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  • Articles  (394)
  • PANGAEA
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2000-2004  (191)
  • 1980-1984  (203)
  • Geosciences  (394)
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  • Articles  (394)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Rates of Biogeochemical Processes in Anoxic Sediments (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 269-298 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.001413
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  • 2
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    Theory of Hydrothermal Systems (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 155-177 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.001103
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
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    Phanerozoic Oolitic Ironstones--Geologic Record and Facies Model (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 441-457 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.002301
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
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    Strain Accumulation in Western United States (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 11-41 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.000303
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  • 5
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    Tectonics of Venus (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 411-443 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.002211
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  • 6
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    Oceanic Intraplate Seismicity (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 195-214 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.001211
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  • 7
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    Double-Diffusive Convection Due to Crystallization in Magmas (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 11-37 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.000303
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
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    Kimberlites: Complex Mantle Melts (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 133-153 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.001025
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
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    Thirteen Years of Deep-Sea Drilling (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 109-128 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.000545
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  • 10
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    Rheological Properties of Magmas (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 337-357 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.002005
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  • 11
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    Blancan-Hemphillian Land Mammal Ages and Late Cenozoic Mammal Dispersal Events (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 445-488 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.002305
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
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    Oceanography from Space (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 61-82 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.000425
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  • 13
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    The Origin of Allochthonous Terranes: Perspectives on the Growth and Shaping of Continents (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 107-131 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.000543
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  • 14
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    Sedimentation in Large Lakes (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 179-204 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.001143
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  • 15
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    Remote Sensing of Active Volcanoes (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 81-106 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The synoptic coverage offered by satellites provides unparalleled opportunities for monitoring active volcanoes, and opens new avenues of scientific inquiry. Thermal infrared radiation can be used to monitor levels of activity, which is useful for automated eruption detection and for studying the emplacement of lava flows. Satellite radars can observe volcanoes through clouds or at night, and provide high-resolution topographic data. In favorable conditions, radar inteferometery can be used to measure ground deformation associated with eruptive activity on a centimetric scale. Clouds from explosive eruptions present a pressing hazard to aviation; therefore, techniques are being developed to assess eruption cloud height and to discriminate between ash and meterological clouds. The multitude of sensors to be launched on future generations of space platforms promises to greatly enhance volcanological studies, but a satellite dedicated to volcanology is needed to meet requirements of aviation safety and volcano monitoring.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.81
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
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    Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 211-280 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50-40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000-1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211
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  • 17
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    Palynology after Y2K-Understanding the Source Area of Pollen in Sediments (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 1-18 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pollen grains preserved in lake and bog sediment provide a record of past vegetation that has been an important source of information about climate and land cover during the Quaternary Period. Yet from the beginning, questions have been raised about the source area of pollen in sediment. Interpretation has been hampered by the lack of well-developed theory treating the relationship between the spatial distribution of trees on the landscape and the percentages of pollen in sediment. Within the past decade, however, new theory, models, and empirical data show how heterogeneous vegetation is represented by pollen. The distinction between "local" and "regional" pollen is explained by the Prentice-Sugita dispersal/deposition models, which predict how the ratio of regional to local pollen changes with lake size. Sugita's model simulating a landscape with heterogeneous vegetation predicts the size of the relevant source area-the area of vegetation reflected in between-lake variations in pollen loading-while demonstrating that regional pollen from beyond this distance is homogeneous at all lakes of similar size. By predicting the way landscape patterns will be reflected in pollen records, simulation models can improve research design and lead to more detailed and spatially precise records of past vegetation, enhancing continental-scale climate reconstructions.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.1
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  • 18
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    Dynamics of Volcanic Systems in Iceland: Example of Tectonism and Volcanism at Juxtaposed Hot Spot and Mid-Ocean Ridge Systems (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 107-140 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Volcanic systems are swarms of tectonic fractures and basalt volcanoes formed as a result of plate-pull (as the plates are pulled apart) associated with the mid-ocean ridges and the magma dynamics of the Iceland Mantle Plume. Most systems are 40-150 km long, 5-20 km wide, and develop a central volcano. They supply magma to all eruptions in Iceland. Data obtained in the last few years have greatly improved our knowledge of their volcanotectonic environment; as a result, the geometry of the plume is better constrained, and the crust, previously considered thin (~10 km), is now modeled as thick (~20-40 km). Depending on the location of the volcanic systems, their activity either decreases or increases faulting in the two main seismic zones. From this, we can infer that emplacement of the feeder-dike to the largest historical eruption in Iceland (that of Laki in 1783) increased shear stress in the South Iceland Seismic Zone and almost certainly triggered the largest (M~7.1 in 1784) historical earthquake in Iceland.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.107
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  • 19
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    Heterogeneity of the Lowermost Mantle (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 509-537 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Strong heterogeneity at a variety of scale lengths has been imaged in the lowermost mantle using different forward and inverse methods. Coherent patterns in differential travel times of waves that sample the base of the mantle-such as diffracted shear waves (Sdiff) and compressional waves (Pdiff)-are readily apparent, and are compared with results from tomographic studies. Travel time and waveform modeling studies have demonstrated the presence of intense lateral variations in a variety of mapped features, such as a regionally detected high velocity D" layer, ultra-low velocity zones, D" anisotropy, strong scattering and heterogeneity. Such short-wavelength variations currently preclude confident mapping of D" structure at smaller scales. Issues of seismic resolution and uncertainties are emphasized here, as well as the limitations of one-dimensional modeling/averaging in highly heterogeneous environments.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.509
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  • 20
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    BREAKTHROUGHS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE EARTH AND PLANETS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 1-15 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: During the last 35 years the planets and moons of our solar system have been visited for the first time, and the plate tectonics paradigm has revolutionized earth science and led to the acceptance of mantle convection as the cause of plate tectonics. The author has been a fortunate participant in these extraordinary events and he offers some reminiscences and recollections of his involvement. He also recalls his former colleague William M Kaula and dedicates this prefatory chapter to him.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.1
