 Sv) suggests that the gyre’s prominence in the closure of the lower limb of global oceanic overturning stems largely from the recycling and equatorward export of Indian-sourced AABW.

Beschreibung: We present a new, high resolution (300 m) bathymetric grid of the continental shelf surrounding the South Orkney Islands, northeast of the Antarctic Peninsula. The new grid, derived from a compilation of marine echo-sounding data, improves previous regional bathymetric representations and helps to visualize the morphology of the shelf in unrivalled detail. The compilation forms important baseline information for a range of scientific applications and end users including oceanographers, glacial modelers, biologists, and geologists. In particular, due to the limited understanding of glacial history in this region, the bathymetry provides the first detailed insights into past glacial regimes. The continental shelf is dominated by seven glacially eroded troughs, marking the pathways of glacial outlets that once drained a former ice cap centered on the South Orkney Islands. During previous glacial periods, grounded ice extended to the shelf edge north of the islands. A large, ∼250 km long sediment depocenter, interpreted as a maximum former ice limit of one or more Cenozoic glaciations, suggests that ice was only grounded to the ∼300–350 m contour in the south. Hypsometric analyses support this interpretation, indicating that a significant proportion of the shelf has been unaffected by glacial erosion. Using these observations, we propose a preliminary ice cap reconstruction for maximum glaciation of the South Orkney plateau, suggesting an ice coverage of about ∼19,000 km2. The timing of maximum ice extent, number of past advances and pattern of subsequent deglaciation(s) remain uncertain and will require further targeted marine geological and geophysical investigations to resolve.

Beschreibung: Paleo data have been frequently used to determine the equilibrium (Charney) climate sensitivity Sa, and—if slow feedback processes (e.g., land-ice albedo) are adequately taken into account—they indicate a similar range as estimates based on instrumental data and climate model results. Many studies assume the (fast) feedback processes to be independent of the background climate state, e.g., equally strong during warm and cold periods. Here we assess the dependency of the fast feedback processes on the background climate state using data of the last 800 kyr and a box model of the climate system for interpretation. Applying a new method to account for background state dependency, we find Sa=0.61±0.07 K (W m−2)−1(±1σ) using a reconstruction of Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) cooling of −4.0 K and significantly lower climate sensitivity during glacial climates. Due to uncertainties in reconstructing the LGM temperature anomaly, Sa is estimated in the range Sa = 0.54–0.95 K (W m−2)−1.

Beschreibung: In multibeam echosounder and sub-bottom profiler data acquired during RV Polarstern cruise ARK-VII/3a from the Hovgaard Ridge (Fram Strait), we found evidence for very deep (〉1200 m) iceberg scouring. Five elongated seafloor features have been detected that are interpreted to be iceberg scours. The scours are oriented in north-south/south-north direction and are about 15 m deep, 300 m wide, and 4 km long crossing the entire width of the ridge. They are attributed to multiple giant palaeo-icebergs that most probably left the Arctic Ocean southward through Fram Strait. The huge keel-depths are indicative of ice sheets extending into the Arctic Ocean being at least 1200 m thick at the calving front during glacial maxima. The deep St Anna Trough or grounded ice observed at the East Siberian Continental Margin are likely source regions of these icebergs that delivered freshwater to the Nordic Seas.

Beschreibung: Magnetic anomaly identifications underpin plate tectonic reconstructions and form the primary dataset from which age of the oceanic lithosphere and seafloor spreading regimes in the ocean basins can be determined. Although these identifications are an invaluable resource, their usefulness to the wider scientific community has been limited due to the lack of a central community infrastructure to organize, host and update these interpretations. We have developed an open-source, community-driven online infrastructure as a repository for quality-checked magnetic anomaly identifications from all ocean basins. We provide a global sample dataset that comprises 96,733 individually picked magnetic anomaly identifications organized by ocean basin and publication reference, and provide accompanying Hellinger-format files, where available. Our infrastructure is designed to facilitate research in plate tectonic reconstructions or research that relies on an assessment of plate reconstructions, for both experts and non-experts alike. To further enhance the existing repository and strengthen its value, we encourage others in the community to contribute to this effort.

Beschreibung: In this paper we pose the question where the source regions of the aerosol which occurs in the European Arctic are located. Long-term aerosol optical depth (AOD) data from Ny-Alesund and Sodankylä as well as short data from a campaign on a Russian drifting station were analysed by air backtrajectories, analysis of the general circulation pattern and a correlation to chemical composition from in-situ measurements. Surprisingly our data clearly shows that direct transport of pollutants from Europe does not play an important role. Instead, Arctic haze in Ny-AAlesund has been found for air masses from the Eastern Arctic, while events with increased AOD but chemically more diverse composition have been found for air from Siberia or the central Arctic. Moreover, the AOD in Ny-AAlesund does not depend on the North Atlantic Oszillation (NAO). Hence, either the pollution pathways of aerosol are more complex or aerosol is significantly altered by clouds.

