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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oscillatory response of a monomolecular slick to progressive waves (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 385-397 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Das fluktuierende Geschwindigkeitsfeld eines monomolekularen Films (Slik) wird mittels der Grenzschichttheorie für den Fall untersucht, daß Schwerewellen sich auf der Grenzfläche zwischen Wasser und Luft ausbreiten. Es wird dabei angenommen, daß das oberflächenaktive Material viskoselastische Eigenschaften aufweist und unlöslich ist. Es werden graphische Ergebnisse wiedergegeben, die die Geschwindigkeit a) im Zentrum des elastischen Sliks und b) für nicht dehnbare Sliks willkürlicher Weite veranschaulichen. Für letzteren Fall werden Ringe von oberflächenbildenden Elementen berechnet und schematisch dargestellt.
    Notes: Summary The fluctuating velocity field of monomolecular slicks is investigated, by means of boundary-layer theory, whengravity waves propagate on the air-water interface. It is assumed that the surface-active material has visco-elastic properties and is insoluble. Graphical results are given, which illustrate the velocity (a) at the centre ofelastic slicks and (b) for inextensible slicks, of arbitrary width. In the latter case, the orbits of the surfactant elements are calculated, and shown diagrammatically.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02258589
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Buchbesprechungen (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 431-432 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02258593
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Spatial coherence of monthly rainfall in Israel (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 353-367 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Zur Feststellung von hinsichtlich paralleler Schwankungen der Niederschlagsmengen von Jahr zu Jahr zusammenhängender Gebiete werden Korrelationen zwischen monatlichen Mengen verschiedener Stationen verwendet. Von solchen zusammenhängenden Gebieten wurden eines im Herbst, drei im Winter und zwei im Frühling festgestellt. Die Erklärung der Existenz solcher zusammenhängender Gebiete wurde mit Unterschieden charakteristischer Merkmale von Niederschlagsregimes und mit Beziehungen zu verschiedenen synoptischen Systemen versucht.
    Notes: Summary Correlations of monthly totals from different stations were used to identify coherent regions in terms of parallel fluctuations of rainfall amounts from year to year. One coherent region was found during the fall, three during the winter and two during the spring. An attempt to explain the existence of those coherent regions with different known features of the rainfall regime and to relate them to different synoptic systems, was done.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02263440
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Net radiation, potential and actual evapotranspiration in Austria (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 379-390 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Mit klimatologischen Beobachtungsdaten sind für 61 Stationen in Österreich die Strahlungsbilanz sowie die potentielle und aktuelle Evapotranspiration berechnet worden. Für diese Berechnungen wurden einige Methoden der Verdunstungsbestimmung miteinander verglichen und an einigen Stationen auch Trockenheitsindizes berechnet. Als ein Ergebnis wird vorgeschlagen, daß das Land in vier klimatologische Regionen mit unterschiedlichen Temperatur- und Feuchteverhältnissen unterteilt werden kann.
    Notes: Summary The net radiation, potential and actual evapotranspiration for 61 stations in Austria have been calculated from climafological data. Some methods for these calculations have been compared and the indices of aridity for the 61 stations have also been estimated. As a result, it has been suggested that the country could be divided into four climatological regions with different thermal and humid conditions.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02263442
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Estimation of diffuse irradiance on sloping, obstructed surfaces: An error analysis (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 303-320 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung In etlichen Zweiggebieten der Klimatologie und verwandter Disziplinen ist es oft notwendig, Abschätzungen der kurzwelligen und langwelligen diffusen Einstrahlung zu liefern. In der vorliegenden Studie werden diese Einstrahlungswerte durch numerische Integration der fundamentalen Gleichungen für Strahlung und für die Geometrie der Auffangfläche für eine Vielzahl von Neigungs- und Orientationsverhältnissen, von Horizontabschirmung und von Verteilungen der Himmelsstrahlung bestimmt. Die in der numerischen Integration verwendenten Winkelelemente der Zenith- und Azimutwinkel wurden dahingehend verändert, um die Optimalwerte im Zusammenhang mit Rechenzeitaufwand und Rechengenauigkeit zu ermitteln. Es wird empfohlen, daß ein Winkel vonπ/36 rad (5°) oder kleiner nötig ist, um die diffuse Einstrahlung mit 5 Prozent Genauigkeit zu bestimmen. Für einen 10%igen Fehler soll der Winkelπ/18 rad (10°) nicht übersteigen.
    Notes: Summary In several branches of climatology, and in related disciplines, estimates of shortwave and/or longwave diffuse irradiance are required. In this study, these irradiances are obtained by numerical integration of the fundamental radiance and source-receptor geometry equations for a variety of receptor slopes, receptor orientations, skyline patterns and sky radiance distributions. The angular increment used in the numerical integration over zenith and azimuth angle is varied to determine the optimal value in the trade-off between computing expense and accuracy. It is recommended that an angle ofπ/36 radians (5°) or smaller is required to evaluate the diffuse irradiance to 5 percent; for 10 percent error, the angle should not exceedπ/18 radians (10°).
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02324672
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Estimating global solar irradiance for Western Australia, part I (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 357-369 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Globalstrahlung wird aufgrund von dreistündigen Bewölkungsbeobachtungen berechnet und mit gemessenen Strahlungswerten verglichen. Damit wird gezeigt, daß es möglich ist, Tageswerte der Globalstrahlung bis auf 15% vorherzusagen und auf diese Art das Potential von verfügbaren Daten der Strahlungsenergie für Zwecke der Heliotechnologie in West-Australien zu erweitern.
    Notes: Summary Solar irradiance is estimated on the basis of three hourly cloud observations and compared with the measured irradiance. This indicates that it is possible to predict daily global irradiation to within 15% and thus illustrates the potential for extending the solar energy data base available for heliotechnology in Western Australia.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02324676
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Application of the dynamic initialization technique to a primitive equation model (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 91-104 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es werden bestimmte charakteristische Merkmale der dynamischen Initialisationstechnik (DI) mit Einbeziehung des Mittelungsschemas untersucht. Die auf ein begrenztes Gebiet bezogene barotrope Version des primitiven Gleichungsmodells wird angewendet. Numerische Experimente werden mit Variierung der Zahl der Zeitschritte der IterationN, von 3 bis 7 durchgeführt. Es wurde gefunden, daß fürN = 5 die kleinste ageostrophische Windkomponente (Gebietsmittelwert) erhalten wird. Der kleinste „Lärm” wird jedoch bei der Zeitintegration fürN = 6 erzeugt, was demnach die besten vorhergesagten Felder ergibt. Diese Merkmale werden besprochen.
    Notes: Summary An attempt is made to study certain characteristic features of the “ynamic initialization“ (DI) technique, incorporating the averaging scheme. The limited area barotropic version of the primitive equation model is used. Numerical experiments are performed by varying the number of time-steps during the iterations,N, from 3 to 7. It is found that forN = 5, the least ageostrophic wind component (Area-mean value) is obtained. However, the least “noise” is generated during the time-integration, forN= 6, which also gives the best predicted fields. These features are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02257744
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    On the atmospheric tidal wind variations at meteor heights (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 35-47 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es werden Monatsmittel der mit Radarmessungen von Meteoritenbahnen über Obninsk (55°N), Heiss Island (80,5°N) und Molodeshnaya (67°S) in den Jahren 1967 bis 1971 gemessenen zonalen und meridionalen Windbeobachtungsdaten in bezug auf vorherrschende und periodische Komponenten analysiert. Aus den geographischen Unterschieden der Beobachtungsdaten ergeben sich verhältnismäßig größere Amplituden an der Station Molodeshnaya. Es wurde beobachtet, daß an allen drei Stationen größere Amplituden der halbtägigen Komponente meist mit kleineren Phasen verbunden sind. Für alle Jahreszeiten wird für jede Station der Impulsfluß zufolge der täglichen und halbtägigen Windkompo nente berechnet. Die Ergebnisse werden mit Messungen an Stationen in anderen Breiten verglichen.
    Notes: Summary Monthly averages of the zonal and meridional neutral wind data recorded over Obninsk (55°N), Heiss Island (805°N) and Molodezhnaya (67°S), using meteor radar technique, during the period 1967–71 are analyzed in detail in terms of prevailing and periodic components. Results of the geographical variation of the data reveal the presence of comparatively higher amplitudes of the wind components at Molodezhnaya station. It is observed that higher amplitudes of the semi-diurnal component are mostly associated with lower phases at all the three stations. The momentum flux due to the diurnal and semi-diurnal wind components are calculated for all the seasons at each site. The results are compared with the measurements made at other latitudinal stations.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02257740
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Energetics of open atmospheric systems: Case study of an extratropical cyclone (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 49-62 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es werden die in einem außertropischen Zyklonensystem in einem begrenzten Gebiet sich vollziehenden Umsetzungen von verfügbarer Energie (APE) und kinetischer Energie (KE) besprochen. Die Budgets der verfügbaren Energie und der kinetischen Energie werden für eine außertropische Zyklone über dem kontinentalen Bereich der Vereinigten Staaten für die verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien in der Zeit vom 20.–21. März 1962 berechnet. Die barokline Komponente der APE wird basierend auf eine Spezifikation eines Referenzzustandes für ein begrenztes Luftvolumen in Bewegung betrachtet. Die Werte der APE Produktion, die in einer Untersuchung von Vincent et al. [18] veröffentlicht sind, werden für den Produktionskern der Bilanz verwendet. Energieaustauschprozesse werden mit Berücksichtigung bedeutender Wechselwirkungen von geringen Distanzen auf Gitterdistanzgröße in ihrer Beziehung zum Verhalten der Zyklone besprochen.
    Notes: Summary Available potential energy (APE) and kinetic energy (KE) processes for a limited region, containing and moving with an extratropical cyclone system, are discussed. The available potential energy and kinetic energy budgets for an extratropical cyclone over the continental United States during various stages of its life cycle are computed for the period 20–21 March 1962. Baroclinic component of APE based on the specification of a reference state for the limited moving volume is considered. The APE generation values for the case study reported by Vincent, Pant et al. [18] are used in the generation part of the budget. Energy exchange processes including a large amount of probable subgrid to grid-scale interaction are discussed in relation to the behaviour of the cyclone.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02257741
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Water and energy use efficiencies of native grasslands in the arid regions of India (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 127-132 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Der Wasser- und Energieverbrauch von drei in ariden Gebieten Indiens gelegenen Weidelandbereichen wurde aufgrund von in den Jahren 1976 his 1978 durchgeführten Experimente nuntersucht. Vorwiegend mitLasiurus sindicus bewachsenes Weideland hatte trotz niedrigerer Feuchte einen höheren Wasserverbrauch (WUE) als Wirkung von niedrigem Dampfdruck und hohen Temperaturgradienten zwischen der Vegetationsdecke und den anliegenden Luftschichten während der Wachstumsperiode. Gemischtes Weideland hatte in Bikaner geringen Wasser- und Energieverbrauch.