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  • 21
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    GROUND PENETRATING RADAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 229-255 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a near-surface geophysical technique that can provide high resolution images of the dielectric properties of the top few tens of meters of the earth. In applications in contaminant hydrology, radar data can be used to detect the presence of liquid organic contaminants, many of which have dielectric properties distinctly different from those of the other solid and fluid components in the subsurface. The resolution (approximately meter-scale) of the radar imaging method is such that it can also be used in the development of hydrogeologic models of the subsurface, required to predict the fate and transport of contaminants. GPR images are interpreted to obtain models of the large-scale architecture of the subsurface and to assist in estimating hydrogeologic properties such as water content, porosity, and permeability. Its noninvasive capabilities make GPR an attractive alternative to the traditional methods used for subsurface characterization.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.229
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  • 22
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    RUSTY RELICS OF EARTH HISTORY: Iron(III) Oxides, Isotopes, and Surficial Environments (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 165-199 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The two most common low-temperature iron(III) oxides on Earth are goethite (alpha-FeOOH) and hematite (alpha-Fe2O3). The delta18O values of natural goethites range from -15.5% to +3.3%, whereas delta18O values of low-temperature hematites range from -16.7% to +4.7%. Plots of deltaD against delta18O for continental goethites are approximately parallel to the meteoric water line of Craig (H Craig. 1961. Science 133:1702-3). This suggests that goethite-water fractionation factors are systematic over a wide range of surficial environments and may indicate that isotopic equilibrium is commonly attained or closely approached. Several experimental or calculated mineral-water, oxygen isotope fractionation curves have been determined for both goethite and hematite. Although there is not yet a consensus on which of these curves best approximates isotopic fractionation in natural samples, oxygen isotope measurements of both goethite and hematite have provided evidence of significant continental climate change on time scales that range from thousands to millions of years. The concentration and delta13C values of an Fe(CO3)OH component in apparent solid solution in goethite are proxies for the partial pressure and delta13C values, respectively, of CO2 in the environment at the time of goethite crystallization. Biological productivity, CO2 pressures in soil or groundwater, and partial pressures of atmospheric CO2 in ancient environments have been estimated from measurements of the mole fractions and delta13C values of Fe(CO3)OH in goethite.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.165
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  • 23
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    THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS EXTINCTION (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 331-364 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Near the end of the Late Ordovician, in the first of five mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic, about 85% of marine species died. The cause was a brief glacial interval that produced two pulses of extinction. The first pulse was at the beginning of the glaciation, when sea-level decline drained epicontinental seaways, produced a harsh climate in low and mid-latitudes, and initiated active, deep-oceanic currents that aerated the deep oceans and brought nutrients and possibly toxic material up from oceanic depths. Following that initial pulse of extinction, surviving faunas adapted to the new ecologic setting. The glaciation ended suddenly, and as sea level rose, the climate moderated, and oceanic circulation stagnated, another pulse of extinction occurred. The second extinction marked the end of a long interval of ecologic stasis (an Ecologic-Evolutionary Unit). Recovery from the event took several million years, but the resulting fauna had ecologic patterns similar to the fauna that had become extinct. Other extinction events that eliminated similar or even smaller percentages of species had greater long-term ecologic effects.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331
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  • 24
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    HYDROGEN IN THE DEEP EARTH (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 365-418 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The mechanisms of exchange of hydrogen between the deep interior and surface of Earth, as well as the means of retention and possible abundance of hydrogen deep within the Earth, are examined. The uppermost several hundred kilometers of Earth's suboceanic upper mantle appear to be largely degassed, but significant primordial hydrogen could be retained within the transition zone, lower mantle, or core. Regassing of the planet occurs via subduction: Cold slabs are likely particularly efficient at transporting hydrogen to depth within the planet. Marked changes in hydrogen cycling have taken place throughout Earth's history: Evidence of hydrated ultramafic melts in the Archean and probable hydrogen retention within a Hadean magma ocean indicate that early in its history, the deep Earth was substantially wetter. The largest enigma associated with hydrogen in the deep Earth lies in the core: This region could represent the dominant reservoir of hydrogen on the planet, with up to ~100 hydrospheres of hydrogen present as a high-pressure iron-alloy.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.365
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  • 25
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    THE CARBON BUDGET IN SOILS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 535-562 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The global soil C reservoir, ~1500 Gt of C (1 Gt = 1012 kg of C), is dynamic on decadal time scales and is sensitive to climate and human disturbance. At present, as a result of land use, soil C is a source of atmospheric CO2 in the tropics and possibly part of a sink in northern latitudes. Here I review the processes responsible for maintaining the global soil C reservoir and what is known about how it responds to direct and indirect human perturbations. "I am fire and air; my other elements I give to baser life" -William Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.535
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  • 26
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    DATING MODERN DELTAS: Progress, Problems, and Prognostics1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 257-294 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Radiocarbon dating is the method most frequently used to date Holocene deltaic sequences, but less than one quarter of 14C dates are within +-500 years of predicted age. Such dates tend to be unreliable, in other words, often too old and commonly inverted upsection, and core sample dates obtained near deltaic plain surfaces may be as old as mid- to late Holocene. Stratigraphic irregularities result primarily from downslope reworking of upland alluvial sediment, with displacement of "old carbon" in the sediment that accumulates in lower valleys and deltaic plains. Use of dates that are too old results in inaccurately calculated rates (most often too low) of relative sea-level rise and/or land subsidence. More reliable timing of deltaic sediment requires a multiple-method dating approach, including, where possible, identification of associated archaeological material. Developing an accurate dating strategy is a critical step for implementing reliable coastal protection measures needed for the rapidly increasing human populations in these low-lying, vulnerable nearshore settings.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.257
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  • 27
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    PHYSICS OF PARTIALLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA: Residual Saturation and Seismic-Wave Propagation (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 419-460 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In this paper, we present a review of seismic-wave propagation in fluid-saturated and partially saturated porous media. Seismic-wave velocity and attenuation are affected by the degree of saturation and the spatial distribution of fluids within the medium. Attenuation mechanisms include local and global flow as well as energy loss caused by scattering. We also present results from acoustic tomography of unconsolidated porous media with residual paraffin saturation. The acoustic attenuation was found to be sensitive to the grain- and subgrain-scale (microscale) distribution of residual saturation; in other words, the residual saturation behaves like soft cement that locally stiffens grain contacts and creates heterogeneity that results in scattering. The effect of microscale phenomena on multigrain scale (macroscale) measurements of seismic-wave attenuation and velocity cannot be ignored.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.419
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  • 28
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    RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ICE-APPLICATIONS TO SATELLITES OF THE OUTER PLANETS1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 295-330 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The icy moons of the outer solar system have not been quiescent bodies, in part because many have a substantial water component and have experienced significant internal heating. We can begin to understand the thermal evolution of the moons and the rate of viscous relaxation of surface topography because we now have good constraints on how ice (in several of its polymorphic forms) flows under deviatoric stress at planetary conditions. Details of laboratory-derived flow laws for pure, polycrystalline ice are reviewed in detail. One of the more important questions at hand is the role of ice grain size. Grain size may be a dynamic quantity within the icy moons, and it may (or may not) significantly affect rheology. One recent beneficiary of revelations about grain-size-sensitive flow is the calculation of the rheological structure of Europa's outer ice shell, which may be no thicker than 20 km.
