ALBERT

Description: The Australian plate has a long and complex tectonic history. The continental crust was accreted in three majorepisodes from the Archean cratons in the west to the Phanerozoic provinces in the east. The crust and upper mantleof Australia have been deeply investigated in the last two decades using a variety of geophysical methods. To dis-cern temperature and compositional variations in the Australian upper mantle, we apply an integrative technique,which jointly interprets seismic tomography and gravity data. In the first stage, we removed the effect of the crustfrom the observed gravity field and topography. In the second step, an initial thermal model has been constructedby inverting the seismic tomography model AusREM (http://rses.anu.edu.au/seismology/AuSREM/index.php),assuming a laterally and vertically uniform “fertile” mantle composition. After removing the effect of thetemperature variations from the total mantle anomalies, the residual “compositional” fields are obtained. Theresidual mantle gravity field and residual topography are inverted to obtain a 3-D density model of the uppermantle, which is supplementary to the initial thermally induced density variations. These density anomalies wereused to improve the initial thermal and compositional models by applying an iterative approach to account forthe effect of composition on the thermal model. The results obtained show that the Precambrian West and NorthAustralian Craton (WAC and NAC) each possess thick, relatively cool, lithosphere that has depleted composition(Mg# 〉 90). This observation is stronger in the older WAC than the younger NAC. Substantially hotter and lessdense lithosphere is seen fringing the eastern and southeastern margin of the continent, resolving the thermalperturbation of these regions in response to Mesozoic and Cenozoic events.Furthermore, we used the surface heat flow values recently published and the most updated crustal model ofAustralia (AusREM) to estimate temperature distribution in the crust, assuming steady state conditions, and weused the results obtained together with the mantle thermal model to construct two alternative models of strengthand effective elastic thickness (EET) of the lithosphere. The first model (Model I) assumes a constant value of 10−15 s−1for the strain rates. In the second model (Model II), we used the strain rates obtained from a global mantleflow model. In both models we assumed a stiff rheology, on account of the mafic composition of the Australiancrust. The results of Model II show larger variability of the rigidity of the plate within the cratonic areas, reflectingthe long tectonic history of the Australian plate. On the other hand, the younger eastern terranes are uniformlyweak, due to the higher temperatures.

Description: Fault rock assemblages reflect interaction between deformation, stress, temperature, fluid, and chemical regimes on distinct spatial and temporal scales at various positions in the crust. Here we interpret measurements made in the hanging-wall of the Alpine Fault during the second stage of the Deep Fault Drilling Project (DFDP-2). We present observational evidence for extensive fracturing and high hanging-wall hydraulic conductivity (∼10−9 to 10−7 m/s, corresponding to permeability of ∼10−16 to 10−14 m2) extending several hundred meters from the fault's principal slip zone. Mud losses, gas chemistry anomalies, and petrophysical data indicate that a subset of fractures intersected by the borehole are capable of transmitting fluid volumes of several cubic meters on time scales of hours. DFDP-2 observations and other data suggest that this hydrogeologically active portion of the fault zone in the hanging-wall is several kilometers wide in the uppermost crust. This finding is consistent with numerical models of earthquake rupture and off-fault damage. We conclude that the mechanically and hydrogeologically active part of the Alpine Fault is a more dynamic and extensive feature than commonly described in models based on exhumed faults. We propose that the hydrogeologically active damage zone of the Alpine Fault and other large active faults in areas of high topographic relief can be subdivided into an inner zone in which damage is controlled principally by earthquake rupture processes and an outer zone in which damage reflects coseismic shaking, strain accumulation and release on interseismic timescales, and inherited fracturing related to exhumation.

Description: Length: 32 min What forms the landscapes of the Earth with its mountains, rivers, soils, the places we live in? Is Earth’s surface shaped when rocks are uplifted by geologic forces, and are then destroyed by rain, ice, and wind; or do plants with their roots, animals that dig into soil and the vast number of microorganisms shape the landscapes? Watch the scientists of the German-Chilean “EarthShape” project study these questions along a fascinating landscapes in Chile, and in their home laboratories. A science movie designed and produced by Friedhelm von Blanckenburg from GFZ Potsdam, Germany, Kirstin Übernickel from Universität Tübingen, and Wolfgang Dümcke from Filmbüro Potsdam, Germany, within the DFG-funded research network “EarthShape – Earth Surface Shaping by Biota” which is coordinated by Todd Ehlers (Universität Tübingen) und Friedhelm von Blanckenburg (GFZ Potsdam).

Description: The GIZ Transboundary Water Management in Central Asia programme supports Tajik-Kyrgyz cooperation on the shared Isfara river basin by means of sustainable basin planning and management through capacity building. In addition, the rehabilitation of small-scale infrastructure and automatised flow measurement systems ensure a safe and fair allocation of water resources. As a result, improved water management and infrastructure in the Isfara River contribute to better information and water availability for more than 200,000 agricultural water users across both countries. Alongside already established methods of transboundary cooperation in the basin, which has complicated boundary issues, the hereinafter described measures counteract latent tensions among Tajik and Kyrgyz communities over the limited resource of arable land, which is closely linked to water. The GIZ Transboundary Water Management in Central Asia programme is implemented on behalf of the German Federal Foreign Office and cofunded by the European Union.