Beschreibung: Radiative transfer in sea ice is subject to anisotropic, multiple scattering. The impact of anisotropy on the light field under sea ice was found to be substantial and has been quantified. In this study, a large data set of irradiance and radiance measurements under sea ice has been acquired with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) in the central Arctic. Measurements are interpreted in the context of numerical radiative transfer calculations, laboratory experiments, and microstructure analysis. The ratio of synchronous measurements of transmitted irradiance to radiance shows a clear deviation from an isotropic under-ice light field. We find that the angular radiance distribution under sea ice is more downward directed than expected for an isotropic light field. This effect can be attributed to the anisotropic scattering coefficient within sea ice. Assuming an isotropic radiance distribution under sea ice leads to significant errors in light-field modeling and the interpretation of radiation measurements. Quantification of the light field geometry is crucial for correct conversion of radiance data acquired by Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs.

Beschreibung: Es gibt viele geologische Hinweise darauf, dass die Erde vor etwa 850 bis 635 Millionen Jahren phasenweise fast vollständig mit Eis bedeckt war. In einer solchen Klimaphase schirmte ein dicker Eispanzer den Ozean von den Einflüssen der Atmosphäre ab. Trotzdem konnte sich, angetrieben von Geothermie am Ozeanboden, eine ganz besondere Ozeanzirkulation entwickeln. Ihre Charakteristika unterscheiden sich deutlich von der heutigen Zirkulation. Sie könnte das Überleben von damaligen Mikroben- und Algenpopulationen in eisfreien Küstenoasen gewährleistet haben.

Beschreibung: Sea ice and snow on sea ice to a large extent determine the surface heat budget in the Arctic Ocean. In spite of the advances in modeling sea-ice thermodynamics, a good number of models still rely on simple parameterizations of the thermodynamics of ice and snow. Based on simulations with an Arctic sea-ice model coupled to an ocean general circulation model, we analyzed the impact of changing two sea-ice parameterizations: (1) the prescribed ice thickness distribution (ITD) for surface heat budget calculations, and (2) the description of the snow layer. For the former, we prescribed a realistic ITD derived from airborne electromagnetic induction sounding measurements. For the latter, two different types of parameterizations were tested: (1) snow thickness independent of the sea-ice thickness below, and (2) a distribution proportional to the prescribed ITD. Our results show that changing the ITD from seven uniform categories to fifteen nonuniform categories derived from field measurements, and distributing the snow layer according to the ITD, leads to an increase in average Arctic-wide ice thickness by 0.56 m and an increase by 1 m in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Canadian Basin. This increase is found to be a direct consequence of 524 km3 extra thermodynamic growth during the months of ice formation (January, February, and March). Our results emphasize that these parameterizations are a key factor in sea-ice modeling to improve the representation of the sea-ice energy balance.

Beschreibung: UV-laser-based microscopic systems were utilized to dissect and sample organic tissue for stable isotope measurements from thin wood cross-sections. We tested UV-laser-based microscopic tissue dissection in practice for high-resolution isotopic analyses (δ13C/δ18O) on thin cross-sections from different tree species. The method allows serial isolation of tissue of any shape and from millimetre down to micrometre scales. On-screen pre-defined areas of interest were automatically dissected and collected for mass spectrometric analysis. Three examples of high-resolution isotopic analyses revealed that: in comparison to δ13C of xylem cells, woody ray parenchyma of deciduous trees have the same year-to-year variability, but reveal offsets that are opposite in sign depending on whether wholewood or cellulose is considered; high-resolution tree-ring δ18O profiles of Indonesian teak reflect monsoonal rainfall patterns and are sensitive to rainfall extremes caused by ENSO; and seasonal moisture signals in intra-tree-ring δ18O of white pine are weighted by nonlinear intra-annual growth dynamics. The applications demonstrate that the use of UV-laser-based microscopic dissection allows for sampling plant tissue at ultrahigh resolution and unprecedented precision. This new technique facilitates sampling for stable isotope analysis of anatomical plant traits like combined tree eco-physiological, wood anatomical and dendroclimatological studies.

Beschreibung: The Arctic sea ice cover is rapidly shrinking, but a direct, longer-term assessment of the ice thinning remains challenging. A new time series constructed from in situ measurements of sea ice thickness at the end of the melt season in Fram Strait shows a thinning by over 50% during 2003-2012. The modal and mean ice thickness along 79 degrees N decreased at a rate of 0.3 and 0.2 m yr(-1), respectively, with long-term averages of 2.5 and 3 m. Airborne observations reveal an east-west thickness gradient across the strait in spring but not in summer due to advection from more different source regions. There is no clear relationship between interannual ice thickness variability and the source regions of the ice. The observed thinning is therefore likely a result of Arctic-wide reduction in ice thickness with a potential shift in exported ice types playing a minor role.