    Notes: Summary The water and energy use efficiencies of three native grasslands situated in the arid regions of India were investigated based on the experiments conducted during the three years period 1976–1978. The grasslands dominated withLasiurus sindicus has shown higher water use efficiency (WUE) in spite of low moisture regime as a result of low vapour pressure and high temperature gradients between the canopy to adjacent air layers during the growing season. The mixed grasslands at Bikaner were found to have low energy and water use efficiencies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02311347
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Diurnal variations in moisture and temperature of a desert soil under different management practices (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 133-138 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wurde eine Untersuchung zur Bestimmung der Wirkung verschiedener Bodenbearbeitungsmethoden auf die hydrothermischen Verhältnisse im strahlungsreichen Klima von Jodhpur gemacht. Pulverisierung, Verdichtung und Pulverisierung unter einer Gras-Mulchdecke bildeten die drei Bearbeitungsmethoden. Die Unterschiede in der Bodentemperatur waren bei der Pulverisierung und bei der Verdichtung des Bodens nur gering, während die Pulversierung unter Mulchdecken die Temperaturmaxima um 4 his 10°C verringerte. Tagesschwankungen der Bodenfeuchte wurden in Abhängigkeit von den Temperaturgradienten festgestellt. Der Verlust an Feuchtigkeit war in der pulverisierten Parzelle am größten und in der Parzelle nit pulverisierten Boden unter Mulchdecken am kleinsten
    Notes: Summary A field study was conducted to find out the effect of some soil management practices on hydrothermal regime of soil under high radiation conditions of Jodhpur. Pulverization, compaction and pulverization + mulching formed the three treatments. The results showed vide variations in diurnal soil temperatures up to 15 cm depth. There were little differences in soil temperature under pulverization and compaction while pulverization + mulch reduced the maximum temperature by 4 to 10°C. Diurnal oscillations in soil moisture were observed under the influence of thermal gradients. Maximum loss of moisture was observed from the pulverized plots while minimum was recorded from the pulverized + mulched plots.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02311348
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Surface drag contribution to the depth of monsoon depression over Indian region (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 237-241 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Wirkung der Bodenreibung auf die Vertiefung der Monsun-Depression über Indien ist mit einer quasigeostrophischen w-Gleichung berechnet worden. Es wird gezeigt, daß der Betrag der Vertiefung einer Monsun-Depression vom Radius 1000 km und mit einer Erstreckung in die Vertikale bis 500 mb von der Größenordnung von 4 mb pro Tag ist, was den beobachteten Werten sehr nahe kommt.
    Notes: Summary The effect of surface drag to the depth of monsoon depression over India has been computed using a quasigeostrophic ω-equation. The rate of intensification in an average monsoon depression of radius 1000 km and extending up to 500 mb in the vertical is shown to be of the order of 4 mb/day which is very near to the observed values.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02258035
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
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    Some aspects of the thermal influences of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau on the atmospheric circulation (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 205-220 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Meteorologie des Qinghai-Tibet-Plateaus erfuhr in jüngsten Jahren bedeutende Beachtung und Fortschritte. Bemerkenswert ist die Errichtung eines Beobachtungsnetzes in dieser Region. Aus diesen Beobachtungen entsprangen neue, signifikante Erkenntnisse, die teilweise in dem Buch „Meteorologie des Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau’ [13] erwähnt sind. Die neuen Forschungsresultate weisen auf die dynamische und thermische Bedeutung des Plateaus in der Erzeugung atmosphärischer Zirkulationssysteme hin. Die dynamischen Effekte des Plateaus sind schon länger bekannt [3, 2, 5]. Auf die thermischen Effekte wurde ebenfalls schon in früherer Literatur hingewiesen [20, 7], doch wurden diese Effekte neuerlich intensiv untersucht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird der thermische Einfluß des Plateaus diskutiert, beginnend mit einer Abschätzung des Jahresganges der Intensität der Wärmequelle über dem Plateau und des Einflusses dieser Quelle auf die atmosphärische Zirkulation. Sodann wird die Rolle der Konvektion in der Aufrechterhaltung der großräumigen Sommerzirkulation über dem Plateau beschrieben. Schließlich werden Vergleiche zwischen den Effekten des Plateaus und der tropischen Ozeane auf die Sommerzirkulation angestellt.
    Notes: Summary Considerable attention has been paid to, and significant achievements have been made in the meteorology of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau (hereafter called the plateau for brevity) in recent years. One should mention the recent establishment of an observational network in that region. Through these new observational data many new and important findings were obtained, some of which are summarized in a book “Meteorology Over Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau” [19]. These new research results point towards the dynamical and thermal importance of the plateau in shaping atmospheric circulation systems. The plateau's dynamic effects have long been noticed [3, 2, 5]. Its thermal effects were also pointed out in earlier literature [20, 7] and were studied relatively intensively in recent years. It is the purpose of this paper to give a discussion of the thermal influence of the plateau, starting with estimates of the seasonal variation of the intensity of the heat source over the plateau, followed by a discussion on the influence of the heat source on the atmospheric circulation. The role of convective activity in maintaining the large-scale summer circulation over the plateau is described next. Finally, some comparisons between the effects of the plateau and of the tropical oceans on summer atmospheric circulations are given.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02258032
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Very low frequency atmospheric radio noise field intensities (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 263-268 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Gleichzeitige Beobachtungen der Feldstärke atmosphärischer Radiogeräusche in drei Frequenzen im VLF-Band von Oktober 1976 bis September 1978 sind zur Untersuchung des Frequenzspektrums der Atmospherics analysiert worden. Die Ergebnisse werden für verschiedene Monate und Jahreszeiten dargestellt und hinsichtlich der Quellenaktivität und der Ausbreitungswirkung interpretiert.
    Notes: Summary Simultaneous observations of the field strength of atmospheric radio noise at three harmonically related frequencies in the VLF band for a period of two years from October 1976 to September 1978 have been analyzed to explore the frequency spectrum of atmospherics. The results have been shown for different months and seasons of the year and interpreted in terms of source activity and propagation effect.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02258038
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  • 15
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    Long-term stabilization of earth's surface air temperature by a negative feedback mechanism (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 211-219 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Möglichkeit eines negativen Rückkoppelungsprozesses zwischen der relativen Feuchte der Luft und der Temperatur in Bodennähe wird beschrieben. Zusammen mit einem unlängst vorgeschlagenen positiven Rückkoppelungsprozeß, der atmosphärisches CO2 miteinbezieht, kann dieses Phänomen dazu ausreichen, die globalen Eiskatastrophen zu verhindern, welche von vielen Klimamodellen nach ursprünglicher Entwicklung eiszeitlicher Zustände vorausgesagt werden. Dieser feuchtebezogene Rückkoppelungsprozeß könnte auch für das Problem der kühlen Sonne in der Frühgeschichte der Erde von Bedeutung sein.
    Notes: Summary A potential negative feedback relationship between atmospheric relative humidity and surface air temperature is described. Together with a recently proposed negative feedback mechanism involving atmospheric CO2, the phenomenon may be sufficient to prevent the global ice catastrophies which are a common prediction of many climate models following initial development of ice age conditions, and could well be of importance for the problem of the cool sun in Earth's early history.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02278294
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  • 16
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    An index of summer monsoon rainfall excess over India and its variability: 1871–1978 (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 301-311 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Zur Schätzung der Exzesse der Aktivität des Sommer-Monsuns (Juni–September) über Indien in der Periode 1871–1978 wird ein auf den prozentuellen Flächenanteil mit in Prozenten angegebenem jahreszeitlichen Regenüberschuß basierender Index verwendet; der als Monsun-Exzess-Index (MEI) gezeichnet wird. Die Untersuchung der MEI-Reihe hat ergeben, daß diese homogen ist und eine große Veränderlichkeit aufweist. Die Häufigkeitsverteilung der MEI-Werte ist positiv schief und ein Gamma-Modell gibt eine gute Anpassung an die Reihe. Ein Jahr, in dem der MEI-Wert das neunte Dezil (d.i. 35) der der MEI-Reihe angepaßten Gamma-Verteilung überschreitet, wird als großräumiger Niederschlagsexzess über Indien betrachtet. In der Periode 1871–1978 wurden zehn solche Jahre festgestellt. Diese Exzeß-Jahre weisen eine zeitliche Zufallsverteilung auf.
    Notes: Summary To assess the excess in the activity of the summer monsoon (June to September) over India during the period 1871 to 1978, an index based on the percentage area with a specified percentage seasonal rainfall excess and termed as the Monsoon Excess Index (MEI) has been used. On examination of MEI series it is found that it is homogeneous and random and has a high variability. The distribution of MEI is positively skewed and Gamma probability model is observed to be a good fit to the series. Considering the year in which the MEI value exceeds the nineth decile, i.e. 35, of the Gamma distribution fitted to the MEI series, as year of large-scale excess over India, such years have been identified during the period 1871–1978. There are ten such years. These excess years are found to be randomly distributed in time.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02278299
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  • 17
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    Erratum (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 324-324 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02278302
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  • 18
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    Brief introduction to a long-range forecasting method for rainfall anomalies in China (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 349-359 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Auf Grund von Beobachtungen in der Volksrepublik China wurde festgestellt, daß die Verteilung von Bodentemperaturanomalien in einer Tiefe von 1.6 m während des Winters (November–Februar) der Verteilung von Niederschlagsanomalien im darauffolgenden Sommer (April–September) ähnlich ist. Die Achsen der Bodentemperatunnaxima und minima liegen vielfach in der Nähe der Achsen von Niederschlagsmaxima und -minima. Auf Grund dieser Beobachtungen wurden Langfristprognosen des Niederschlags versucht und jeweils im März des Niederschlagsjahres ausgegeben. Vor allem wurden Gebiete mit Überschwemmungs- oder Dürrepotential vorhergesagt. Eine mehr quantitative Niederschlagsprognosemethode, die auf dem Oberflächenenergiehaushalt beruht, wird ebenfalls diskutiert.