Description: The 2014 April 1, Mw 8.1 Iquique (Chile) earthquake struck in the Northern Chile seismic gap. With a rupture length of less than 200 km, it left unbroken large segments of the former gap. Early studies were able to model the main rupture features but results are ambiguous with respect to the role of aseismic slip and left open questions on the remaining hazard at the Northern Chile gap. A striking observation of the 2014 earthquake has been its extensive preparation phase, with more than 1300 events with magnitude above ML 3, occurring during the 15 months preceding the main shock. Increasing seismicity rates and observed peak magnitudes accompanied the last three weeks before the main shock. Thanks to the large data sets of regional recordings, we assess the precursor activity, compare foreshocks and aftershocks and model rupture preparation and rupture effects. To tackle inversion challenges for moderate events with an asymmetric network geometry, we use full waveforms techniques to locate events, map the seismicity rate and derive source parameters, obtaining moment tensors for more than 300 events (magnitudes Mw 4.0–8.1) in the period 2013 January 1–2014 April 30. This unique data set of fore- and aftershocks is investigated to distinguish rupture process models and models of strain and stress rotation during an earthquake. Results indicate that the spatial distributions of foreshocks delineated the shallower part of the rupture areas of the main shock and its largest aftershock, well matching the spatial extension of the aftershocks cloud. Most moment tensors correspond to almost pure double couple thrust mechanisms, consistent with the slab orientation. Whereas no significant differences are observed among thrust mechanisms in different areas, nor among thrust foreshocks and aftershocks, the early aftershock sequence is characterized by the presence of normal fault mechanisms, striking parallel to the trench but dipping westward. These events likely occurred in the shallow wedge structure close to the slab interface and are consequence of the increased extensional stress in this region after the largest events. The overall stress inversion result suggests a minor stress rotation after the main shock, but a significant release of the deviatoric stress. The temporal change in the distribution of focal mechanisms can also be explained in terms of the spatial heterogeneity of the stress field: under such interpretation, the potential of a large megathrust earthquake breaking a larger segment offshore Northern Chile remains high.

Description: Recent improvements in the development of VLBI (very long baseline interferometry) and other space geodetic techniques such as the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) require very precise a-priori information of short-period (daily and sub-daily) Earth rotation variations. One significant contribution to Earth rotation is caused by the diurnal and semi-diurnal ocean tides. Within this work, we developed a new model for the short-period ocean tidal variations in Earth rotation, where the ocean tidal angular momentum model and the Earth rotation variation have been setup jointly. Besides the model of the short-period variation of the Earth’s rotation parameters (ERP), based on the empirical ocean tide model EOT11a, we developed also ERP models, that are based on the hydrodynamic ocean tide models FES2012 and HAMTIDE. Furthermore, we have assessed the effect of uncertainties in the elastic Earth model on the resulting ERP models. Our proposed alternative ERP model to the IERS 2010 conventional model considers the elastic model PREM and 260 partial tides. The choice of the ocean tide model and the determination of the tidal velocities have been identified as the main uncertainties. However, in the VLBI analysis all models perform on the same level of accuracy. From these findings, we conclude that the models presented here, which are based on a re-examined theoretical description and long-term satellite altimetry observation only, are an alternative for the IERS conventional model but do not improve the geodetic results.

Description: We present a systematic and updated overview of a seismotectonic model for the Po Plain (northern Italy). This flat and apparently quiet tectonic domain is, in fact, rather active as it comprises the shortened foreland and foredeep of both the Southern Alps and the Northern Apennines. Assessing its seismic hazard is crucial due to the concentration of population, industrial activities, and critical infrastructures, but it is also complicated because (a) the region is geologically very diverse, and (b) nearly all potential seismogenic faults are buried beneath a thick blanket of Pliocene–Pleistocene sediments, and thus can be investigated only indirectly. Identifying and parameterizing the potential seismogenic faults of the Po Plain requires proper consideration of their depth, geometry, kinematics, earthquake potential and location with respect to the two confronting orogens. To this end, we subdivided them into four main, homogeneous groups. Over the past 15 years we developed new strategies for coping with this diversity, resorting to different data and modeling approaches as required by each individual fault group. The most significant faults occur beneath the thrust fronts of the Ferrara-Romagna and Emilia arcs, which correspond to the most advanced and buried portions of the Northern Apennines and were the locus of the destructive May 2012 earthquake sequence. The largest known Po Plain earthquake, however, occurred on an elusive reactivated fault cutting the Alpine foreland south of Verona. Significant earthquakes are expected to be generated also by a set of transverse structures segmenting the thrust system, and by the deeper ramps of the Apennines thrusts. The new dataset is intended to be included in the next version of the Database of Individual Seismogenic Sources (DISS; http://diss.rm.ingv.it/diss/, version 3.2.0, developed and maintained by INGV) to improve completeness of potential sources for seismic hazard assessment.