Beschreibung: In the vast Low Nutrient Low-Chlorophyll (LNLC) Ocean, the vertical nutrient supply from the subsurface to the sunlit surface waters is low, and atmospheric contribution of nutrients may be one order of magnitude greater over short timescales. The short turnover time of atmospheric Fe and N supply (〈1 month for nitrate) further supports deposition being an important source of nutrients in LNLC regions. Yet, the extent to which atmospheric inputs are impacting biological activity and modifying the carbon balance in oligotrophic environments has not been constrained. Here, we quantify and compare the biogeochemical impacts of atmospheric deposition in LNLC regions using both a compilation of experimental data and model outputs. A metadata-analysis of recently conducted field and laboratory bioassay experiments reveals complex responses, and the overall impact is not a simple “fertilization effect of increasing phytoplankton biomass” as observed in HNLC regions. Although phytoplankton growth may be enhanced, increases in bacterial activity and respiration result in weakening of biological carbon sequestration. The application of models using climatological or time-averaged non-synoptic deposition rates produced responses that were generally much lower than observed in the bioassay experiments. We demonstrate that experimental data and model outputs show better agreement on short timescale (days to weeks) when strong synoptic pulse of aerosols deposition, similar in magnitude to those observed in the field and introduced in bioassay experiments, is superimposed over the mean atmospheric deposition fields. These results suggest that atmospheric impacts in LNLC regions have been underestimated by models, at least at daily to weekly timescales, as they typically overlook large synoptic variations in atmospheric deposition and associated nutrient and particle inputs. Inclusion of the large synoptic variability of atmospheric input, and improved representation and parameterization of key processes that respond to atmospheric deposition, is required to better constrain impacts in ocean biogeochemical models. This is critical for understanding and prediction of current and future functioning of LNLC regions and their contribution to the global carbon cycle.

Beschreibung: The dominant modes of blocking frequency variability in the Atlantic-European region are evaluated for the 1871–2010 period. An Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis of a two-dimensional blocking indicator field reveals three dominant EOFs, describing about 35% of interannual to multidecadal blocking variability. The first EOF captures an out-of-phase blocking frequency anomaly over Greenland and Western Europe regions. The corresponding principal component time series is strongly correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation index, but shows also significant correlations with indices of the East Atlantic, Scandinavian and East Atlantic-Western Russia patterns. The second EOF shows a dominant center over the North Sea region as well as a less pronounced center with anomalies of the same sign over southeastern Greenland. The multidecadal variations of this mode of blocking variability are related with a basin wide North Atlantic sea surface temperature anomaly which projects partly on the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO). The third mode is an east–west dipole of blocking frequency anomalies from Scandinavian and southern Greenland regions and shows enhanced variability at ~20 year time scales. The coherent variations of the time coefficients of this pattern with open solar flux suggest a possible solar influence on blocking variability at these time scales. Furthermore the dominant patterns of blocking variability are related with distinct anomaly patterns in the occurrence of extreme low temperature events over Europe at interannual to multidecadal time-scales. AMO as well as the solar signals were detected also in the corresponding extreme low temperature blocking patterns. We argue that multivariate analysis of blocking indicators gives additional information about blocking and related extreme climate phenomena variability and predictability comparative with classical sectorial approach.

Beschreibung: Understanding the cooling effect of recent volcanoes is of particular interest in the context of the post-2000 slowing of the rate of global warming. Satellite observations of aerosol optical depth above 15 km have demonstrated that small-magnitude volcanic eruptions substantially perturb incoming solar radiation. Here we use lidar, Aerosol Robotic Network, and balloon-borne observations to provide evidence that currently available satellite databases neglect substantial amounts of volcanic aerosol between the tropopause and 15 km at middle to high latitudes and therefore underestimate total radiative forcing resulting from the recent eruptions. Incorporating these estimates into a simple climate model, we determine the global volcanic aerosol forcing since 2000 to be −0.19 ± 0.09 Wm−2. This translates into an estimated global cooling of 0.05 to 0.12°C. We conclude that recent volcanic events are responsible for more post-2000 cooling than is implied by satellite databases that neglect volcanic aerosol effects below 15 km.