    Notes: Summary Based upon observations in the People's Republic of China it was noted that the patterns of soil temperature anomalies at a depth of 1.6 m during winter (November–February) looked similar to the patterns of precipitation anomalies during the subsequent summer (April–September). The axes of maxima and minima of soil temperature anomalies usually lay close to the axes of precipitation maxima and minima. These similarities were used in the long-range predictions of precipitation issued in March of each precipitation year. Emphasis was placed on forecasts of flood and drought potentials. In this paper a more quantitative method of precipitation prediction, based upon the surface energy budget, is discussed as well.
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    On the causes of Formation of two Intertropical Convergence Zone in the western part of the Pacific Ocean and in the Indian Ocean (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 303-321 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wurden numerische Experimente zur Berechnung der äquatomahen atmosphärischen Zirkulation für ein gegebenes Bodendruckfeld durchgeführt, um zu klären, wie weit das für die äquatornahe Zone des Pazifischen Ozeans typische Druckfeld an der Bildung von zwei intertropischen Konvergenzzonen, die dort zu beiden Seiten des äquators beobachtet werden, schuld ist. Es wurde gefunden, daß östlich vom äquatorialen Tiefdruckzentrum das berechnete Windfeld durch zwei Zonen aufsteigender Luftströme zu beiden Seiten des Äquators charakterisiert ist in Übereinstimmung mit der wirklichen Lage der ITCZ, während es westlich von dem Tiefdruckzentrum, damit nicht in Übereinstimmung, nur durch eine Zone mit intensiv aufsteigender Luftströmung entlang des Äquators gekennzeichnet wird. Es wird angenommen, daß eine detailliertere Form der Druckverteilung die Darstellung von zwei ITCZ auch an der westlichen Peripherie des äquatorialen Tiefs ermöglichen könnte. Dies erfordert jedoch noch weitere Untersuchungen.
    Notes: Summary Numerical experiments were made in computing near-equatorial atmospheric circulation for a given field of sea surface pressure to make clear how much the baric field typical of the Indian-Pacific sector of the near-equatorial zone can be responsible for the formation of two ITCZ observed here on either side of the equator. It has been obtained that east of the equatorial pressure low centre the computed wind field is characterized by two zones of uprising air currents lying on either side of the equator, this being in agreement with the real data on ITCZ position, whilst west of the pressure low centre by only one zone of intensive upward air currents lying along the equator, this being in disagreement with the said data. It is suggested that a more detailed pattern of pressure distribution will be, apparently, able to account for the formation of two ITCZ also at the western periphery of equatorial pressure low; this question, however, need to be further studied.
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    Über die Möglichkeit der Berechnung von geotektonischen Spannungen aus österreichischen Hydrofrac Daten (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 379-384 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary An attempt was made to obtain indications of the present-day geotectonic stresses in Austria from records of hydraulic fracturing operations in oil wells. Inasmuch as only the course of the well-head pressure was available and no data regarding the rock formations were known, it was only possible to determine the smallest principal pressure value for eight different holes. The values found range between 63 and 94 per cent of the overburden pressure. This corresponds to values normally found in the world and Austria is thus recognized as a normal intraplate region.
    Notes: Zusammepfassung Es wurde versucht, aus Aufzeichnungen von österreichischen Fracoperationen Angaben für die Berechnung von Spannungen zu finden. Da jedoch nur der Druckverlauf am Sondenkopf zur Verfügung stand und keine Formationsdaten bekannt waren, konnte nur $$P_p = \sigma _{h_2 } $$ die kleinste Hauptspannung, für insgesamt acht verschiedene Sonden abgeschätzt werden. Die Werte lagen zwischen 63% und 94% des Überlagerungsgewichtes. Dies entspricht durchaus globalen Normalwerten, womit Österreich als „normale Intraplateregion” erkannt wird.
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    Radar reflectivity, optical extinction and liquid water content in monsoon rains (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 399-409 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die vom Niederschlag abhängigen Parameter Radar-Reflexionsfaktor, optischer Extinktionsquerschnitt und Gehalt an flüssigem Wasser sind für Monsun-Regen mit Ver. wendung der in Bombay beobachteten Tropfengrößenverteilungen ausgewertet worden. Die Parameter werden als Funktionen der Niederschlagsintensität, variierend bis 195 mm pro Stunde, dargestellt. Diese Beziehungen werden mit anderen veröffentlichten Angaben verglichen und Unsicherheitsfaktoren in der Bestimmung des Gehaltes an flüssigem Wasser und der Niederschlagsintensität aus den Radar-Reflexionsfaktoren sind bis zu 2.7 bzw. bis zu 2.4 abgeschätzt worden.
    Notes: Summary The precipitation dependant parameters viz. radar reflectivity factor, optical extinction cross-section and liquid water content are evaluated for monsoon rains using the raindrop size distributions recorded at Bombay. The parameters are represented as functions of precipitation intensity varying upto 195 mm h−1 . The present relationships are compared with other published data and uncertainty factors in the determination of liquid water content, and precipitation intensity from radar reflectivity factor have been evaluated to be 2.7 and 2.4 respectively.
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    Evidence of solar influence on the tropospheric circulation in summertime (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 421-429 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Eine detaillierte Analyse der Häufigkeit des Auftretens der Etesien innerhalb der Solarrotation der Zeitspanne 1947–1975 ließ eine Tendenz dieser Winde, an bestimmten Tagen der Bartel-Rotation aufzutreten, erkennen. Weitere Forschungen hinsichtlich der Bedingungen des Interplanetarischen Magnetischen Feldes (IMF) zeigten, daß das sehr häufige Auftreten der Etesian dazu neigt, mit den positiven IMF-Sektoren und insbesondere mit ihrer (+,−) Sektorengrenze übereinzustimmen. Schließlich zeigten die Etesien- und IMF-Daten, die separat in verschiedenen Phasen der 11-Jahre-Perioden untersucht wurden, daß dieser Effekt zur Zeit des Minimums und in der Zwischenperiode deutlich wird, während er zur Zeit des Maximums erlöscht.
    Notes: Summary A detailed analysis of the Etesians frequency of occurrence within the solar rotations of the time period 1947–1975 revealed a significant tendency of these winds to occur in particular days of Bartels rotation. Further investigation of the IMF conditions showed that high frequency occurrences of Etesians tend to correspond to “away” IMF sectors and especially to the (+,−) sector boundary of them. Finally, Etesians and IMF data studied separately in various phases of the 11-year cycles showed that this effect is obvious in the epoches of minimum and intermediate while it disappears in the epoch of maximum.
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    Erosion of the night-time thermal circulation in an alpine valley (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 331-352 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Mit Daten vom „Hangwindexperiment Innsbruck Oktober 1978” werden die verschiedenen Prozesse abgeschätzt, die beim Abbau einer nächtlichen Inversion im Tal und bei der Umstellung von Berg- auf Talwind eine Rolle spielen. Es wird gezeigt, daß es im Tal zusätzlich zu einer Erwärmung von oben durch adiabatisches Absinken kommt. Aus den Windsondierungen in der Hangwindschicht kann man schließen, daß der nach oben gerichtete Massentransport durch die Hangaufwinde von dieser Absinkbewegung kompensiert wird. Wind- und Temperaturfeld im Tal sind eng miteinander gekoppelt - zum einen durch den Druckgradienten zwischen Gebirge und Vorland aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Temperaturen, zum anderen kann die Überströmung mit Auflösung der stabilen Schichtung im Tal tiefer hinab ins Tal durchgreifen.
    Notes: Summary The data of the “Slopewind experiment Innsbruck October 1978” are used to investigate the different processes causing the erosion of the nocturnal inversion in a mountain valley and the change from mountain wind to valley wind. It is shown that in a valley additional heating from above by subsiding air masses takes place. Soundings in the slopewind layer indicate, that this subsidence compensates the mass transport by the upslope winds. The wind and temperature field in the valley are closely coupled: On the one hand by the pressure gradient between the valley and the foreland (caused by the different temperatures), on the other hand, the gradient flow can penetrate deeper into the valley atmosphere when the stable layer is eroded.
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    Einige Turbulenzspektren an der Bestandsoberhöhe eines Fichtenwaldes (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 391-404 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Spectra of velocity components are calculated from suitable wind data measured near the top of a spruce forest (Ebersberger Forst near Munich). Especially the poisition and magnitude of the maxima of the spectra is important for solving problems of tree vibrations. Attempting estimates for the magnitude of the maxima, the magnitude is approximated by empirical functions depending on the friction velocity.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Anhand geeigneter Windmessungen an der Bestandsoberhöhe in einem Fichtenwald, dem Ebersberger Forst bei München, werden Turbulenzspektren der Windvektorkomponenten berechnet. Im Zusammenhang mit Baumschwingungsproblemen ist besonders die Lage und Größe der Spektrenmaxima von Bedeutung. Um die Größe der Spektrenmaxima besser abschätzen zu können, wird versucht, sie in Abhängigkeit von der Schubspannungsgeschwindigkeit mit empirischen Funktionen zu approximieren.
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    Atmospheric monitoring using a solar spectrometer Part 2: Determination of columnar atmospheric water vapor content from spectral measurements of the direct solar radiation (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 67-72 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Diese Arbeit bringt einen zweiten Informationsgehalt, der aus der Verwendung eines Solar-Spektrometers in Verbindung mit einer leistungsfähigen Datenerfassung und einem Computersystem aus atmosphärischer Beobachtung abgeleitet wurde. Eine Beschreibung des Systems und des experimentellen Verfahrens wurde im ersten Bericht [1] gegeben. Mit Benutzung veröffentlichter Werte der wellenlängenabhängigen Transmissionskoeffizienten der Banden zwischen 0.7 μm und 1 μm (vorzüglich der 0.82 μm-Bande) und analytischer Darstellungen der Transmissionsfunktionen [2] wurde der equivalente Betrag des absorbierenden Wasserdampfes für ausgewählte Tage berechnet. Das Verfahren ist rasch und leicht routinemäßig anzuwenden und läßt eine angemessene Genauigkeit erwarten.
    Notes: Summary This work represent the second of two reports concerning the information content derived by using a solar spectrometer combined with an efficient data logging and computational system in atmospheric monitoring. A description of the system and experimental procedure was given in the first report [1]. By using published values of the wavelength dependent transmission coefficients of the bands between 0.7 μm and 1 μm (preferably the 0.82 μm band) and analytical representations of the transmission functions [2], the equivalent water vapor absorber amount was calculated for some selected days. The method is quick and easy to use on a routine basis and is expected to give reasonable accuracy.