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    RESPONSE OF LATE CARBONIFEROUS AND EARLY PERMIAN PLANT COMMUNITIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 461-487 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Late Carboniferous and Early Permian strata record the transition from a cold interval in Earth history, characterized by the repeated periods of glaciation and deglaciation of the southern pole, to a warm-climate interval. Consequently, this time period is the best available analogue to the Recent in which to study patterns of vegetational response, both to glacial-interglacial oscillation and to the appearance of warm climate. Carboniferous wetland ecosystems were dominated by spore-producing plants and early gymnospermous seed plants. Global climate changes, largely drying, forced vegetational changes, resulting in a change to a seed plant-dominated world, beginning first at high latitudes during the Carboniferous, reaching the tropics near the Permo-Carboniferous boundary. For most of this time plant assemblages were very conservative in their composition. Change in the dominant vegetation was generally a rapid process, which suggests that environmental thresholds were crossed, and involved little mixing of elements from the wet and dry floras.
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    CONTINUOUS FREE OSCILLATIONS: Atmosphere-Solid Earth Coupling (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 563-584 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In 1997, after almost forty years since the initial attempt by Benioff et al (1959), continuous free oscillations of the Earth were discovered. Spheroidal fundamental modes between 2 and 7 millihertz are excited continuously with acceleration amplitudes of about 0.3-0.5 nanogals. The signal is now commonly found in virtually all data recorded by STS-1 type broadband seismometers at quiet sites. Seasonal variation in amplitude and the existence of two coupled modes between the atmosphere and the solid Earth support that these oscillations are excited by the atmosphere. Stochastic excitation due to atmospheric turbulence is a favored mechanism, providing a good match between theory and data. The atmosphere has ample energy to support this theory because excitation of these modes require only 500-10000 W whereas the atmosphere contains about 1017 W of kinetic energy. An application of this phenomenon includes planetary seismology, because other planets may be oscillating owing to atmospheric excitation. The interior structure of planets could be learned by determining the eigenfrequencies in the continuous free oscillations. It is especially attractive to pursue this idea for tectonically quiet planets, since quakes may be too infrequent to be recorded by seismic instruments.
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    STREAMFLOW NECESSARY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MAINTENANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 181-206 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In the last decades, insights from the fields of ecology, geomorphology, and hydrology have been applied to the question of the streamflows necessary for environmental maintenance. For instance, determining the streamflow needed for spawning by salmon or trout requires ascertaining how much water, for how long, and at what time it will be needed? And what flows are necessary for the sustenance of streamside vegetation? Answers to these and similar questions have been sought to minimize environmental degradation in the development or relicensing of water projects, in restoring riverine ecosystems, and in balancing multiple uses for limited water resources. In this contribution, the varieties of environmental maintenance flows applied to rivers are described, as are their fundamental principles. These environmental maintenance flows include flows to maintain aesthetics and recreation, streambed sediment size and its mobility, the channel, its features and continuity, and the floodplain, its wetness regime, and riparian vegetation.
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    GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE OF THE UPPERMOST OCEANIC CRUST CREATED AT FAST- TO INTERMEDIATE-RATE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 347-384 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Geological investigations of major fault scarps ("tectonic windows") and DSDP/ODP Drill Holes provide direct views of the uppermost oceanic crust generated at fast- to intermediate-rate spreading centers. These areas reveal a consistent upper crustal structural geometry with basaltic lava flows defining a pattern of downward increasing ("inward") dip toward the spreading center at which they formed and dikes in the lavas and underlying sheeted dike complex showing a similar degree of "outward" dip. Widespread fracturing, faulting, and hydrothermal metamorphism accompanied magmatic construction. These geological relationships can be interpreted in terms of dramatic, asymmetrical, subaxial subsidence of upper crustal rock units that diminishes across the very narrow (few kilometers wide) zone of lava accumulation and dike intrusion at the ridge axis. This type of crustal structure is in accord with some existing models of spreading but augments these idealized views with more realistic geological complexity.
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    PRELUDE TO THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 285-306 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Prelude began with the origin of Metazoa, perhaps between 720 and 660 million years ago (mya), and ended with the geologically abrupt appearance of crown bilaterian phyla that began between 530 and 520 mya. The origin and early evolution of phyla cannot be tracked by fossils during this interval, but molecular phylogenetics permits reconstruction of their branching topology, whereas molecular developmental evidence supports hypotheses for the evolution of the metzoan genome during the rise of complex bodyplans. A flexible architecture of genetic regulation was in place even before the appearance of crown sponges, permitting increases in gene expression events as bodyplan complexity rose. Neoproterozoic bilaterians were chiefly small-bodied but likely diverse, whereas in the earliest Cambrian, between 543 and approximately 530-520 mya, bodies that were complex by marine invertebrate standards evolved in association with body-size increases.
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    PLUTO AND CHARON: Formation, Seasons, Composition (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 307-345 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pluto and Charon, once thought to be a singular system in an odd orbit at the edge of the solar system, are now known as members of a vast population of icy bodies beyond Neptune. Models for the occurrence of the odd orbit and formation of these bodies in the context of the total population are reviewed. Pluto's orbital characteristics, coupled with the existence of volatiles on the surface, suggest that large-scale seasonal change should occur on the surface. Models of seasonal variability are discussed, past and current observations are examined for evidence of variability, and a straw-man model of seasonal changes is proposed. Finally, recent observations of the surface composition of Charon are discussed and compared with observations of other similarly sized icy bodies in the outer Solar System.