Beschreibung: An intercomparison of four low-resolution remotely sensed ice-drift products in the Arctic Ocean is presented. The purpose of the study is to examine the uncertainty in space and time of these different drift products. The comparison is based on monthly mean ice drifts from October 2002 to December 2006. The ice drifts were also compared with available buoy data. The result shows that the differences of the drift vectors are not spatially uniform, but are covariant with ice concentration and thickness. In high (low) ice-concentration areas, the differences are small (large), and in thick (thin) ice-thickness areas, the differences are small (large). A comparison with the drift deduced from buoys reveals that the error of the drift speed depends on the magnitude of the drift speed: larger drift speeds have larger errors. Based on the intercomparison of the products and comparison with buoy data, uncertainties of the monthly mean drift are estimated. The estimated uncertainty maps reasonably reflect the difference between the products in relation to ice concentration and the bias from the buoy drift in relation to drift speed. Examinations of distinctive features of Arctic sea ice motion demonstrate that the transpolar drift speed differs among the products by 13% (0.32 cm s−1) on average, and ice drift curl in the Amerasian Basin differs by up to 24% (3.3 × 104 m2 s−1). These uncertainties should be taken into account if these products are used, particularly for model validation and data assimilation within the Arctic.

Beschreibung: The breakup of Gondwana is manifested by coeval early Jurassic Karoo magmatism in South Africa and East Antarctica. In South Africa, the large volumes of volcanic rocks of the adjoining Lebombo and Mwenetzi-Save monoclines represent a volcanic rift margin, and in East Antarctica, a corresponding feature, the Explora Wedge is buried below sediments and floating ice shelves on the continental margin of Dronning Maud Land. We use the seismic vibrator source to explore the sub-ice geology in Antarctica, and the new seismic reflection and available regional aeromagnetic data enable us to outline a dogleg landward extent of the Explora Wedge in Dronning Maud Land. The congruent inboard wedge geometries on the two continents define a high quality constraint, which facilitate for the first time, a geologically consistent and tight reconstruction of Africa relative to East Antarctica within Gondwana. The uncertainties in correlations of major geological features (mobile belts) from one continent to the other may now be of the order of ten’s of kilometers rather than hundreds of kilometers.

Beschreibung: The climate during the Cenozoic era changed in several steps from ice-free poles and warm conditions to ice-covered poles and cold conditions. Since the 1950s, a body of information on ice volume and temperature changes has been built up predominantly on the basis of measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of shells of benthic foraminifera collected from marine sediment cores. The statistical methodology of time series analysis has also evolved, allowing more information to be extracted from these records. Here we provide a comprehensive view of Cenozoic climate evolution by means of a coherent and systematic application of time series analytical tools to each record from a compilation spanning the interval from 4 to 61 Myr ago. We quantitatively describe several prominent features of the oxygen isotope record, taking into account the various sources of uncertainty (including measurement, proxy noise, and dating errors). The estimated transition times and amplitudes allow us to assess causal climatological-tectonic influences on the following known features of the Cenozoic oxygen isotopic record: Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, Eocene-Oligocene Transition, Oligocene-Miocene Boundary, and the Middle Miocene Climate Optimum. We further describe and causally interpret the following features: Paleocene-Eocene warming trend, the two-step, long-term Eocene cooling, and the changes within the most recent interval (Miocene-Pliocene). We review the scope and methods of constructing Cenozoic stacks of benthic oxygen isotope records and present two new latitudinal stacks, which capture besides global ice volume also bottom water temperatures at low (less than 30°) and high latitudes. This review concludes with an identification of future directions for data collection, statistical method development, and climate modeling.

Beschreibung: Microbial permafrost communities play an important role in carbon cycling and greenhouse gas fluxes. Despite the importance of these processes, there is a lack of knowledge about how environmental and climatic changes affect the abundance and composition of microorganisms. Here, we investigated the changing distribution of permafrost microorganisms in response to climate and lake-level changes. The permafrost core was drilled at the near shore of Lake El'gygytgyn, Far East Russian Arctic, and a combined microbiological and lipid biomarker approach was applied. The lower part of the permafrost core, deposited under subaquatic conditions, contains only small amounts of microbial signals; total organic carbon (TOC) content is sparse. After exposure of the site to subaerial conditions during the Allerød, the abundance of Bacteria and Archaea started to increase and the lake-level change is especially evidenced by the relative proportion of archaeal biomarkers. This increase is supported by rising bacterial and archaeal 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene copy numbers and significant amounts of TOC during the late Allerød. After a small decrease during the colder Younger Dryas, the TOC content and the microbial signals strongly increase during the Holocene, presumably stimulated by pedogenesis. The occurrence of intact phospholipids indicates the presence of living microorganisms in these deposits. Our data suggest that methane formation is mainly expected for the subaerial interval, especially the Holocene where methanogens were identified by fingerprinting. This study emphasises the role of the uppermost permafrost deposits as a hotspot of carbon cycling in arctic environments, especially in the light of expected future global warming.