Description: The International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) performed a dual-phase scientific drilling project to investigate mountain-building processes called Collisional Orogeny in the Scandinavian Caledonides (COSC). The borehole COSC-1 was drilled through the Lower Seve Nappe, as the first of two 2.5 km deep drill holes close to Åre, central Sweden. The recovered rocks comprise a 1650 m thick suite of high grade gneisses and amphibolites with clear Seve Nappe affinities, while the lower 850 m comprise rather homogenous mylonitic gneisses with interfingered K-rich phyllonite bands of cm to several m size and some intercalated amphibolites. The different lithologies all crosscut the core in a subhorizontal direction with foliation of gneisses and phyllonites in the same direction. Albite and garnet porphyroblasts with pressure shadows show syn-deformational growth and the same sub-horizontal alignment. The focus of this thesis is to detect chemical and mineralogical differences in mylonitic and host rocks and to relate these differences to either metasomatism and deformation or inherited source rock variance. Another goal of this work is to compare chemical core scanning instruments. For this purpose two different μ-Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (μ-EDXRF), Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) and hyperspectral imaging techniques served to measure seven samples from the lower 850 m of the COSC-1 core. The measurements reveal sharp borders between different rock types without indication of metasomatic changes, pointing to a heterogeneous protolith such as greywacke. Element and mineral maps show strong pervasive ductile deformation with mylonite recrystallization. The comparison of the scanning devices shows that the μ-EDXRF scanner with 50 μm resolution can be used perfectly for microstructural investigations and heavy element analysis. The XRF core scanner from AVAATECH is very useful and sufficiently precise for element profiles of line scans. The LIBS scanner is great to create distribution maps of elements from H to U with a resolution of 200 μm. The hyperspectral cameras are extremely fast in acquiring spectral mineral maps and structural information. However, several rock forming minerals in gneisses can currently not be identified and a calibration for metamorphic rocks is still needed.

Description: Measuring soil moisture with cosmic ray neutrons is a promising technique for intermediate spatial scales. To convert neutron counts to average volumetric soil water content a simple calibration function can be used (the N0-calibration of Desilets et al., 2010). The calibration is based on soil water content derived directly from soil samples taken within the footprint of the sensor. We installed a cosmic-ray neutron sensor (CRS) in a mixed forest in the lowlands of north-eastern Germany and calibrated it 10 times throughout one calendar year. Each calibration with the N0-calibration function resulted in a different CRS soil moisture time series, with deviations of up to 0.12 m3 m-3 for individual values of soil water content. Also, many of the calibration efforts resulted in time series that could not be matched with independent in situ measurements of soil water content. We therefore suggest a modified calibration function with a different shape that can vary from one location to another. A twopoint calibration proved to be adequate to correctly define the shape of the modified calibration function if the calibration points were taken during both dry and wet conditions spanning at least half of the total range of soil moisture. The best results were obtained when the soil samples used for calibration were linearly weighted as a function of depth in the soil profile and non-linearly weighted as a function of distance from the CRS, and when the depth-specific amount of soil organic matter and lattice water content was explicitly considered. The annual cycle of tree foliation was found to be a negligible factor for calibration because the variable hydrogen mass in the leaves was small compared to the hydrogen mass changes by soil moisture variations. We will also provide a best practice calibration guide for CRS in forested environments.

Description: Dataset

Description: The influence of the elastic Earth properties on seasonal or shorter periodic surface deformations due to atmospheric surface pressure and terrestrial water storage variations is usually modeled by applying a local half-space model or an one dimensional spherical Earth model like PREM from which a unique set of elastic load Love numbers, or alternatively, elastic Green's functions are derived. The first model is valid only if load and observer almost coincide, the second model considers only the response of an average Earth structure. However, for surface loads with horizontal scales less than 2500 km2, as for instance, for strong localized hydrological signals associated with heavy precipitation events and river floods, the Earth elastic response becomes very sensitive to inhomogeneities in the Earth crustal structure. We derive a set of local Green's functions defined globally on a 1° × 1° grid for the 3-layer crustal structure TEA12. Local Green's functions show standard deviations of ±12% in the vertical and ±21% in the horizontal directions for distances in the range from 0.1° to 0.5°. By means of Green's function scatter plots, we analyze the dependence of the load response to various crustal rocks and layer thicknesses. The application of local Green's functions instead of a mean global Green's function introduces a variability of 0.5 − 1.0 mm into the hydrological loading displacements, both in vertical and in horizontal directions. Maximum changes due to the local crustal structures are from −25% to +26% in the vertical and −91% to +55% in the horizontal displacements. In addition, the horizontal displacement can change its direction significantly. The lateral deviations in surface deformation due to local crustal elastic properties are found to be much larger than the differences between various commonly used one-dimensional Earth models.

Description: Unraveling the density structure of the oceanic lithosphere north of Iceland is key for understanding the effects of the Iceland Plume on the mid-ocean ridges of the greater Jan Mayen-East Greenland Region. We use a data-integrative approach for 3D gravity modeling to develop new insights into the crust and upper mantle density structure of this region. First, we obtain the 3D density structure of the sediments and crust from interpretations of regional reflection and refraction seismic lines. Then, the temperature and density structure of the mantle between 50 and 250 km are derived from a published shear-wave velocity (Vs) tomography model. To assess the density configuration between the Moho and 50 km depth, we follow a combined forward and inverse 3D gravity modeling approach. The Vs tomography and derived density of the deeper mantle (〉50 km depth) reveal that the low-density anomaly related to the Iceland plume gets weaker with increasing distance from the plume, i.e. from the strongly influenced Middle Kolbeinsey Ridge (MKR) to the Mohn’s Ridge. The West Jan Mayen Fracture Zone is identified as a main mantle density contrast, indicative of differences in the thermal evolution of the ridge systems it separates. Beneath the MKR region, the low-density anomaly at depths of 〉50 km continues upwards into the uppermost mantle, where its lateral dimensions narrow considerably. This elongated density anomaly is consistent with a basement high and indicates a channelization of the Iceland plume effects. The NE-SW elongated mantle anomaly does not, however, coincide with the topographical NNE-SSW striking ridge axis. Thus, the modelled plume-affected oceanic lithosphere reveals discrepancies with the half-space cooling model. We discuss the 3D density model in terms of such spatial relations between deeper mantle anomalies and the shallow crustal structure.