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    MANTLE MIXING: The Generation, Preservation, and Destruction of Chemical Heterogeneity (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 493-525 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of the geochemical diversity of mid-oceanic ridge and ocean-island basalts have traditionally been attributed to the existence of large-scale mantle heterogeneity. In particular, the layered convection model has provided an important conceptual basis for discussing the chemical evolution of the Earth. In this model, a long-term boundary is assumed between a well-mixed and depleted upper mantle and a heterogeneous and more primitive lower mantle. The existence of high 3He/4He in ocean-island sources has been used to argue for the preservation of a primitive component in the deep mantle. Nevertheless, a primitive deep layer is difficult to reconcile with the abundant lithophile isotopic evidence for recycling of oceanic crust and the lack of preservation of primitive mantle. In addition, the widespread acceptance of geophysical evidence for whole mantle flow has made straightforward application of the layered convection model problematic. Model calculations show that whole mantle convection with present day heat flow and surface velocities is sufficiently vigorous to mix large-scale heterogeneity to an extent that is incompatible with the geochemical observations. Several concepts have been proposed in recent years to resolve the apparent conflicts between the various observational constraints and theoretical interpretations. The suggestions include the presence of deeper layering, preservation of highly viscous blobs, core mantle interaction, and strong temporal variations in mantle dynamics. Although these models generally appear to solve parts of the puzzle, at present no single model is able to account for all of the major observations. The reconciliation of conflicting evidence awaits improvements in observational and experimental techniques integrated with better model testing of hypotheses for the generation and destruction of mantle heterogeneity.
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    ISOTOPIC ADVENTURES-Geological, Planetological, and Cosmic (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 1-74 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141409
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    TROPICAL CYCLONES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 75-104 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Tropical cyclones encompass virtually every subdiscipline of geophysical fluid dynamics, including cumulus convection, boundary layers, thermodynamic cycles, surface wave dynamics, upper ocean wind-driven circulations, barotropic instability, Rossby waves, and air-sea interaction. After briefly reviewing what is known about the structure, behavior, and climatology of these fascinating storms, the author provides an overview of their physics, focusing on the unique and poorly understood nature of the air-sea interface, and discusses several of the most interesting avenues of ongoing research.
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    FOSSIL PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF THE PHANEROZOIC GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 527-556 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Developments in plant physiology since the 1980s have led to the realization that fossil plants archive both the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 and its concentration, both critical integrators of carbon cycle processes through geologic time. These two carbon cycle signals can be read by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition (delta13C) of fossilized terrestrial organic matter and by determining the stomatal characters of well-preserved fossil leaves, respectively. We critically evaluate the use of fossil plants in this way at abrupt climatic boundaries associated with mass extinctions and during times of extreme global warmth. Particular emphasis is placed on evaluating the potential to extract a quantitative estimate of the delta13C of atmospheric CO2 because of the key role it plays in understanding the carbon cycle. We critically discuss the use of stomatal index and stomatal ratios for reconstructing atmospheric CO2 levels, especially the need for adequate replication, and present a newly derived CO2 record for the Mesozoic that supports levels calculated from geochemical modeling of the long-term carbon cycle. Several suggestions for future research using stable carbon isotope analyses of fossil terrestrial organic matter and stomatal measurements are highlighted.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141413
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    PHANEROZOIC ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 105-134 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Theoretical calculations, based on both the chemical and isotopic composition of sedimentary rocks, indicate that atmospheric O2 has varied appreciably over Phanerozoic time, with a notable excursion during the Permo-Carboniferous reaching levels as high as 35% O2. This agrees with measurements of the carbon isotopic composition of fossil plants together with experiments and calculations on the effect of O2 on photosynthetic carbon isotope fractionation. The principal cause of the excursion was the rise of large vascular land plants and the consequent increased global burial of organic matter. Higher levels of O2 are consistent with the presence of Permo-Carboniferous giant insects, and preliminary experiments indicate that insect body size can increase with elevated O2. Higher O2 also may have caused more extensive, possibly catastrophic, wildfires. To check this, realistic burning experiments are needed to examine the effects of elevated O2 on fire behavior.
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    MADAGASCAR: Heads It's a Continent, Tails It's an Island (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 213-248 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Neither geologists nor biologists have a definition that is capable of classifying Madagascar unambiguously as an island or a continent; nor can they incorporate Malagasy natural history into a single model rooted in Africa or Asia. Madagascar is a microcosm of the larger continents, with a rock record that spans more than 3000 million years (Ma), during which it has been united episodically with, and divorced from, Asian and African connections. This is reflected in its Precambrian history of deep crustal tectonics and a Phanerozoic history of biodiversity that fluctuated between cosmopolitanism and parochialism. Both vicariance and dispersal events over the past 90 Ma have blended a unique endemism on Madagascar, now in decline following rapid extinctions that started about 2000 years ago.
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    METAL-SILICATE PARTITIONING OF SIDEROPHILE ELEMENTS AND CORE FORMATION IN THE EARLY EARTH* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 135-174 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Accretion models for the Earth and terrestrial planets are based on the distribution of siderophile (iron-loving) elements between metal and silicate. Extensive experimental studies of the partitioning of these elements between metallic liquid and silicate melt have led to a better understanding and a more sophisticated application to planetary problems. Siderophile element metal/silicate partition coefficients are a function of temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and metal and silicate composition. Quantification of these effects for a limited subset of siderophile elements has led to the idea that early Earth had a 700-km or deeper magma ocean. This new understanding of siderophile element partitioning has also led to applications to the kinetics of metal-silicate equilibrium, links to the timing of core formation, and a better understanding of core formation and metal-silicate equilibrium in the Moon and Mars. Key issues for future consideration include the role of water in early Earth, consideration of the core as a reservoir for noble gases and/or traditionally lithophile elements, siderophile element concentrations in the deep mantle, oxygen fugacity at high pressures, and further evaluation of the need for a late accretional veneer. The strongest approach to improving accretion models for the terrestrial planets is one that combines geochemistry, geophysics, and planetary dynamics.