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    Structure functions of rainfall field and their application to network design in the tropics (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 95-105 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Strukturfunktionen monatlicher (Juni bis September), jahreszeitlicher (Monsun-periode) und jährlicher Niederschlagsfelder über Vidarbha wurden für vier Quadranten des Gebietes berechnet. Die Strukturfunktion ist für das ganze Gebiet weder homogen noch isotrop; sie ist jedoch annähernd isotrop und homogen getrennt für die westlichen und östlichen Teile von Vidarbha. Es wurden Beziehungen zwischen dem Fehler einer linearen Interpolation und der Entfernung berechnet und daraus die maximalen Abstände von Regenmessern mit einem bestimmten erträglichen Fehler für die Monate Juni bis September, für die Monsunperiode und für das Jahr abgeleitet.
    Notes: Summary The structure functions of monthly (June to September), seasonal (monsoon season) and annual rainfall field over Vidarbha have been evaluated over the four quadrants of the area. The structure function of the rainfall field is neither homogeneous nor isotropic over the whole area, however, it is approximately isotropic and homogeneous over the western and eastern Vidarbha portions separately. Relationships between the error of linear interpolation and distance have been established and from these the maximum spacings allowed between the raingauges for a specified tolerable error have been obtained for the months June to September, for the monsoon season and for the year.
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    Observations of a sea breeze event in the Rome area (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 127-139 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Das Gebiet des unteren Tiber-Tales kann als repräsentativ für ein komplexes Gelände betrachtet werden mit einem großen gegen das Meer hin offenen Tal umgeben von Hügeln und Bergen und der Stadt Rom in seinem Zentrum. Durch diese komplexe Morphologie und durch die Großstadt Rom werden die lokalen meteorologischen Verhältnisse stark beeinflußt. In dieser Arbeit wird die Methode der Bearbeitung erläutert und die Verteilung der wichtigsten meteorologischen Parameter gezeigt. Die Messungen wurden im Sommer durchgeführt, wenn die lokalen Auswirkungen nicht durch die allgemeine Zirkulation überdeckt werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen die durch die Bodenmorphologie bedingten Abweichungen und weisen darauf hin, daß bei der Entwicklung von Diffusionsmodellen diese bemerkenswerten Veränderungen zu berücksichtigen sind.
    Notes: Summary The low Tiber valley district can be considered representative of a complex terrain, being a large valley open towards the sea, surrounded by hills and mountains and within its centre the Rome city. The local meteorology is then deeply affected by this complex morphology and by the presence of a city as large as Rome. In the present work will be presented the work methodology and will be shown the patterns of the main meteorological parameters. The measurements are carried out during summer time, when the local effects are not hidden by general circulation. The results obtained point out the difference connected to the soil morphology and indicate that in developing diffusion models it would be suitable to take into account this noticeable variability.
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    Die momentane thermische Bilanzstörung -Ein Objektivierungsversuch des thermischen Empfindens (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 171-185 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The momentary (maximal) disturbance of the heat balance η of a man in a certain climate happens to him when suddenly going outdoors into it. A suitable definition of the dimensionless value η is explained and a formula derived for it. The value η can be an objective, easily computable measure for heat and cold stress, if the person has been -or for the computation is supposed to have been - in a standardized comfort (i. e. room-) climate for a long time before. For these comfort conditions it is possible to use a great deal of fixed values, such as a mean skin temperature of 33 °C, and a skin wetness degree of 10%, certain values of heat production in the body, of surface area and curvature, and of clothing. For these conditions the value of η remains rather a function of the meteorological elements. Moreover the η-formula can be still simplified by using the partial climatic complex temperature ι0 which can be measured directly. Then besides ι0 only wind velocity is needed for the computation of the value η. For the observation point Westerland/Sylt registrations of complex temperature and wind velocity have been used for the computation of η. The results are shown in a diagram. The value η can be used as an objective measure instead of the subjective thermal sensation.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die momentane (maximale) thermische Bilanzstörung η eines Menschen durch das Klima liegt dann vor, wenn er plötzlich nach draußen geht. Eine geeignete Definition von η wird dargelegt und eine Formel dafür hergeleitet. Die Größe η kann ein objektives, leicht zu berechnendes Maß für Wärme- und Kältereize sein, wenn die Person sich zuvor genügend lange in einem standardisierten Raumklima aufgehalten hat. Für diese Komfort-Bedingungen kann eine große Zahl von Werten zahlenmäßig festgelegt werden, z. B. eine mittlere Hauttemperatur von 33 °C, ein Nässegrad der Haut von 10%, bestimmte Werte von Wärmeproduktion im Körper, von Oberflächengröße und -krümmung und von Bekleidung. Mit diesen Festlegungen bleibt dann η nur noch abhängig von den meteorologischen Elementen. Die Formel kann vereinfacht werden durch Einführung der partiellen Klimasummentemperatur ι0 die auch direkt gemessen werden kann. Zur Berechnung von η wird dann nur noch die Windgeschwindigkeit benötigt. Für den Beobachtungsort Westerland/Sylt wurden Registrierungen der Klimasummentemperatur und der Windgeschwindigkeit zur Berechnung der momentanen thermischen Bilanzstörung verwendet. Die Größe η kann als objektives Maß anstelle des subjektiven thermischen Empfindens verwendet werden.
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    Time behavior of CO2 and O3 in the lower troposphere based on recordings from neighboring mountain stations between 0.7 and 3.0 km ASL including the effects of meteorological parameters (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 191-225 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Notes: Summary The continuous recordings of CO2 (1978–1980) and O3 (1977–1980) from neighboring mountain stations at 0.7, 1.8, and 3.0 km sea level are analyzed. CO2 recordings at 3.0 km have been started in late 1980. For O3, about 1000 profile measurements are available achieved by means of the Zugspitze cable car telemetry system between 1.0 and 3.0 km. In the evaluation we derive first the mean monthly diurnal variations of the mentioned gases at the respective measuring station. Furthermore, for claryfying the most varied daily fluctuations at the different levels, additional parameters are included such as sunshine duration, global and diffuse radiation, temperature, air mass character. For CO2, the activity of the biomass dominates in the valley (0.7 km) while the anthropogenic contribution exists only in winter being very weak. At levels above 1.8 km in the almost entire absence of a daily variation, the global annual variation prevails. The O3 in the ground layer up to about 800 m above the valley floor appears to be produced photochemically by day through solar radiation whereas anthropogenic influences can be excluded. At levels above 2 km the stratospheric ozone source is more effective but does not seem to be decisive for the O3 level in the lower troposphere. In the O3 parameterization, too, are considered temperature, radiation, and the atmospheric layer structure.
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    Note on the dependence of precipitation on the day of the week in a medium industrialized city (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 247-251 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Methode der Varianzanalyse wurde zur Überprüfung der Abhängigkeit von Niederschlagshöhen und -wahrscheinlichkeiten vom Wochentag und von der Entwicklung der Stadt, die durch den Ablauf der Jahre dargestellt wird, verwendet. Signifikante Resultate wurden nur für die Abhängigkeit der Niederschlagswahrscheinlichkeiten von der Zeit gefunden. Diese Zeitabhängigkeit ist jedoch kein Trend, sondern sie tritt als wellenförmige Abweichung vom Mittelwert in Erscheinung. Die allgemeine Meinung, daß Wochenende häufiger regnerisch sind als die anderen Wochentage, kann nach diesen Ergebnissen nicht als zutreffend angesehen werden.
    Notes: Summary The method of variance-analysis was used to look for the dependence of amounts and probabilities of precipitation on the day of the week and on the development of the city as expressed by the progressing time. Significant results were obtained only for the dependence of the probabilities on time. This time dependence, however, is not in the sense of a trend but some kind of wavy pattern around the average value. The public meaning that week-ends are more often rainy than the other days of the week cannot be proved to be valid by the results of this analysis.
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    Heat transfer models for nesting cavities (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 271-282 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Grundgleichungen des Energieaustausches durch Konvektion, Wärmeleitung und Strahlungsaustausch im stationären Zustand wurden zum Modellieren der Wärmeabgabe von kleinen Säugetieren und Vögeln im Ruhestand in ihren Behausungen angewandt. Durch Verwendung des verallgemeinerten Wärmeaustauschkoeffizienten wird in dem erhaltenen Modell die Wärmeabgabe als Funktion der Höhe der Höhlung, ihres Durchmessers, der Wanddicke, des Wärmeleitungsvermögens und des Strahlungsvermögens ihrer inneren Wand ausgedrückt. Auf Grund der Modellgleichungen wurde das Rechenprogramm entwickelt, das zur Berechnung von 3125 Sonderfällen für einen breiten Bereich der Charakteristika der Höhlung benutzt wurde. Die kritischen Eigenschaften der Höhlungen unter bestimmten Verhältnissen der Umgebung der Tiere wurden auf Grund der Tabellen, graphischer Interpolation und mit Hilfe des statistischen Models festgestellt.
    Notes: Summary The basic steady state heat transfer equations for convection, conduction, and radiant energy exchange were combined and adapted to the problem of modeling heat losses from small mammals and birds at rest in nesting cavities. The derived model describes heat loss rates in terms of a generalized heat transfer coefficient as a function of cavity height, diameter, wall thickness and thermal conductivity, and the radiative emissivity of interior cavity surfaces. The model was computerized and used to obtain 3125 unique solutions for combinations of a wide range of cavity characteristics; tabular data, graphical interpolations, and a statistical model were used to identify the most critical cavity features for any given set of animal-environmental conditions.
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    Measurement of evaporation from snow (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 333-340 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Im Rahmen von Eis-, Wasser- und Wärmehaushaltsstudien auf dem Hintereisferner (Ötztaler Alpen) werden seit dem Sommer 1978 in 3030 m Höhe Messungen zur Untersuchung der Verdunstung von Schnee und Eis durchgeführt. Die Messungen erfolgten mit Plexiglaslysimetern, deren Oberfläche 400 cm2 betrug. Es wurde ein guter Zusammenhang zwischen Verdunstung und Kondensation einerseits sowie Dampfdruckdifferenz zwischen Luft und Schneeoberfläche und Windgeschwindigkeit andererseits festgestellt. Der mittlere Tagesgang zeigt das Maximum der Verdunstung am Vormittag und Kondensation am Nachmittag mit dem Maximum ca. zwei Stunden nach Sonnenuntergang. Gegen Mitternacht erfolgt eine drastische Umkehr von Kondensation zu Verdunstung. Die mittlere Verdunstung der 12tägigen Meßperiode Juli/August 1980 beträgt 0.25 mm d−1 mit einem Maximum von 2.0 mm d−1.