Description: Complex structures like the Carpathian Orogen and its neighbouring platforms and related inter-orogenic basin system can be understood only by complex integration of complementary investigative tools. A large wide angle refraction and reflection (WARR) survey was carried out in 2014 by a large international partnership in order to study the transition from the East European Platform to the northern part of the Romanian Eastern Carpathians, Transylvanian Basin and the Apuseni Mountains. The main scientific objectives of the WARR project relate to three main investigation domains: crustal architecture; affinity of crystalline basement and sedimentary basins architecture. The profile is about 700 km in total, in Ukraine and Romania. Recorders used were DSS Cubes and placed at 2.0 km intervals along an alignment forming the Romanian segment and the seismic sources were explosives, with shotpoints spaced at 20-65 km with a total of 800-1200 kg explosives/site in clusters of drill-holes loaded with 50 kg explosive/hole, average depth of 25 m. The main conclusions drawn from deep seismic data acquisition technology used is a clean technology, transient, short-lived and do not affect population health, the environmental factors flora and fauna.

Description: The Cretaceous Niobrara Formation is one of the latest unconventional exploration targets in North America. In this paper, an overall Type-II marine organofacies with some variability is present within a core which consists of alternating marls and chalks, covering a maturity range of 0.8–1.0 %Rc (calculated vitrinite reflectance). Enhanced oil saturation index (OSI) values have previously been reported for the chalk, and here a positive trend (R2 = 0.92) between the OSI and the percentage of saturates in gross fractions is present. Thus, the saturate fraction gradually increases from 40% to above 60% as the OSI increases from 40 to 550 mg HC/g TOC (total organic carbon). Extremely high OSI values (〉300 mg HC/g TOC) are characteristic of Niobrara chalks. Therefore, the chalk intervals represent primary sweet spots. Using a combined analytical approach, petroleum has been shown to migrate from the organic-rich marls into juxtaposed chalks, and that this has fractionated oils into higher quality liquids. Extractable organic matter in the chalks is clearly enriched in saturate hydrocarbons, while the NSO-containing polar compounds are preferentially retained in the shale and marl units. Compared with the significant fractionation effects between these gross fractions, fractionation within a given compound class is nevertheless indistinct.

Description: Bevölkerungswachstum und Klimawandel haben tiefgreifende Veränderungen im Mekong Delta verursacht. Eine dieser Veränderungen betrifft das zunehmende Auftreten extremer Hochwasserereignisse. Um das Leben der Menschen in den Küstenbereichen des Deltas während solcher Ereignisse zu schützen, ist es von großer Bedeutung, die Wasserstandhöhe in diesen Bereiche kontinuierlich zu überwachen. Standardmäßig kommen dafür Pegelmessstationen zum Einsatz. Sie ermöglichen die Bestimmung der Wasserstandhöhe mit großer Genauigkeit und hoher zeitlichen Auflösung. Ein Nachteil dieser Methode liegt in der lediglich punktuellen Verfügbarkeit von Messwerten. Aufgrund steigender Wartungskosten wird die Anzahl der Messstationen ferner kontinuierlicher verringert. Eine zukunftsträchtige Alternative stellt die Global Positioning System-Reflectometry (GPS-R) dar, da Wasseroberflächen eine hohe Reflektivität für GPS L-band Signale zeigen. Phasenbeobachtungen haben das Potenzial, genauere Ergebnisse zu liefern. Um die Möglichkeit des Einsatzes eines darauf beruhenden Verfahrens als Pegelmessinstrument zu prüfen, wurden zwei 14-tägige Messkampagnen, 2012 und 2013, im Mekong-Delta durchgeführt. Dabei kam eine neue Generation von GORS-Empfänger zum Einsatz. Um eine Aussage über den Einfluss der Antennenposition auf Qualität und Quantität der registrierten Phasenbeobachtungen treffen zu können, wurden zwei unterschiedliche Antennenhöhen verwendet. Die Ergebnisse der Analyse zeigen, dass hauptsächlich die Rauheit der Wasseroberfläche für den Verlust der Kohärenz der Phasenbeobachtungen verantwortlich ist. Bedingt durch die hohe Datenrate, ein neues Algorithmus zur automatisierte Extraktion von kohärente Phasenbeobachtungen wird vorgestellt. Dabei zeigen die Analyse der Ergebnisse eine Übereinstimmung von 82%. Die Analyse zeigte ferner die Präsenz von Mehrwegeffekte. Dieses bereits in anderen Veröffentlichungen festgestellte Phänomen stellt weiterhin eine offene Fragestellung dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden diese Effekte durch die Anwendung einer adaptierten Version der empirischen Modenzerlegung Empirical Mode Decomposition reduziert, was zu einer deutlichen Erhöhung der Genauigkeit bei der Bestimmung der Wasserstandhöhen führt. Des Weiteren kann durch die Analyse der Daten das Vorhandensein einer Vielzahl von Phasensprüngen und deren hohes Maß an Korrelation mit der Umgebung der Antenne nachgewiesen werden. Um den Höhenunterschied zwischen Empfänger und Wasseroberfläche zu bestimmen, wird eine Ausgleichungsrechnung nach der Methode der kleinsten Quadrate durchgeführt. Da die Genauigkeit des geschätzten Höhenunterschieds von der Genauigkeit der berechnete Entfernungsdifferenz zwischen dem direkten und dem reflektierten Signal abhängig ist, muss der Einfluss von systematischen Fehlern, die die Signale beeinflussen, minimiert werden. Für diesen Zweck, werden zum einen verschiedene Strategien für die Korrektur der durch die Troposphäre verursachten Fehlers verglichen, wobei gezeigt wird, dass atmosphärische Höhenschicht und die Gesamtzenitverzögerung genau berechnet werden müssen. Zum anderen werden die Einflüsse des Phase Wind-up sowie von Antennenphasenzentrumvariationen und -offset analysiert und Korrekturverfahren vorgestellt. Für eine erfolgreiche Bestimmung der Wasserstandhöhe ist neben der Korrektur systematischer Fehler die korrekte Festsetzung der Mehrdeutigkeiten in den Phasenbeobachtungen erforderlich. Als Ergebnis dieser Arbeit kann festgehalten werden, dass unter diesen Voraussetzungen die Bestimmung der Wasserstandhöhen mit einer Auflösung von 10 Minuten und einer Genauigkeit im dm-Bereich möglich ist. Es konnte ferner gezeigt werden, dass bei gleichzeitigem Vorliegen von Daten mehrerer Satelliten Genauigkeiten im cm-Bereich erzielt werden. Während die größtenteils nicht vorhandene Redundanz den Hauptgrund für die eingeschränkte Genauigkeit darstellt, liegt dieser für die fehlende Kontinuität in dem häufig auftretenden Verlust der Kohärenz der Phasenbeobachtungen. Darüber hinaus, um die allgemeine Anwendbarkeit der in dieser Arbeit entwickeltes Algorithmus zu überprüfen, wurde die Methode auf Daten einer in 2014 durchgeführte Messung in Midelt, Marokko, angewandt. Die daraus resultierenden Wasserstandhöhen im dm-Bereich, zeigen die Anwendbarkeit des entwickelte Algorithmus auf andere grund- und phasenbasierte GPS-R Anwendungen.