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    VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ON IO DURING THE GALILEO ERA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 175-211 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Galileo's explorations have revealed a remarkable variety of eruptive styles among Io's diverse volcanoes. Activity at hundreds of volcanic centers ranges from dormant through sporadic to continuous over the 20-year period of spacecraft observation. High temperature volcanism is common on Io, suggesting that the lavas are made up of mafic to ultramafic silicates rather than sulfur compounds. Io's largest plumes are driven by SO2 and sulfur-rich gasses vented from the silicate interior that produce prominent red pyroclastic deposits. Red deposits flag the source regions of many other ongoing or very recent eruptions. Smaller plumes are produced near the margins of active lava flows by explosive volatilization of the underlying or surrounding SO2. These plumes produce SO2 snowflakes that mantle existing topography. Io's volcanism drives significant variations in the atmosphere and plasma torus, yet most of the heat loss occurs through lava flows and by the quiet overturning of lava lakes without large-scale explosive activity. Although only a handful of Io's volcanoes have been directly observed to produce explosive eruptions, volcanic resurfacing is efficient enough to erase even small craters from Io's youthful surface.
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    THE EFFECTS OF BIOTURBATION ON SOIL PROCESSES AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 249-273 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Plants and animals exploit the soil for food and shelter and, in the process, affect it in many different ways. For example, uprooted trees may break up bedrock, transport soil downslope, increase the heterogeneity of soil respiration rates, and inhibit soil horizonation. In this contribution, we review previously published papers that provide insights into the process of bioturbation. We focus particularly on studies that allow us to place bioturbation within a quantitative framework that links the form of hillslopes with the processes of sediment transport and soil production. Using geometrical relationships and data from others' work, we derive simple sediment flux equations for tree throw and root growth and decay.
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    GLOBAL MANTLE TOMOGRAPHY: Progress Status in the Past 10 Years (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 303-328 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the present status of global mantle tomography and discuss two main classes of models that have been developed in the past 10 years: P velocity models based on large datasets of travel times from the International Seismological Centre bulletins, often referred to as "high resolution" models, and S velocity models based on a combination of surface wave and hand picked body wave travel times, or waveforms, referred to as "long wavelength" models. We discuss their respective strengths and weaknesses, as well as progress in the resolution of other physical parameters, such as anisotropy, anelasticity, density, and bulk sound velocity using tomographic approaches. We present the view that future improvements in global seismic tomography require the utilization of the rich information contained in complete broadband seismic waveforms. This is presently within our reach owing to theoretical progress as well as the increase in computational power in recent years.
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    THE ROLE OF DECAY AND MINERALIZATION IN THE PRESERVATION OF SOFT-BODIED FOSSILS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 275-301 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Fossil deposits that preserve soft-bodied organisms provide critical evidence of the history of life. Usually, only more decay resistant materials, e.g., cuticles, survive as organic remains as a result of selective preservation and subsequent diagenesis to more resistant biopolymers. Permineralization, the permeation of tissues by mineralizing fluids, may preserve remarkable detail, particularly of plants. However, evidence of more labile tissues, e.g., muscle, normally requires the replication of their morphology by rapid in situ growth of minerals, i.e., authigenic mineralization. This process relies on the steep geochemical gradients generated by decay microbes. The minerals involved, and the level of detail preserved (which may be subcellular), depend on a number of factors, including the nature of microbial activity and amount of decay, availability of ions, and the type of organism that is fossilized. Understanding these controls is essential to determining the conditions that favor exceptional preservation.
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    PRODUCTION, ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION, AND ATMOSPHERIC FATE OF BIOLOGICALLY PRODUCED NITROUS OXIDE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 329-356 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The anthropogenic production of greenhouse gases and their consequent effects on global climate have garnered international attention for years. A remaining challenge facing scientists is to unambiguously quantify both sources and sinks of targeted gases. Microbiological metabolism accounts for the largest source of nitrous oxide (N2O), mostly due to global conversion of land for agriculture and massive usage of nitrogen-based fertilizers. A most powerful method for characterizing the sources of N2O lies in its multi-isotope signature. This review summarizes mechanisms that lead to biological N2O production and how discriminate placement of 15N into molecules of N2O occurs. Through direct measurements and atmospheric modeling, we can now place a constraint on the isotopic composition of biological sources of N2O and trace its fate in the atmosphere. This powerful interdisciplinary combination of biology and atmospheric chemistry is rapidly advancing the closure of the global N2O budget.
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    PHYLOGENETIC APPROACHES TOWARD CROCODYLIAN HISTORY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 357-397 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A review of crocodylian phylogeny reveals a more complex history than might have been anticipated from a direct reading of the fossil record without consideration of phylogenetic relationships. The three main extant crocodylian lineages-Gavialoidea, Alligatoroidea, Crocodyloidea-are known from fossils in the Late Cretaceous, and the group is found nearly worldwide during the Cenozoic. Some groups have distributions that are best explained by the crossing of marine barriers during the Tertiary. Early Tertiary crocodylian faunas are phylogenetically composite, and clades tend to be morphologically uniform and geographically widespread. Later in the Tertiary, Old World crocodylian faunas are more endemic. Crocodylian phylogeneticists face numerous challenges, the most important being the phylogenetic relationships and time of divergence of the two living gharials (Gavialis gangeticus and Tomistoma schlegelii), the relationships among living true crocodiles (Crocodylus), and the relationships among caimans.
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    THE INDIAN MONSOON AND ITS VARIABILITY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 429-467 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract For over 300 years, the monsoon has been viewed as a gigantic land-sea breeze. It is shown in this paper that satellite and conventional observations support an alternative hypothesis, which considers the monsoon as a manifestation of seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). With the focus on the Indian monsoon, the mean seasonal pattern is described, and why it is difficult to simulate it is discussed. Some facets of the intraseasonal variation, such as active-weak cycles; break monsoon; and a special feature of intraseasonal variation over the region, namely, poleward propagations of the ITCZ at intervals of 2-6 weeks, are considered. Vertical moist stability is shown to be a key parameter in the variation of monthly convection over ocean and land as well as poleward propagations. Special features of the Bay of Bengal and the monsoon brought out by observations during a national observational experiment in 1999 are briefly described.