    Notes: Summary As part of a combined study of the ice, water and energy balance of Hintereisferner (Ötztal Alps) evaporation from snow and ice is measured since 1978 at an altitudes of 3030 m. These measurements are performed with plexiglass lysimeters of 400 em2 surface area. Evaluation of meteorological records yield a good correlation of evaporation with the difference of vapor pressure of the air and of the surface, respectively, for various classes of wind speed. The daily variation displays maximum evaporation before noon, and condensation during the afternoon with a maximum two hours after sunset. There is a sharp reversal from condensation to evaporation around midnight. The mean evaporation of a 12-day period in July/August 1980 was 0.25 mm per day, with a peak of 2.0 mm per day.
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    Fluctuations in the deficiency of the summer monsoon over India, and their effect on economy (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 30 (1982), S. 383-398 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Zur Schätzung des Ausfalls in der Aktivität des Sommermonsuns über Indien während einer Saison wurde ein für das Land auf dem Flächenprozentsatz mit angegebenem Prozentsatz des jahreszeitlichen Niederschlagsausfalls basierender Index verwendet, der als Monsun-Defizit-Index (MDI) bezeichnet wird. Die statistischen Verhältnisse der MDI-Reihen der Periode 1871–1978 wurden untersucht. Diese Reihen, die als homogen angenommen werden können, weisen eine große Veränderlichkeit auf. Im allgemeinen ist ein hoher MDI nicht andauernd; auf einen hohen Wert folgt ständig ein niedriger Wert. Das Defizit wird als großräumig bezogen auf das ganze Land betrachtet und als Monsun-Ausfall bezeichnet, wenn der MDI-Wert das neunte Dezil (nämlich 40) der den MDI-Reihen angepaßten gemischten Gamma-Verteilung erreicht oder überschreitet. Gestützt auf dieses Kriterium sind die Jahre mit Monsun-Ausfall bestimmt worden. Die Ausfälle des Monsuns wurden als Zufallserscheinungen befunden. Die Auswirkung der Monsun-Defizite auf die indische Wirtschaft wurde abgeschätzt.
    Notes: Summary To assess the deficiency in the activity of the monsoon over India during the season, an index for the country based on the percentage area with a specified percentage seasonal rainfall deficiency and termed the Monsoon Deficiency Index (MDI), has been utilized. The statistical properties of the MDI series for the period 1871–1978 have been examined. The series which can be taken to be homogeneous and random has a high variability. MDI is generally not observed to persist at a high level; a high value is invariably followed by a low value. The deficiency over the country is considered as largescale and is termed as monsoon failure when the MDI value equals or exceeds the nineth decile viz. 40, of the mixed gamma distribution fitted to the MDI series. Using this criterion, the years of monsoon failure have been identified. The monsoon failures are found to occur randomly. The effect of monsoon deficiency on the Indian economy has been assessed.
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    Buchbesprechungen (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 165-166 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
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    Results of synchronous and unbroken measurements of natural atmospheric radioactivity from 1964–1979 at three stations (0.7–3.0 km a.s.l.) and review of the initial studies from 1956 on (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 39-64 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Werte des RaB (214Pb) als Teil der natürlichen Radioaktivität der Luft und als Maßzahl für ihren Radongehalt werden seit 1964 im Gebirge (Bayerische Alpen) an drei benachbarten, höhengestaffelten Stationen in 0,7, 1,8 und 3,0 km NN gemessen und untersucht. Neben dem Einfluß des Tages- und Jahresganges sind die Unterschiede bezüghch Luftmasse und Windrichtung bemerkenswert. An dem durch die Werte der 3 Stationen gewonnenen Vertikalprofil lassen sich die Austauschprozesse erkennen und ein fur die Zwischenschicht maßgeblicher durchschnittlicher Austauschkoeffizient and der integrierte Gesamtgehalt der Luftsäule an RaB ableiten. Im Untersuchungszeitraum von 1964 bis 1979 wurden gleichzeitig an jeder Station täglich 3 Filtermessungen durchgeführt.
    Notes: Summary Since 1964, values of the RaB (214Pb) as part of the natural radioactivity of the air and as indicator of its radon content, are measured and analyzed in the mountains (Bavarian Alps) at three neighboring, vertically graduated stations at 0.7, 1.8, and 3.0 km a.s.1. Apart from the influence of the daily and annual variation, the differences concerning air mass and wind direction are remarkable. The vertical profile, obtained by the values from the three stations, reveals the exchange processes and permits to deduce an average exchange coefficient, determinant for the intermediate layer, and the integrated total RaB content of the air column. In the period under study, covering the years from 1964–1979, air has been sampled on filters simultaneously three times a day at all stations.
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    Evidence of the urban heat island in Rome by climatological analyses (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 87-97 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Analyse von 12jährigen Temperaturbeobachtungen eines mete orologischen Stationsnetzes im unteren Tiber-Tal zeigt deutlich die Auswirkung einer durch die Stadt Rom verursachten Wärmeinsel Dieser Effekt tritt mit den Jahreszeiten und nach Temperatur-minima und Temperaturmaxima unterschiedlicher Intensität auf.
    Notes: Summary The analysis of air temperature data covering a period of 12 years in a meteorological station network situated in the low Tiber Valley, shows clearly the effect of the heat urban island due to the city of Rome. This effect occurs with different intensity according to the seasons and to minimum and maximum temperatures.
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    Energy balance and ground thermal characteristics during periods of soil freezing at Guelph, Ontario, Canada (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 113-126 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung In dieser Arbeit werden die Energiebilanz und thermische Bodencharakteristiken, die mit em Eindringen des Frostes und der Entwicklung der Schneedecke zusammenhängen, in den Wintern 1975 und 1976 an zwei benachbarten Plätzen in der Nähe von Guelph untersucht. Der stärker exponierte höher gelegene Platz hatte in beiden Jahren nur eine dünne Schneedecke (〈 2 cm), was ein ranches Eindringen den Frostes erleichterte und als Folge große Beträge von latenter Schmelzwärme auslöste, was in Bodenwärmeverlusten von mehr als 4 MJ m−1 Tag−2 zum Ausdruck kam. Die größere Schneehöhe (im Mittel 6,8 cm) an dem abgeschirmten tiefer gelegenen Platz verzögerte das Vordringen der Frostfläche und verminderte die damit verbundene Auslösung von Wärme im Boden, was den atmosphärischen Wärmefluß zu einem Beitrag von 78% zu dem Gesamtstrahlungsdefizit von 1975 befähigte. 1976 lieferte jedoch der Bodenwännefluß an dem tiefer gelegenen Platz mehr als 82% des Gesamtstrahlungsdefizits zufolge der im Vergleich mit dem früheren Winter später gebildeten Schneedecke.
    Notes: Summary This study investigates the energy balance and ground thermal characteristics associated with frost penetration and snowpack development during the 1975 and 1976 winters at two adjacent sites near Guelph. The more exposed upper site had a meagre snowpack (〈 2 cm) in both years, facilitating rapid frost penetration and the consequent release of large amounts of latent heat of fusion, reflected in ground heat losses in excess of 4 MJ m−1 day−2. These losses provided more than 74 percent of the net radiation deficit. The greater snowpack (average depth 6.8 cm) at the sheltered lower site retarded the penetration of the freezing plane and reduced the associated release of heat in the ground, which enabled the atmospheric heat fluxes to contribute 78 percent of the net radiation deficit in 1975. However, in 1976 the ground heat flux at the lower site provided more than 82 percent of the net radiation deficit due to a thinner and later-forming snowpack compared with the previous winter.
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    A subtropical episode of production of kinetic energy from condensation heating (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 167-183 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Eine starke Regenepisode entwickelte sich in den südlichen U.S.A. am 10.–11. Juni 1981 nahe der Golfküste. In vielen Beziehungen war die Struktur des Niederschlagssystems der von tropischen Wettersystemen ähnlich. Es fehlte jedoch die übliche synoptische Anfangsstörung. Auch fand die ganze Entwicklung in einer Leichtwindzone in der oberen Troposphäre statt ohne offensichtliche Wechselwirkungen mit den Westwindgürteln im Norden und Süden. Trotzdem entwickelte sich ein Gebiet mit hoher kinetischer Energie, die nur einer Umwandlung von Kondensationswärme zugeschrieben werden konnte. Es bildete sich eine Höhenantizyklone dort, wo zuvor nur leichte Winde ohne organisierte Zirkulation herrschten. Hauptsächlich werden die Fragen der Energieentwicklung und der Bildung der Höhenantizyklone angeschnitten. Da sich das System hauptsächlich über Land mit ausreichenden Daten abspielte, kann man eine präzisere Darstellung der Vorgänge geben, als dies bei den tropischen Störungen möglich ist, die über den beobachtungsarmen Meeresgebieten ihren Lebenszyklus durchlaufen.
    Notes: Summary On 10–11 June 1981 a major outbreak of precipitation took place in the southern United States around the West and Middle Gulf coast. The system had many features of tropical disturbances. It originated however without evidence of a definite antecedent disturbance. Further, it did not interact with belts of westerlies to north and south, rather developed in a high-tropospheric light wind area between these belts. Considerable kinetic energy was generated at high levels which could only be ascribed to transformation of latent heat of condensation, and a complete upper anticyclone developed from the initial flat wind field. The main question explored is the means for development of the kinetic energy and of the anticyclone. Since the case occurred mostly over land, a more definite description can be given than in most tropical situations which occur in sparse data areas over the oceans.
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    Possible evidence of the Southern Oscillation in total ozone at Arosa (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 231-235 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Statistische Tests eines möglichen Zusammenhanges zwischen dem Gesamtozon über Arosa und Indizes der südlichen Oszillation geben zwar unbestimmte aber nicht aussichtslose Hinweise: Die linearen Korrelationskoeffizienten zwischen 12monatig übergreifenden Mittelwerten sind für beide Hälften der Periode 1935–1980 statistisch signifikant, während die Kohärenzen in der ersten, aber nicht in der zweiten Hälfte der Periode statistisch signifikant sind. Die Phasen sind jedoch in beiden Perioden übereinstimmend. Unsere Untersuchung zeigt, daß eine Beziehung zwischen dem Gesamtozongehalt über Arosa und der südlichen Oszillation in dem Sinne besteht, daß, wenn der mittlere Luftdruck am Boden im zentralen tropischen Südpazifischen Ozean niedrig ist, während er im Gebiet von Indonesien hoch ist, der Ozongehalt über Arosa eine Tendenz zu höheren Werten zeigt und umgekehrt.