Description: Ground-based gauge instrumentation enables a high altimetric accuracy with high temporal resolution, but for a point location only. However, their number is decreasing worldwide. GPS-R reveals new perspectives for water level monitoring, since water surfaces show a high reflectivity for the GPS L-band signal. To test the possibility of using this innovative technique, two field campaigns were conducted in Vietnam within the WISDOM project. As phase observations has the potential to offer more accurate results, a new generation of GORS receiver has been successfully tested. GPS-R phase-based altimetry imply continuous coherent phase observations. Due to the high sampling rate of the recorded data, a new automated algorithm, based on an ellipse fitting, is proposed to extract coherent observations. A hit rate of 82% could be reached. To test the geometrical impact of the antenna position on quality and quantity of the recorded observations, two antenna heights were used. A detailed analysis of the recorded observations was performed and correction techniques were developed. The results of the analysis show that the roughness of the water surface had a major influence on loss of coherency. Additionally, the surroundings of the antennas and the river geometry restrict the use of reflection events. The analysis also showed the presence of multipath effects other than the water, deteriorating the results. A phenomena already found in other research activities but not resolved. These multipath effects are mitigated and filtered based on an adjusted Empirical Mode Decomposition method showing an improvement of several centimetres in the obtained water level results. The data also reveals the strong presence of cycle slips that distort the results. A cycle slip detection strategy was therefore proposed. To extract water level changes, a LS method is used. As the accuracy of the extracted altimetric heights are strongly dependent on the accurate calculation of the geometrical excess paths between the direct and the reflected signal, effort was made to analyse the impact of systematic errors that influence the signals. Different tropospheric correction strategies are compared, showing that atmospheric height layer and total zenith delay have to be precisely calculated. Additionally, the impact of the mostly ignored phase wind-up effects in GPS-R applications is underlined. As the recorded coherent phase observations are ambiguous, an ambiguity fixing strategy for different satellite redundancy is proposed. Mostly, only L1 coherent phase observations from a single satellite are present. In this case, water level heights within the set goal of decimetre level of accuracy can be calculated with an interval of 10 min. In the most desirable case, with the presence of redundant satellites, water level heights could be estimated at the centimetre level of accuracy. To test the general applicability of the proposed algorithm, recorded observations during a measurement campaign, conducted 2014 within the PMARS project in Midelt, Morocco, were used. The obtained results within the decimetre level of accuracy, underline the applicability of the proposed algorithm to other ground and phase-based GPS-R altimetry applications. All the obtained results are verified by comparing them with tide gauge measurements in the vicinity of the antennas.