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    RECOGNIZING MANTLE PLUMES IN THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 469-523 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Mantle plumes are recognized by domal uplift, triple junction rifting, and especially the presence of a large igneous province (LIP), dominated in the Phanerozoic by flood basalts, and in the Proterozoic by the exposed plumbing system of dykes, sills, and layered intrusions. In the Archean, greenstone belts that contain komatiites have been linked to plumes. In addition, some carbonatites and kimberlites may originate from plumes that have stalled beneath thick lithosphere. Geochemistry and isotopes can be used to test and characterize the plume origin of LIPs. Seismic tomography and geochemistry of crustal and subcrustal xenoliths in kimberlites can identify fossil plumes. More speculatively, plumes (or clusters of plumes) have been linked with variation in the isotopic composition of marine carbonates, sea-level rise, iron formations, anoxia events, extinctions, continental breakup, juvenile crust production, magnetic superchrons, and meteorite impacts. The central region of a plume is located using the focus of a radiating dyke swarm, the distribution of komatiites and picrites, etc. The outer boundary of a plume head circumscribes the main flood basalt distribution and approximately coincides with the edge of domal uplift that causes shoaling and offlap in regional sedimentation.
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    RHEOLOGY OF GRANITIC MAGMAS DURING ASCENT AND EMPLACEMENT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 399-427 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in understanding the static rheological properties of granitic magmas in the continental crust. Changes in H2O content, CO2 content, and oxidation state of the interstitial melt phase have been identified as important compositional factors governing the rheodynamic behavior of the solid/fluid mixture. Although the strengths of granitic magmas over the crystallization interval are still poorly constrained, theoretical investigations suggest that during magma ascent, yield strengths of the order of 9 kPa are required to completely retard the upward flow in meter-wide conduits. In low Bagnold number magma suspensions with moderate crystal contents (solidosities 0.1 〈=phi〈= 0.3), viscous fluctuations may lead to flow differentiation by shear-enhanced diffusion. AMS and microstructural studies support the idea that granite plutons are intruded as crystal-poor liquids (phi〈= 50%), with fabric and foliation development restricted to the final stages of emplacement. If so, then these fabrics contain no information on the ascent (vertical transport) history of the magma. Deformation of a magmatic mush during pluton emplacement can enhance significantly the pressure gradient in the melt, resulting in a range of local macroscopic flow structures, including layering, crystal alignment, and other mechanical instabilities such as shear zones. As the suspension viscosity varies with stress rate, it is not clear how the timing of proposed rheological transitions formulated from simple equations for static magma suspensions applies to mixtures undergoing shear. New theories of magmas as multiphase flows are required if the full complexity of granitic magma rheology is to be resolved.
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    CATASTROPHIC FLOODING OF THE BLACK SEA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 525-554 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Decades of seabed mapping, reflection profiling, and seabed sampling reveal that throughout the past two million years the Black Sea was predominantly a freshwater lake interrupted only briefly by saltwater invasions coincident with global sea level highstand. When the exterior ocean lay below the relatively shallow sill of the Bosporus outlet, the Black Sea operated in two modes. As in the neighboring Caspian Sea, a cold climate mode corresponded with an expanded lake and a warm climate mode with a shrunken lake. Thus, during much of the cold glacial Quaternary, the expanded Black Sea's lake spilled into to the Marmara Sea and from there to the Mediterranean. However, in the warm climate mode, after receiving a vast volume of ice sheet meltwater, the shoreline of the shrinking lake contracted to the outer shelf and on a few occasions even beyond the shelf edge. If the confluence of a falling interior lake and a rising global ocean persisted to the moment when the rising ocean penetrated across the dividing sill, it would set the stage for catastrophic flooding. Although recently challenged, the flood hypothesis for the connecting event best fits the full set of observations.
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    GEOMORPHOLOGY: A Sliver Off the Corpus of Science (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32 (2004), S. 1-12 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    IS EL NINO SPORADIC OR CYCLIC? (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 579-594 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Is El Nino one phase of a continual, self-sustaining natural mode of the coupled ocean-atmosphere that has La Nina as the complementary phase? Or is El Nino a temporary departure from "normal" conditions "triggered" by a random disturbance such as a burst of westerly winds? A growing body of evidence-stability analyses, studies of the energetics, simulations that reproduce the statistics of sea surface temperature variations in the eastern equatorial Pacific-indicates that reality corresponds to a compromise between these two possibilities: The observed Southern Oscillation between El Nino and La Nina corresponds to a weakly damped mode that is sustained by random disturbances. This means that the predictability of El Nino is limited by the continual presence of "noise" so that forecasts should be probabilistic. The Southern Oscillation is also subject to decadal modulations. How it will be influenced by global warming is a matter of considerable uncertainty.
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    Cratering Mechanics-Observational, Experimental, and Theoretical (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 65-93 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    The Dynamics of Sudden Stratospheric Warmings (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 169-190 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Affairs of the Sea (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 1-17 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Deformation of Mantle Rocks (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 119-144 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Geologic Pressure Determinations from Fluid Inclusion Studies (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 263-301 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Quaternary Deep-Sea Benthic Foraminifers and Bottom Water Masses (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 343-370 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Seismic Reflection Studies of Deep Crustal Structure (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 205-230 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Refractory Inclusions in the Allende Meteorite (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 559-608 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Some Reminiscences of Isotopes, Geochronology, and Mass Spectrometry (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 1-18 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Form, Function, and Architecture of Ostracode Shells (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 59-80 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Rotation and Precession of Cometary Nuclei (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 113-143 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Ancient Marine Phosphorites (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 251-284 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    The Combined Use of Oxygen and Radiogenic Isotopes as Indicators of Crustal Contamination (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 311-344 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    The Atmospheres of the Outer Planets (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 415-457 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Poleward Heat Transport by the Ocean: Observations and Models (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 15-38 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Cordilleran Metamorphic Core Complexes -- From Arizona to Southern Canada (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 129-154 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Earthquake Prediction (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 235-256 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Hotspot Swells (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 165-193 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Methane and other Hydrocarbon Gases in Marine Sediment (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 299-327 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Recent Developments in the Dynamo Theory of Planetary Magnetism (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 241-268 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Seismic Gaps in Space and Time (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 359-369 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Dynamical Constraints on the Formation and Evolution of Planetary Bodies (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 61-108 
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    Interiors of the Giant Planets (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 257-295 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Heat and Mass Circulation in Geothermal Systems (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 377-395 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    The Role of Perfectly Mobile Components in Metamorphism (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 221-233 
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    MARS 2000 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 281-304 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Twenty years after the Viking Mission, Mars is again being scrutinized in the light of a flood of information from spacecraft missions to Mars, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the SNC meteorites. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of Mars, especially in light of the data being returned from the Mars Global Surveyor Mission. Mars does not now have a global magnetic field, but the presence of crustal anomalies indicates that a global field existed early in Martian history. The topography, geodetic figure, and gravitational field are known to high precision. The northern hemisphere is lower and has a thinner and stronger crust than the southern hemisphere. The global weather and the thermal structure of the atmosphere have been monitored for more than a year. Surface-atmosphere interaction has been investigated by observations of surface features, polar caps, atmospheric dust, and condensate clouds. The surface has been imaged at very high resolution and spectral measures have been obtained to quantify surface characteristics and geologic processes. Many questions remain unanswered, especially about the earliest period of Mars' history.