    Notes: Summary Statistical tests of a possible association between total ozone at Arosa and indices of the Southern Oscillation give indefinite but not unpromising answers: linear correlation coefficients between 12-month running means are statistically significant for both halves of the period 1935–1980, whereas the squared coherences are statistically significant in the first but not in the second half of the period. The phases in both periods are consistent, however. Our investigation shows that a relationship between the total ozone amounts at Arosa and the Southern Oscillation, must be in the sense that when the sea level mean pressure is low over the central tropical South Pacific Ocean while it is high in the Indonesian region, the total ozone amounts at Arosa tend to be large, and conversely.
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    Joint-orientations in Ethiopia (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 269-272 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Stellungen einer Reihe von Klüften wurden in Zentraläthiopien gemessen. Es wird gezeigt, daß diese sehr gut mit dem Spannungssystem zusammenpassen, welches gewöhnlich als Ursache des ostafrikanischen Grabensystems angenommen wird, falls sie als Scherphänomene interpretiert werden.
    Notes: Summary The orientations of some joints were measured in Central Ethiopia. It is shown that these fit very well into the commonly assumed stress system causing the Rift Valley, if they are interpreted as shearing phenomena.
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    Results of uninterrupted fallout measurements in air at three neighboring mountain stations from 0.7 to 3.0 km altitude since 1958 (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 191-209 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Seit 1958 wird in den bayerischen Nordalpen in 0.7 und 1.8 km Seehöhe — seit 1963 zusätzlich in 3.0 km Seehöhe — die Konzentration der künstlichen Luftradioaktivität (fallout) als Rest-Beta-Aktivität von Schwebstoff-Filtern an benachbarten Stationen erfaßt. Abgesehen von einer Diskussion dieser Langzeitreihen werden für den Zeitraum 1966–1979 die Werte auf Höhenabhängigkeit, Luftkörperabhängigkeit und Jahresgang hin untersucht. Die Zeitreihen scheinen darauf hinzudeuten, daß der Jahresgang durch die zeitliche Korrelation der Kernexplosionen vorgetäuscht wird.
    Notes: Summary Since 1958, the concentration of artificial radioactivity of the air (fallout) is determined as residual β-activity on aerosol filters exposed at neighboring mountain stations in the northern Bavarian Alps at 0.7 km, 1.8 km, and since 1963 additionally at 3.0 km above sea level. Apart from a discussion of these long-term series the values are analyzed over the 1966–1979 period for height dependence, air mass dependence, and annual variation. The time sequences seem to indicate that the annual variation is simulated by the time correlation of nuclear explosions.
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    The physiological climate of Ilorin, Nigeria (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 287-299 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wurden sieben Indexgrößen zur Bestimmung des physiologischen Klimas von Ilorin mit Verwendung von Monatsmitteln dreistündiger Beobachtungsdaten angewendet. Für die Lufttemperatur wurden mittlere tägliche Minima und Maxima und Tagesmittelwerte verwendet. Es ergab sich, daß drei von diesen Indexgrößen, nämlich die Lufttemperatur, die Feuchtkugeltemperatur und der Temperatur-Feuchtigkeits-Index (THI) bei gesonderter Anwendung für die physiologische Klassifikation des feuchten und trockenen tropischen Klimas vergleichbare Ergebnisse liefern. Diese Methoden zeigen, daß die kritischen Werte von 22°C für THI, um 19°C für die Feuchtkugeltemperatur und von 18 bis 21°C für die Lufttemperatur komfortable Verhältnisse darstellen.
    Notes: Summary In this paper, seven indices have been applied to study the physiological climate of Ilorin (8°30′N; 4°35′E) using mean monthly data collected on a 3-hourly basis. The only exception is the air temperature data for which mean daily minimum, mean daily maximum and mean daily values were collected. The application of the indices shows that three of them namely — air temperature, the wet bulb temperature and the temperature humidity index (THI) when employed separately for physiological classification of the tropical wet-and-dry climate, will yield comparable results. These methods show that the critical values of 22°C (THI), about 19°C (wet-bulb temperature) or 18–21°C (air temperature) depict conditions which are comfortable.
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    Typical low-tropospheric pressure distributions over and around the Plateau of Tibet (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 323-327 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Der Laplace-Operator, angewandt auf die Terrainhöhe Zentralasiens, zeigt eine hohe Korrelation mit Druckfeldstörungen, die sich während des Sommers in der planetaren Grenzschicht bilden. Tiefdruckgebilde bevorzugen konkave Terrainformen, Hochdruckstörungen scheinen mit konvexen Terrainformen übereinzustimmen. Tiefdruckgebilde in der planetaren Grenzschicht geben oftmals Anlaß zu Unwettern über Tibet und über Ostchina. Diese Beobachtung führt zu der überlegung, daß großräumige orographische Formen zur Ausbildung von “Unwetter-Zugstraßen” führen können.
    Notes: Summary The Laplacian of terrain height over Central Asia correlates well with planetary boundary layer (PBL) pressure perturbations during summer. Low-pressure perturbations favor concave terrain forms, high pressure perturbations appear to go with convex terrain forms. Some of these PBL perturbations have been found to trigger severe weather over Tibet and over eastern China. This observation leads to the speculation that large-scale orographic features may cause the establishment of “severe weather alleys” downwind.
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    A study on Indian monsoon disturbances (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 339-347 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wird gezeigt, daß die gegenseitige Wechselwirkung von diabatischer Erwärmungswelle und Druckwelle die Nordwärtsverlagerungen der Monsun-Depressionen und der Hurrikane zusätzlich zu ihren Westwärtsverlagerungen und Entwicklungen (wie in [1] gezeigt ist) erklären kann. In einer mathematischen Betrachtung wird auch die Konstanz des Amplitudenverhältnisses der beiden Wellen als Parameter bewiesen. Die Grenzstadien der sich entwickelnden Störungen werden im Detail besprochen.
    Notes: Summary It is shown that the mutual interaction of the diabatic heating wave and pressure wave can further explain the northward movements of monsoon depression and hurricane in addition to the westward movements and developments (as shown in [1]). Also, the constancy of ratio-amplitude parameter is established from mathematical consideration. The limiting stages of the developing disturbances are discussed in more details.
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    A chrystal-model describing gravitational barotropic motion in elongated lakes (1982)
    Springer
    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 361-378 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Ein räumlich eindimensionales Modell, das die klassische Chrystal-Gleichung erweitert und das Prinzip der Kelvin-Wellendynamik ersetzt, wird präsentiert. Das Modell besteht aus einem System partieller Differentialgleichungen, in dem die Bogenlänge einer vorgewählten Seeachse und die Zeit als unabhängige Variable auftreten. Es gestattet sowohl qualitativ wie quantitativ korrekte Vorhersage von Gravitationswellen in rotierenden Systemen. Das allgemeine lineare Modell, in welchem Bodenreibung und Impulsaustausch mit der Atmosphäre berücksichtigt sind, wird spezialisiert zu einem „Modell erster Ordnung” und findet anschließend Anwendung auf gerade und ringförmige Kanäle konstanter Tiefe. Ein Vergleich der Dispersionsgleichung für Kelvin-Wellen, Poincaré- und Inertial-Wellen mit jener der zweimdimensionalen Tidegleichungen zeigt, daß Krümmungseffekte gewöhnlich vernachlässigbar sind. Schließlich zeigen Linien konstanten Hubes und konstanter Phase, welche mit dem Kanalmodell für den Luganersee gerechnet wurden, daß diese mit der einfachsten Erweiterung der Chrystal-Gleichung genügend genau berechnet werden können.
    Notes: Summary A spatially one-dimensional model which extends the classical Chrystal equation and replaces the Kelvin wave dynamics approach is presented. It consists of a system of partial differential equations having the arc-length of a preselected lake axis and the time as independent variables and permits qualitatively and quantitatively correct prediction of gravitational waves in rotating systems. The general linear model accounting for bottom friction and atmospheric momentum input is specialized to a “first order” model and subsequently to a straight and ring shaped channel of constant depth. For the latter, a comparison of the dispersion relation of Kelvin-, Poincaré- and inertial-type waves with that of the two-dimensional tidal operator indicates that curvature effects of the lake can usually be ignored. Finally, results on co-range and co-tidal lines, obtained for lake of Lugano using extended models of different order prove that the simplest first order extension of the Chrystal equation is capable of predicting these with sufficient accuracy.
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    On some characteristics of tropical atmospherics due to monsoon clouds (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 411-419 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Feldintensität der VLF-Atmospherics, die über Calcutta registriert wurde, zeigt gelegentlich einen charakteristischen Abfall in Verbindung mit Regen in den Monsun-Monaten. Auf den plötzlichen Abfall folgt eine Unterbrechung und darauf eine Wiederherstellung, so daß sich eine sägezahnartige Form in der Registrierkurve bildet. Das Vorkommen und die Größen des Abfalls überwiegen bei 20 kHz im VLF-Band. Am häufigsten kommt der Abfall um Mittag und um Mitternacht vor.
    Notes: Summary The field intensity of VLF-atmospherics recorded over the tropical station, Calcutta (22°34′N, 88°24′E) occasionally exhibit a characteristic fall in association with the ground rainfall during monsoon months. The sudden fall is followed by a pause and a subsequent recorvery thus forming a clipped saw-tooth like appearance. The occurrences and magnitudes of the fall are predominant at 20 kHz in the VLF-band. They mostly occur around local noon and midnight hours.
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    CO2 and climate: Where is the water vapor feedback? (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 325-329 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Resultate früher veröffentlichter, empirischer Studien werden benützt, um zu zeigen, daß der Wasserdampf-Rückkopplungsprozeß, der für die Berechnung eines signifikanten Klimaeffektes durch die Verdoppelung des atmosphärischen CO2 so ausschlaggebend ist, durch einen anderen Rückkopplungsprozeß entgegengesetzten Vorzeichens ausgewogen zu sein scheint. Bei hohen Temperaturen (niederen Breiten) halten sich die beiden Effekte annähernd die Waage, während bei niederen Temperaturen (hohen Breiten) die Größenordnung dieser Effekte erst bestimmt werden muß. Unsere bisherigen Erkenntnisse deuten an, daß die klimatischen Folgen einer Erhöhung der atmosphärischen Kohlendioxidkonzentration erheblich geringer sein werden, als durch die Resultate der gegenwärtig in Verwendung befindlichen allgemeinen Zirkulationsmodelle vorhergesagt wird.