Description: Terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) concentrations in fluvial sediment, from which denudation rates are commonly inferred, can be affected by hillslope processes. TCN concentrations in gravel and sand may differ if localized, deep‐excavation processes (e.g. landslides, debris flows) affect the contributing catchment, whereas the TCN concentrations of sand and gravel tend to be more similar when diffusional processes like soil creep and sheetwash are dominant. To date, however, no study has systematically compared TCN concentrations in different detrital grain‐size fractions with a detailed inventory of hillslope processes from the entire catchment. Here we compare concentrations of the TCN 10Be in 20 detrital sand samples from the Quebrada del Toro (southern Central Andes, Argentina) to a hillslope‐process inventory from each contributing catchment. Our comparison reveals a shift from low‐slope gullying and scree production in slowly denuding, low‐slope areas to steep‐slope gullying and landsliding in fast‐denuding, steep areas. To investigate whether the nature of hillslope processes (locally excavating or more uniformly denuding) may be reflected in a comparison of the 10Be concentrations of sand and gravel, we define the normalized sand‐gravel index (NSGI) as the 10Be‐concentration difference between sand and gravel divided by their summed concentrations. We find a positive, linear relationship between the NSGI and median slope, such that our NSGI values broadly reflect the shift in hillslope processes from low‐slope gullying and scree production to steep‐slope gullying and landsliding. Higher NSGI values characterize regions affected by steep‐slope gullying or landsliding. We relate the large scatter in the relationship, which is exhibited particularly in low‐slope areas, to reduced hillslope‐channel connectivity and associated transient sediment storage within those catchments. While high NSGI values in well‐connected catchments are a reliable signal of deep‐excavation processes, hillslope excavation processes may not be reliably recorded by NSGI values where sediment experiences transient storage.

Description: Understanding the natural microbiological mechanismsthat promote iron cycling in iron ore mine environmentsmay provide novel tools for the remediation of the fragile,iron-rich duricrust ecosystems associated with these envir-onmentsaswellasprovide asolutionforthestabilisation ofhillslopes and tailings (waste) dams. A diverse array ofmicrofossils is frequently identified throughout metre-scale duricrusts (canga;〉50 wt.% Fe) that cap iron oredeposits in Brazil, shedding light on the intimate role ofmicroorganisms in the evolution of these crusts. Nanoscalesecondary ion mass spectrometry revealed that carbon andnitrogen biosignatures are occasionally preserved, and typ-ically associated with the cell envelope structures of micro-fossils. The microfossils are 1–5mm in length, withfilamentous and rod-shaped morphologies commonly pre-served1,2. When examined using backscatter electron scan-ning electron microscopy, canga shows a complexmicrostructure from repeated dissolution and re-precipita-tion of iron oxide minerals. Geochronology3, geochemis-try4and microbiology5provide insights into the past andpresent-day role of microorganisms in the evolution ofcanga. These dynamic biogeochemical processes in cangacontribute to the continuous formation of new ironcements, preserving some of world’s longest-lived contin-uously exposed surfaces. Harnessing and accelerating thebiogeochemical cycling of iron may contribute to the de-velopment of novel technologies for mine remediation andwaste stabilisation.

Description: This dataset provides friction data from ring-shear tests (RST) for a quartz sand used in analogue experiments at the Institute of Geophysics of the Czech Academy of Science (IGCAS) (Kratinová et al., 2006; Zavada et al., 2009; Lehmann et al., 2017; Krýza et al., 2019). It is characterized by means of internal friction coefficients µ and cohesion C. According to our analysis the materials show a Mohr-Coulomb behaviour characterized by a linear failure envelope. Peak friction coefficients µP of the tested material is ~0.75, dynamic friction coeffi-cients µD is ~0.60 and reactivation friction coefficients µR is ~0.64. Cohesions of the material range between 90 and 130 Pa. The material shows a minor rate-weakening of 〈1% per ten-fold change in shear velocity v.

Description: Accurate asset-level data can dramatically enhance the ability of investors, regulators, governments, and civil society to measure and manage different forms of environmental risk, opportunity, and impact. Asset-level data is information about physical and non-physical assets tied to company ownership information. • Remote sensing (and related technological developments such as machine learning) can help secure better asset-level data and at higher refresh rates. In particular remote sensing can help identify the features and use of assets relevant to determining asset-level GHG emissions. • We expect that the development of a global catalogue of every physical asset in the world to be already within the reach of technical feasibility. The process of identifying and tagging assets (e.g. power generating stations, mines, farms, industrial sites) and asset-level features (e.g. cooling technologies, air pollution control technologies) can be automated through the use of machine learning. • It is possible to train learning algorithms to recognise an asset and its features in remote imagery and then scan global imagery corpuses to identify all assets of that type. Human error rates are sufficiently low on these classification tasks that it is reasonable to expect these problems to be entirely automatable. • With the exponential increase in space-based sensing, computing power, and algorithmic complexity, end-to-end learning systems are becoming increasingly available to academic researchers and the private sector alike. • There are also viable methods using remote sensing data that could be implemented to measure asset-level GHG emissions. These methods are: (1) a direct method, which involves the use of various sensors on spaceborne and airborne instruments to measure emissions directly; and (2) an indirect method, which utilises various identifiable asset characteristics to model GHG emissions. • The direct method of monitoring emissions requires the use of satellite or airborne instruments. Accurately monitor GHGs from space is challenging because of their relatively small signal in comparison to other atmospheric constituents, but advances in both sensor technology and retrieval models are leading to more precise detection. • Direct emission monitoring is currently feasible for a relatively limited scope of assets (such as assets that are situated in regions with very few other sources of emissions in the surrounding area). The launch of the CarbonSat satellite in 2020 as well as some already scheduled sunsynchronous sensors offer the potential for more precise observation of GHG concentrations and emissions at the asset-level. • A complementary approach to direct measurement is to model GHG emissions indirectly using identifiable asset characteristics. This requires the identification of key characteristics that are associated with GHG emissions. For example, asset utilisation rates are inherently linked to the level of GHG emissions. Using some of the spaceborne instruments in combination with real asset-level production data it is possible to model an asset’s utilisation rate. Employing this projection of the utilisation rate an estimate of the emissions can then be obtained using a standardised model. The indirect approach represents a more feasible method of measuring GHG emissions based on currently available technology. • Through future research projects undertaken over multiple phases we plan to make asset-level data (including various technical features) and GHG emissions monitoring for each asset (using both direct and indirect methods) available for every physical asset in every sector globally, beginning with the most GHG intensive assets. We hope to create platforms for various users to access and use this data. This endeavour has the potential to transform how different actors in different parts of society measure and manage environmental risks, impacts and opportunities. It is enabled by significant public (and private) investment in data capture and remote sensing, which can now be brought together and processed in novel ways for direct application.