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    Dinosaur Reproduction and Parenting (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 19-45 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Non-avian dinosaur reproductive and parenting behaviors were mostly similar to those of extant archosaurs. Non-avian dinosaurs were probably sexually dimorphic and some may have engaged in hierarchical rituals. Non-avian coelurosaurs (e.g. Troodontidae, Oviraptorosauria) had two active oviducts, each of which produced single eggs on a daily or greater time scale. The eggs of non-coelurosaurian dinosaurs (e.g. Ornithischia, Sauropoda) were incubated in soils, whereas the eggs of non-avian coelurosaurs (e.g. Troodon, Oviraptor) were incubated with a combination of soil and direct parental contact. Parental attention to the young was variable, ranging from protection from predators to possible parental feeding of nest-bound hatchlings. Semi-altricial hadrosaur hatchlings exited their respective nests near the time of their first linear doubling. Some reproductive behaviors, once thought exclusive to Aves, arose first in non-avian dinosaurs. The success of the Dinosauria may be related to reproductive strategies.
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    HUMAN IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTY (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 17-45 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract An overview is given of the main anthropogenic influences on the chemistry of the atmosphere. Industrial and agricultural activities have altered the chemical composition of the atmosphere in many important ways, which is reflected especially in the distribution and concentrations of ozone in the troposphere and stratosphere. On one hand, as a result of industrial chlorofluorocarbon emissions, ozone has been depleted in unexpected major ways in the polar stratosphere. On the other hand, especially as a result of NO emissions, tropospheric ozone has increased both in the industrial mid-latitude regions and at low latitudes, in the latter mostly because of tropical biomass burning. In the future, growing anthropogenic emissions by developing nations will have an additional effect on the climate and the self-cleaning (oxidation) power of the atmosphere.
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    TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE JAPANESE ISLAND ARC SYSTEM (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 109-134 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Growth of the Japanese arc system, which has mainly taken place along the continental margin of Asia since the Permian, is the result of subduction of the ancient Pacific ocean floor. Backarc basin formation in the Tertiary shaped the present-day arc configuration. The neotectonic regime, which is characterized by strong east-west compression, has been triggered by the eastward motion of the Amur plate in the Quaternary. The tectonic evolution of the Japanese arc system includes formation of rock assemblages common in most orogenic belts. Because the origin and present-day tectonics of these assemblages are better defined in the case of the Japanese arc system, study of the system provides useful insight into orogenesis and continental crust evolution.
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    Evolution and Structure of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Orogen) of Eastern Australia (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 47-80 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Lachlan Fold Belt (Lachlan Orogen) of eastern Australia was part of a Paleozoic convergent plate margin that stretched around the supercontinent of Gondwana from South America to Australia. Lower Paleozoic (545-365 Ma) deep-water, quartz-rich turbidites, calcalkaline volcanic rocks, and voluminous granitic plutons dominate the Lachlan Orogen. These rocks overlie a mafic lower crust of oceanic affinity. Shortening and accretion of the Lachlan occurred through stepwise deformation and metamorphism from Late Ordovician (~450 Ma) through early Carboniferous times, with dominant events at about 440-430 Ma and 400-380 Ma. The development and accretion of the Lachlan Orogen and other related belts within the Tasmanides added about 2.5 Mkm2 to the surface area of Gondwana. The sedimentary, magmatic, and deformational processes converted an oceanic turbidite fan system into continental crust of normal thickness. The addition of this recycled continental detritus and juvenile material to Australia represents an under-recognized continental crustal growth mechanism that has been important thoughout earth history.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.47
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    Climate Reconstruction from Subsurface Temperatures (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 339-365 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Temperature changes at the Earth's surface propagate downward into the subsurface and impart a thermal signature to the rocks. This signature can be measured in boreholes and then analyzed to reconstruct the surface temperature history over the past several centuries. The ability to resolve surface temperature history from subsurface temperatures diminishes with time. Microclimatic effects associated with the topography and vegetation patterns at the site of a borehole, along with local anthropogenic perturbations associated with land use change, can obscure the regional climate change signal. Regional and global ensembles of boreholes reveal the broader patterns of temperature changes at the Earth's surface. The average surface temperature of the continents has increased by about 1.0 K over the past 5 centuries; half of this increase has occurred in the twentieth century alone.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.339
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    Seismic Imaging of Mantle Plumes (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 391-417 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The mantle plume hypothesis was proposed thirty years ago by Jason Morgan to explain hotspot volcanoes such as Hawaii. A thermal diapir (or plume) rises from the thermal boundary layer at the base of the mantle and produces a chain of volcanoes as a plate moves on top of it. The idea is very attractive, but direct evidence for actual plumes is weak, and many questions remain unanswered. With the great improvement of seismic imagery in the past ten years, new prospects have arisen. Mantle plumes are expected to be rather narrow, and their detection by seismic techniques requires specific developments as well as dedicated field experiments. Regional travel-time tomography has provided good evidence for plumes in the upper mantle beneath a few hotspots (Yellowstone, Massif Central, Iceland). Beneath Hawaii and Iceland, the plume can be detected in the transition zone because it deflects the seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 km depths. In the lower mantle, plumes are very difficult to detect, so specific methods have been worked out for this purpose. There are hints of a plume beneath the weak Bowie hotspot, as well as intriguing observations for Hawaii. Beneath Iceland, high-resolution tomography has just revealed a wide and meandering plume-like structure extending from the core-mantle boundary up to the surface. Among the many phenomena that seem to take place in the lowermost mantle (or D"), there are also signs there of the presence of plumes. In this article I review the main results obtained so far from these studies and discuss their implications for plume dynamics. Seismic imaging of mantle plumes is still in its infancy but should soon become a turbulent teenager.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.391