    Notes: Summary Results of previously published empirical studies are used to demonstrate that the water vapor feedback mechanism, so important to the calculation of a significant climatic effect for a doubling of the atmospheric CO2 concentration, appears to be counter-balanced by another feedback mechanism of opposite sign. At high temperatures (low latitudes) the two effects essentially negate each other; while at lower temperatures (high latitudes) their respective strengths have yet to be determined. What is known to date tends to indicate that the climatic consequences of increasing the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration will be significantly less than what is routinely predicted by the general circulation models of the atmosphere in use today.
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    Estimation of global, direct and diffuse solar radiation in Athens under clear sky conditions (1982)
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    Meteorology and atmospheric physics 31 (1982), S. 369-377 
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    ISSN: 1436-5065
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geography , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung In der Arbeit werden theoretische Modelle von Davies und Hay, von Hoyt und von Bird zur Berechnung der verschiedenen Komponenten der Sonnenstrahlung bei wolkenlosem Himmel in Athen angewendet. Die mit diesen Modellen gewonnenen Ergebnisse werden mit den stündlich gemessenen Werten der Globalstrahlung und mit gleichzeitigen Werten der direkten und der diffusen Strahlung verglichen. Der Vergleich hat ergeben, daß die mit den drei Modellen berechneten Werte der Globalstrahlung größer sind als die gemessenen Werte. Das Modell von Davies-Hay ergibt die größten Werte der Globalstrahlung. Das Modell von Bird gibt gute Werte für die Globalstrahlung und für die meisten Monate des Jahres auch für die direkte Sonnenstrahlung, während die damit berechneten Werte der diffusen Strahlung als befriedigend angesehen werden können. Das Modell von Hoyt unterschätzt die direkte Sonnenstrahlung und überschätzt die diffuse Strahlung. Die mit dem Modell von Davies-Hay berechneten Werte der diffusen Strahlung sind mit dem nach Bird bestimmten vergleichbar. Es wird gefolgert, daß das Modell von Bird die besten Berechnungen der Sonnenstrahlung in Athen ergibt.
    Notes: Summary In this paper the theoretical models proposed by Davies-Hay, Hoyt and Bird for the estimation of the various components of solar radiation under clear sky conditions are applied to Athens. The results produced by the models have been compared to measured hourly values of global irradiation and to instantaneous values of direct and diffuse irradiance. From the comparison it has been found that global solar irradiance estimated by all three models is higher than that of the actual measurements. From the examined three models Davies-Hay model gives the highest hourly values of global solar irradiance. Bird model gives very good results for global solar irradiance and for direct irradiance for most of the months of the year while the estimation of the diffuse irradiance is considered satisfactory. Hoyt model underestimates the direct solar irradiance and over-estimates the diffuse. Davies-Hay estimates of diffuse irradiance are comparable to those produced by Bird model. It is concluded that Bird model produces the best estimates of solar irradiance in Athens.
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    The relative influence of urban climates on outdoor human energy budgets and skin temperature I. Modeling considerations (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 3-23 
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    Notes: Abstract An attempt is made to provide a tool for systematically analyzing variations of outdoor human energy budgets and skin temperatures as a result of different urban street canyon geometries and vegetative properties. To this end, three previously developed numerical models were combined. The interaction of the models and the derivation of the necessary human-urban view-factors is discussed. Some sample results are given for non-urban macadam and park plains, to be used later as standards in the comparison of the impact of urban morphology on human comfort.
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    Book review (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 36-36 
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 60-60 
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    Publications of the World Health Organization and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 80-80 
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    Environmental profile and milk production of Friesian-Zebu crosses in Nigerian Guinea Savanna (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 115-120 
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    Notes: Abstract A 10-year meteorologic data have been collated to enable delienation of the environmental profile of the Nigerian Guinea Savanna zone. Three distinct seasons are defined: a hot-dry season which lasts from March to April; a hot-humid season (May to October); and the harmattan season (November to February). The effects of these seasons on milk production by half and three-quarter Friesian-Zebu crosses were evaluated during the first 100 days of lactation over a 2-year period. There were no significant differences in milk yield between the genotypes, but at heat intensities above 27
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 146-146 
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    The effect of seasons on behaviour during milking in buffaloes (Bos bubalis) (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 147-151 
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    ISSN: 1432-1254
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    Notes: Abstract An investigation on behaviour during milking involving 200 buffaloes was carried out to study the effect of climate on milking behaviour for a period of four years. The results obtained were: (1) In extremely docile animals (temperament score I) the mean distribution was least (33.5) in hot-dry summer as compared to winter (39.2) and hot-humid summer. (2) The number of buffaloes milked after oxytocin injections was maximum (11.1%) during the hot-dry summer against other seasons for the temperament score I over temperament scores III and IV, where all buffaloes were milked with oxytocin injections. (3) The mean flow rate was least in hot-dry summer in each temperament score. (4) Milking time was higher in all the temperament scored buffaloes during the hot-dry summer than during the other seasons. It is concluded that as environmental temperature increases, there occurs an increase in thermal stress, the milking behaviour changes and animals become more hostile and excited which leads to a decrease in milk production.
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    The effects of negative air ions on various physiological functions during work in a hot environment (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 153-163 
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    ISSN: 1432-1254
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    Notes: Abstract The effects of negative air-ions on human physical performance has been investigated. Twenty-one healthy males, 20–25 years old (X=23.6±2.6) were exposed to two 180-min rest and exercise sessions two weeks apart. The subjects were randomly assigned into either an experimental group (n=12) or to a control group (n=9). The experimental group performed the first session in neutral air conditions and the second one in air containing 1.36 to 1.90×105 negative air ions and 1.40 to 1.66×102 positive air ions/ml. The control group performed both sessions under neutral air conditions. All sessions were held at Ta=40±1
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    Spatial demand under advertising (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 25-36 
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    ISSN: 1432-0592
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
    Notes: Abstract Contrary to the traditional theory of market areas which has as the central theme the firms' price changes and the demand-reactions of the widely dispersed households, our model shows the optimal solutions for the spatial use of advertising. If we assume that a central-urban located firm intends to maximize the additional net revenue by applying advertising as an instrumentvariable; we can show that the whole urban area will not be covered by the advertising campaign, but in all cases only partial areas. In this instance the optimal advertising radius will be derived from various model variants.
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    Mixed land uses, land-use externalities, and residential property values: A reevaluation (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 1-24 
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    ISSN: 1432-0592
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
    Notes: Abstract Empirical evidence concerning the impact of neighborhood land-use externalities on residential property value is mixed. That is, no concensus has emerged in the literature as to whether locating non-residential land-use activities in residential neighborhoods can be expected to increase, decrease or leave unaltered surrounding property values. The purpose of this research was two-fold: 1) to construct a theoretical model of consumer behavior in which both the positive and negative effects of neighborhood land-use externalities are taken into account, and 2) to test this generalized model empirically, using hedonic pricing equations. The principal implication of the theoretical model is that the effect of non-residential activity on residential property values isa priori indeterminate, the outcome depending on the relative strength of the associated positive and negative external effects generated. The empirical test of the model was conducted for the city of Tucson, Arizona, where it is shown that over low ranges, increasing the amount of industrial, commercial, multifamily and public land-use activity in a neighborhood tended to increase surrounding residential property values. It is concluded that in locating future economic activity an optimal mix of landuse activities should be sought, not the regional separation of activities.
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    On the bid price curve of intra-urban business (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 51-56 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
    Notes: Abstract This paper is an attempt to generalize the bid price curve of urban firms by considering the production and demand oriented theories together. By applying the powerful envelope theorem, we derive the basic properties and the shape of the bid price curve. Contrary to Alonso, Mai and Richardson, we show that the bid price curve can be straightline, convex to the origin or concave to the origin.
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    Book reviews (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 81-142 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
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    Spending rules, tax-expenditure limitations, and fiscal constraints on state governments (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 1-10 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
    Notes: Abstract Expenditure limitations on state government in the form of legislated spending rules have become an increasingly popular approach to restricting the size of the government sector. The longrun growth implications for government spending are not clear, however, since the legislative wording and quantification of the rules do not distinguish between nominal and real growth in critical benchmark variables. This paper analyzes the long-term growth implications of spending rules for a number of states in terms of, a) real and nominal changes, b) cyclical variations in government spending under conditions of inflation and deflation, and c) changes in the demand for state government output over time.
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    Efficiency and interregional factor mobility: A note (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 21-26 
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    Notes: Abstract In this note, the two-region model presented in Flatters, Henderson and Mieszkowski (4) is modified to include capital mobility. The efficiency conditions for this modified model are derived and contrasted with a free mobility equilibrium. Although the efficiency conditions are not radically altered, the addition of capital mobility tends to strengthen the finding that an uncoordinated free mobility equilibrium will not result in an efficient allocation of resources.
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    Hierarchically organized migration fields: The application of higher order factor analysis to population migration tables (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 11-20 
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    Notes: Abstract The structure of human geographical systems is often of a hierarchical nature. Population migration systems can usefully be conceptualized as a series of hierarchically related levels of migration fields: the fields at one level nesting within the fields at the next higher level. Such migration fields and the relationships between different levels can be extracted from large population migration origin-destination matrices with the aid of higher order factor analysis.
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    Technique and technology in regional input-output (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 27-45 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
    Notes: Abstract In thirty years, regional input-output has emerged from its origins as a research technique developed by a few pioneering academics and has become a practical tool widely used by a large commercial market. This development of regional input-output techniques is traced and considered in the context of technological change. While regional input-output remained the preserve of academics it was a technique supported by the technology of Regional Science. The diffusion of the technique has not always been accompanied by the diffusion of the technology with the result that regional input-output has increasingly been abused by those who seek to make the most practical use of the technique.