Description: Geospatial co-registration is a mandatory prerequisite when dealing with remote sensing data. Inter- or intra-sensoral misregistration will negatively affect any subsequent image analysis, specifically when processing multi-sensoral or multi-temporal data. In recent decades, many algorithms have been developed to enable manual, semi- or fully automatic displacement correction. Especially in the context of big data processing and the development of automated processing chains that aim to be applicable to different remote sensing systems, there is a strong need for efficient, accurate and generally usable co-registration. Here, we present AROSICS (Automated and Robust Open-Source Image Co-Registration Software), a Python-based open-source software including an easy-to-use user interface for automatic detection and correction of sub-pixel misalignments between various remote sensing datasets. It is independent of spatial or spectral characteristics and robust against high degrees of cloud coverage and spectral and temporal land cover dynamics. The co-registration is based on phase correlation for sub-pixel shift estimation in the frequency domain utilizing the Fourier shift theorem in a moving-window manner. A dense grid of spatial shift vectors can be created and automatically filtered by combining various validation and quality estimation metrics. Additionally, the software supports the masking of, e.g., clouds and cloud shadows to exclude such areas from spatial shift detection. The software has been tested on more than 9000 satellite images acquired by different sensors. The results are evaluated exemplarily for two inter-sensoral and two intra-sensoral use cases and show registration results in the sub-pixel range with root mean square error fits around 0.3 pixels and better.

Description: Velocity updates have been proven to be important for constraining motion-sensor-based dead-reckoning (DR) solutions in indoor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) applications. The forward velocity from a mass flow sensor and the lateral and vertical non-holonomic constraints (NHC) can be utilized for three-dimensional (3D) velocity updates. However, it is observed that (a) the quadrotor UAV may have a vertical velocity trend when it is controlled to move horizontally; (b) the quadrotor may have a pitch angle when moving horizontally; and (c) the mass flow sensor may suffer from sensor errors, especially the scale factor error. Such phenomenons degrade the performance of velocity updates. Thus, this paper presents a multi-sensor integrated localization system that has more effective sensor interactions. Specifically, (a) the barometer data are utilized to detect height changes and thus determine the weight of vertical velocity update; (b) the pitch angle from the inertial measurement unit (IMU) and magnetometer data fusion is used to set the weight of forward velocity update; and (c) an extra mass flow sensor calibration module is introduced. Indoor flight tests have indicated the effectiveness of the proposed sensor interaction strategies in enhancing indoor quadrotor DR solutions, which can also be used for detecting outliers in external localization technologies such as ultrasonics.

Description: Redox-sensitive elements (Mo, V, U, Re, Cd, Co, As, Sb, Tl, Ni, Cr, Mn, Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn, Se) and proxies for detrital clastic sedimentation (Al, Ti, Sc, Th) along with total organic carbon (TOC) and total sulfur (TS) were analysed to constrain the paleoredox conditions of the Middle-Upper Jurassic black shales in the Blue Nile (Abay) Basin, Ethiopia. These samples were collected from the deep marine Antalo Limestone (Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian), Gohatsion Formation (Bathonian) and glauconitic shale-mudstone unit (Aalenian-Toarcian). Significant variations in redox-sensitive elements concentration within and between these shales were evident for variable redox conditions. In general, the concentration of proxies for detrital clastic sedimentation increases from the Antalo Limestone to Gohatsion Formation and further to glauconitic shale-mudstone unit shales, respectively. The Antalo Limestone shales show slightly higher enrichment in redox-sensitive elements than the Gohatsion Formation and glauconitic shale-mudstone unit shales. The Antalo Limestones shales have higher TOC content than the glauconitic shale-mudstone unit shales and become very low in the Gohatsion Formation shales. The TS content in contrast, is relatively lower in the Antalo Limestone shales, intermediate in the Gohatsion Formation shales and becomes higher in the glauconitic shale-mudstone unit shales. The Antalo Limestone shales were deposited under anoxic-suboxic conditions whereas the Gohatsion Formation and glauconitic shale-mudstone unit shales were deposited under suboxic-oxic conditions. The TOC content and redox conditions of the Antalo Limestone shales implies favourable organic matter preservation and future source rock explorations in the basin should be targeted there.