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    INNER-CORE ANISOTROPY AND ROTATION (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 47-69 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper reviews recent research focused on the Earth's inner core. Large inner-core traveltime anomalies and the anomalous splitting of core-sensitive free oscillations strongly suggest that the inner core is anisotropic. Initial models involved a simple, constant or depth-dependent cylindrical anisotropy at a level less than a few percent. Recent observations suggest that its eastern hemisphere is largely isotropic, whereas its western hemisphere is highly anisotropic, and there are indications that its top 100 km may be isotropic. The coda of inner-core reflected phases has been used to infer strong heterogeneities with a length scale of just a few kilometers. Thus, a complicated three-dimensional picture of the inner core is beginning to emerge, although it has been suggested that much of this complexity may be the misinterpretation of signals that have their origin in the lowermost mantle. Numerical models of the geodynamo suggest that the inner core may rotate at a slightly different rate than the mantle. Recent seismological estimates based upon traveltime and normal-mode data limit inner-core differential rotation to less than +0.2 degrees per year.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.47
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    MODELING COMPLEX, NONLINEAR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 35-64 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review selected geological processes to which numerical modeling has been applied, with the aim of describing some of the general approaches and applications of the modeling. All of these examples involve multiphase fluid flow, in some cases coupled with heat transport and phase changes. First, we describe modeling approaches to a human-made geological system-a potential underground radioactive waste repository. Next, we describe recent advances in modeling two-phase flow through random heterogeneous porous media. We review recent modeling studies of fluid processes in magmatic systems, especially focusing on melting and crystallization induced by magma chambers. Finally, several research directions are suggested, including improving our understanding of the linkage between small-scale and field-scale processes, coupling across regimes (e.g., surface water and ground water), and further developments in the modeling of stochastic geological processes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.082801.150140
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    SCALING OF SOIL MOISTURE: A Hydrologic Perspective (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 149-180 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Soil moisture is spatially and temporally highly variable, and it influences a range of environmental processes in a nonlinear manner. This leads to scale effects that need to be understood for improved prediction of moisture dependent processes. We provide some introductory material on soil moisture, and then review results from the literature relevant to a variety of scaling techniques applicable to soil moisture. This review concentrates on spatial scaling with brief reference to results on temporal scaling. Scaling techniques are divided into behavioral techniques and process-based techniques. We discuss the statistical distribution of soil moisture, spatial correlation of soil moisture at scales from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers and related interpolation and regularization techniques, and the use of auxiliary variables such as terrain indices. Issues related to spatially distributed deterministic modeling of soil moisture are also briefly reviewed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140434
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    MODERN IMAGING USING SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 259-284 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Imaging using seismic reflection data has undergone tremendous advances over the past few years. The advances have been fostered in part by the availability of faster computers that have made more reliable algorithms for migration imaging feasible. The conventional approach to migration imaging, ray-based Kirchhoff migration, has been improved by the use of multiple-valued traveltime tables, ray amplitudes, and ray phases that can be calculated from various ray-tracing implementations. Wave-equation imaging, based on implementations of solutions of the wave equation, one-way wave equation, and approximations to the Lippmann-Schwinger equation, has become tractable. Wave-equation methods take account of wave phenomena such as focusing, defocusing, and diffraction that are important in many geological environments where imaging is used for petroleum exploration. There have also been applications of various types of migration imaging in basic studies of Earth structure. Such studies have been made to investigate deep Earth structure and large-scale lithospheric structure using waveforms from teleseisms as sources.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140909
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    VOLCANOES, FLUIDS, AND LIFE AT MID-OCEAN RIDGE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 385-491 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The recent recognition of a potentially vast, unexplored hot microbial biosphere associated with active volcanism along the global mid-ocean ridge network has fundamentally shifted concepts of how planets and life coevolve. Many processes intrinsic to the dynamics of the spreading center volcanic system provide partial or complete nutritional fluxes that support diverse microbial communities that thrive under extreme conditions on and beneath the seafloor. Mantle melting, volcanism, and fluid-rock reactions transport volatiles from the asthenosphere to the hydrosphere. Volcanic heat and exothermic reactions drive circulation of nutrient-rich fluids from which chemosynthetic organisms gain metabolic energy. In turn, many of these organisms symbiotically support macrofaunal communities that populate the vents. Long-term seafloor observatories will allow exploration of linkages between volcanism and this newly discovered biosphere. Such approaches may provide essential new information about our own planet while providing critically needed insights into how we can explore other planets for life.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141331
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    Evolutionary Patterns in Early Cenozoic Mammals (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 407-424 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.08.050180.002203
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    The Moons of Mars (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 527-558 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.08.050180.002523
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    Particles Above the Tropopause: Measurements and Models of Stratospheric Aerosols, Meteoric Debris, Nacreous Clouds, and Noctilucent Clouds (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 19-58 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.000315
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    Platform Basins (1980)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 17-34 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.08.050180.000313
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    The Biogeochemistry of the Air-Sea Interface (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 449-484 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002313
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    Intervalence Transitions in Mixed Valence Minerals of Iron and Titanium (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 345-383 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002021
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    Free Oscillations of the Earth (1981)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 385-413 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002125
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    Pre-Mesozoic Paleomagnetism and Plate Tectonics (1982)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 191-220 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001203
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    The Structure of Silicate Melts (1983)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 75-97 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.000451
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    Applications of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (1984)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 39-59 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.000351
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