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    Book reviews (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 85-137 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography , Economics
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    Book reviews by author (1982)
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    The annals of regional science 16 (1982), S. 25-112 
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 310-310 
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    Responses in rectal and skin temperatures to centrifugal forces in rats of different ambient temperatures (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 61-72 
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    Notes: Abstract Effects of centrifugation upon rectal (Tre) and tail skin temperatures (Ts) were studied in male Wistar rats at varying ambient temperature (Ta) using a centrifuge which was placed in a climatic chamber. Centrifugal forces of Gz of 3.0 were imposed on rats which were suspended at horizontal body position using a newly developed mesh suits holding method in the animal box placed on the rotating arm of the centrifuge. Headwards or tailwards forces were applied according to the experimental design. No significant difference of the responses was observed between the two force directions. Centrifugations imposed at different Ta of 15, 20, 25, 30 and 32.5
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    National Medicometeorology Research Symposium of China 11–14 November 1980 (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 91-94 
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    Announcement (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 96-96 
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    Abstracts of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society of Biometeorology, Hamamatsu, 28–29 November 1980 (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 169-195 
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    William F. Petersen Foundation Awards presented by Dr S. W. Tromp President of the William F. Petersen Foundation on Saturday 10 July 1982 at Oegstgeest, The Netherlands (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 197-202 
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    The relative influence of urban climates on outdoor human energy budgets and skin temperature II. Man in an urban environment (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 25-35 
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    Notes: Abstract Four typical urban neighborhoods or street canyon settings (including street parks) were simulated. These urban morphologies were exposed to typical summer and winter climatic scenarios for latitudes 10
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    Standard layers — A new criterion of the thermal insulating properties of clothing (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 37-48 
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    Notes: Abstract A method of evaluating the thermal insulating properties of clothing on the basis of the number of so-called standard layers is described. Six typical kinds of clothing were chosen, made of fibres with similar permeability; for these types the thermal resistance was determined for dependence on the air velocity. These kinds of clothing were chosen as standard, as were their individual layers. In measurement of the total thermal resistance of the investigated clothing it is thus necessary to find the number of standard layers involved, i.e. the number of layers in the clothing and the difference of the individual layers from standard layers. The required value can then be read from a diagram or calculated from an equation. If Tg is very different from Ta (Tg-Ta 〉 10 K), a correction can be introduced using the diagrams. In contrast to use of the “clo” unit, the dependence of the thermal resistance on the air velocity is considered, as it was demonstrated that the boundary layer on the surface of the clothing moves inwards as a result of its permeability. The method is used successfully by the Hygienic Service of Czechoslovakia and in other socialist states.
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    Age related patterns of immunoglobulin serum levels in the Quechua Indians of Andean Mountains (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 49-52 
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    Notes: Abstract Age-dependent changes of IgA, IgG, IgM, and IgD serum levels in a population of Quechua Indians of Peruvian Andes at 4 300 m were investigated. A first increase and a subsequent decrease in IgA and IgM levels were observed with advancing age. IgG and IgD only display an increase during development. More or less pronounced sex-related changes were also found in all Ig classes, the sex dependent pattern of IgA being the more evident one. It has been suggested that sexual, genetic and environmental influences strongly superimpose to high altitude related changes in Ig profile during ageing.
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    Effects of climate on the thermoregulatory responses of male buffalo (Bubalus-bubalis) calves supplemented with different levels of testosterone and TDN (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 73-79 
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    Notes: Abstract The present work was undertaken to study the changes in the thermoregulatory responses due to changing climate, androgen and TDN percent in 12 buffalo male calves from 4 months of age for a period of two years. The results obtained were: (1) The amplitudes of the diurnal cycles in rectal temperature (Tre) in each month of the experiment were very similar but longer in summer months as compared to winter months, (2) The correlation between Tre and ambient temperature (Ta) was high in all months. (3) Buffalo calves without testosterone supplementation on 70% TDN showed maximum rise in Tre by 0.076 0
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    The biophysically active waveforms of atmospherics incident on gelatin films (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 85-90 
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    Notes: Abstract About 35,000 atmospherics impulses were detected with a receiver, stored on a digital image storage unit and frequency analyzed with a tuneable band pass filter. The occurrence of different waveforms was compared with the measured values of diffusion times of ions in gelatin films. It was found that only definitie types of atmospherics with characteristic waveforms and frequency spectra exert a direct influence on the diffusion time of ions in gelatin films.
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    In memoriam Dr. Bogusław Maczyński (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 97-98 
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    Environmental factors affecting seasonal variation in immunity of clinically normal dogs (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 121-128 
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    Notes: Abstract A whole blood lymphocyte stimulation test, an in vitro corollary of in vivo cell mediated immunity, was done with blood collected monthly from eleven dogs for a period of three years (August, 1977 through August, 1980). Seasonal variations in immunity were observed to occur. These fluctuations were analyzed for possible association with 22 environmental, solar, and meteorological parameters. Of the six independent variables significantly entering the predictive regression equations, sunspot activity (monthly mean daily number of sunspots) was most prominent, showing a significant negative correlation in 10 of the 11 dogs. This suggests that solar activity might be associated with some activity on earth, e.g., geomagnetism which in turn might affect immune response.
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 152-152 
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 164-164 
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    Recent books (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 196-196 
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    Recent books (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 206-206 
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    The importance of cavity roosting and hypothermia to the energy balance of the winter acclimatized Carolina chickadee (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 231-238 
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    Notes: Abstract Noctural hypothermia and cavity roosting account for a significant reduction in energy expenditure in winter acclimatized Carolina chickadees. As much as 10
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 259-260 
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    In Memoriam Professor W. Victor Macfarlane 27 September 1913 – 26 February 1982 (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 261-262 
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    The use of an agricultural rainfall index in Malaysia (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 277-283 
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    Notes: Abstract Monthly rainfall probabilities of 80% are expressed as percentage of the potential evapotranspiration. This monthly value, called the Agriculture Rainfall Index, is used in zoning Peninsular Malaysia into agroclimatic regions, based on length of dry periods. Four agroclimatic zones are recognized in Peninsular Malaysia. These are (a) regions which have regular dry seasons for up to four months, (b) regions which have less regular and shorter dry seasons, (c) regions with a fairly regular occurrence of two dry seasons per year, and (d) regions with low risks of a dry period. Another zone which may be considered as an agroclimatic entity are highlands above 500 m elevation. Here, rainfall is not as important a criterion as temperature. With the agroclimatic zones identified, decisions on crop selection for each zone can be made by matching the crop-water requirement with the rainfall distribution in the region. An example of this application is illustrated in this paper.
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    Message to authors and readers (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 1-1 
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    Book reviews (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 24-24 
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    The Discomfort-Index in Thessaloniki, Greece (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 53-59 
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    Notes: Abstract Many investigators have tried to express the influence of climatic parameters upon man. In this paper, for the same purpose, we make use of the “Discomfort Index” (DI). [DI = 0.4 (Ta + Twb) + 4.8] as it has been introduced by THOM (1959). We study the mean diurnal variation of DI on the base of mean hourly values of Ta and Twb for the 1950–75 period in Thessaloniki-Greece and for the warm season only (May–September). The frequencies of hourly and daily values of DI are studied and mean and extreme monthly values are also given. Regarding the need of the use of climatization in Thessaloniki (DI 〉24) we found quite increased percentages only for the months: July and August.
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    Body temperature responses of Savanna Brown goat to the harmattan and hot-dry season (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 225-230 
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    Notes: Abstract Rectal and vaginal temperature responses of the Savanna Brown goat indigenous to the Nigerian guinea savanna were determined during the harmattan and the hot-dry season. Measurements were made at 06:00h and at 14:00h after 8h exposure to field conditions. At the 06:00h measurements during the harmattan, all animals were observed to shiver. A significant (P〈0.01) positive correlation was found between rectal (Tre) and vaginal temperatures. During the harmattan, mean Tre was 38.2
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    Abstracts noted (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 294-294 
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    Book review (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 284-284 
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    Relation of precipitation and temperature with yield of herbaceous plants in eastern Oregon (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 263-276 
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    Notes: Abstract Eighteen years of herbage yields of range grasses and concomitant precipitation and temperature fluctuations were examined with correlation and regression techniques. Antecedent precipitation was the dominant factor influencing yield of perennial herbaceous species, while both temperature and precipitation were important for prediction of yield of downy bromegrass, a winter annual. Total yield of the herbaceous community was closely correlated with precipitation received during the September to June period (r = 0.92); however, September to March precipitation was also highly correlated (r = 0.89). These correlations provide timely and useful estimates of native range production on eastern Oregon ranges. Sixty to 92% of yield variation was accounted for by the regression models for 9 of the 12 species or species groups examined.
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 304-304 
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    Daily melatonin injections: Their usefulness in understanding photoperiodism inPeromyscus leucopus (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 305-309 
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    Notes: Abstract To determine the effects of long-term melatonin injections on reproduction and the seasonal molt inPeromyscus leucopus, 60 female mice were injected subcutaneously 12h after “lights on” with either 50 μg of melatonin (in saline) or saline each day for 7, 12, or 18 wk. Reproductive regression was apparent in the 7 and 12 wk groups from a decreased reproductive tract weight, absence of preovulatory follicles in the ovaries, and presence of an imperforate vagina. Spontaneous recrudesence occurred by 18 wk. Molt to the winter pelt occurred in the 12 and 18 wk melatonin groups. All saline-injected mice remained reproductively competent and none molted.
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    Mathematical model of the distribution of small negative ions in air conditioned rooms (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 81-84 
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    Notes: Abstract The distribution of small negative ions with mobility kr=0.5+∞ (cm2/Vs) in an air conditioned room is presented. The air was ionized by an ion generator, which was placed at the outlet of the air duct. The measurements were made at 100 different locations in the room. It was established, that the main factors in the distribution of ions were the coordinates of points in the room space. Regression analysis method was applied to determine optimal estimate of identified static characteristics of ions distribution. The main purpose of this research was to obtain data for the correct placement of ion generators in air conditioned or ventilated rooms.
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    Publications of the World Health Organization and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 95-95 
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    Relative influence of selected cloud types and amounts on human energy budgets and skin temperatures (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 99-114 
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    Notes: Abstract The combination of two deterministic and previously validated models of solar attenuation and outdoor human energy budgets and skin temperatures made possible the systematic examination of the effects of different cloud types and amounts on a person standing on an unobstructed plain. The results implied that the consequent relationships might be universal for most (summer) climates and latitudes. Relative rates were defined here as fractions of energy budget item rates under clear, cloudless conditions and high solar elevations. The resultant skin temperature deviations were very conservative when exposed to drastically changing cloud and thermal regimes.
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    Physiological responses of mules on prolonged exposure to high altitude (3 650 m) (1982)
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    International journal of biometeorology 26 (1982), S. 129-136 
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    Notes: Abstract Eight healthy male animals were inducted and kept for 2 1/2 years at 3 650 m altitude and subjected to normal work schedules. Physiological measurements viz. heart rate, blood pressure, minute ventilation, oxygen consumption, respiration rate, hemoglobin, packed cell haematocrit volume and eosinophil count were made on these animals at periodic intervals. On acute induction to an altitude of 3 650 m these animals demonstrated a sudden increase in tidal volume, a decrease in Rf and no change in VE, suggesting a decreased dead space/tidal volume ratio at altitude. However, all these changes stabilised within 3 weeks but on prolongation of stay, the physical state of these animals was adversely affected. The respiratory adjustments occurring on return to sea level appear to be a response to thermal stress. The initial increase in heart rate and blood pressure stabilised by the 2nd week.
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