Description: The aim of this work is to evaluate the genesis and tectonic setting of the Kenticha rare metal granite-pegmatite deposit using petrography and whole-rock geochemical analysis. The samples were analysed for major elements, and trace and rare earth elements by ICP-AES and ICP-MS, respectively. The Kenticha rare metal granite-pegmatite deposit is controlled by the N-S deep-seated normal fault that allow the emplacement of the granite-pegmatite in the study area. Six main mineral assemblages have been identified: (a) alaskitic granite (quartz + microcline + albite with subordinate muscovite), (b) aplitic layer (quartz + albite), (c) muscovite-quartz-microcline-albite pegmatite, (d) spodumene-microcline-albite pegmatite, partly albitized or greisenized, (e) microcline-albite-green and pink spodumene pegmatite with quartz-microcline block, which is partly albitized and greisenized, and (f) quartz core. This mineralogical zonation is also accompanied by variation in Ta ore concentration and trace and rare earth elements content. The Kenticha granite-pegmatite is strongly differentiated with high SiO2 (72–84 wt %) and enriched with Rb (∼689 ppm), Be (∼196 ppm), Nb (∼129 ppm), Ta (∼92 ppm) and Cs (∼150 ppm) and depleted in Ba and Sr. The rare earth element (REE) patterns of the primary ore zone (below 60 m depth) shows moderate enrichment in light REE ((La/Yb)N = ∼8, and LREE/HREE = ∼9.96) and negative Eu-anomaly (Eu/Eu* = ∼0.4). The whole-rock geochemical data display the Within Plate Granite (WPG) and syn-Collisional Granite (syn-COLG) suites and interpret as its formation is crustal related melting. The mineralogical assemblage, tectonic setting and geochemical signatures implies that the Kenticha rare metal bearing granite pegmatite is formed by partial melting of metasedimentary rocks during post-Gondwana assembly and further tantalite enrichment through later hydrothermal-metasomatic processes.

Description: Magmatic-hydrothermal systems form a variety of ore deposits at different proximities to upper-crustal hydrous magma chambers, ranging from greisenization in the roof zone of the intrusion, porphyry mineralization at intermediate depths to epithermal vein deposits near the surface. The physical transport processes and chemical precipitation mechanisms vary between deposit types and are often still debated. For this study, we investigate the fluid evolution from proximal to distal settings at the Pirquitas and Chinchillas Mines in NW Argentina and the Sweet Home Mine, Colorado. New results from fluid inclusion and isotopic analyses indicate a contribution of magmatic fluids in the formation of the SnAg Pirquitas Mine, even though no direct association to a magmatic intrusion is visible. Therefore, this deposit may represent a rather distal setting. In contrast, the Ag-Pb-Zn Chinchillas Mine is hosted in volcanic extrusive units and is directly associated to an underlying dacite diatreme. In that respect, this deposit is proximal to a volcanic complex, but due to its shallow emplacement is distal to an inferred magmatic intrusion at depth. The Ag-polymetallic Sweet Home Mine (currently mined for gemmy rhodochrosite) is related to an assumed hidden Mo porphyry, but may be located more proximal to a magmatic intrusion as compared to the other deposits. Performing fluid inclusion analysis, Raman spectroscopy, noble gas isotopic compositions and LA-ICPMS measurements as well as the analysis of stable (H, O, S) and radiogenic (Pb, Sr) isotopic compositions, we aim to reconstruct the evolution and P-T-x properties of the ore-forming fluids in the respective ore deposits. As all studied deposits are characterized by a distinct sulfide mineralization stage, we also investigate whether this stage has formed by mixing of magmatic fluids with variable amounts of externally derived fluids. Furthermore, numerical modelling of the transition from a porphyry to an epithermal environment, considering country rock permeability, fluid pressure distribution, fluid temperatures, and varying locations of the magmatic plume, is used to build a quantitative model for the formation of these types of epithermal deposits.

Description: At extensional volcanic arcs, faulting often acts to localize magmatism. Santorini is located on the extended continental crust of the Aegean microplate and is one of the most active volcanoes of the Hellenic arc, but the relationship between tectonism and magmatism remains poorly constrained. As part of the Plumbing Reservoirs Of The Earth Under Santorini experiment, seismic data were acquired across the Santorini caldera and the surrounding region using a dense amphibious array of 〉14,300 marine sound sources and 156 short‐period seismometers, covering an area 120 km by 45 km. Here a P wave velocity model of the shallow, upper‐crustal structure (〈3‐km depth), obtained using travel time tomography, is used to delineate fault zones, sedimentary basins, and tectono‐magmatic lineaments. Our interpretation of tectonic boundaries and regional faults are consistent with prior geophysical studies, including the location of basin margins and E‐W oriented basement faults within the Christiana Basin west of Santorini. Reduced seismic velocities within the basement east of Santorini, near the Anydros and Anafi Basins, are coincident with a region of extensive NE‐SW faulting and active seismicity. The structural differences between the eastern and western sides of Santorini are in agreement with previously proposed models of regional tectonic evolution. Additionally, we find that regional magmatism has been localized in NE‐SW trending basin‐like structures that connect the Christiana, Santorini, and Kolumbo volcanic centers. At Santorini itself, we find that magmatism has been localized along NE‐SW trending lineaments that are subparallel to dikes, active faults, and regional volcanic chains. These results show strong interaction between magmatism and active deformation.

Description: Power-to-Gas (PtG) is a chemical energy storage technology that converts electrical energy into a high-energy density combustible gas. This technology alleviates the contradiction between power supply and demand due to the intermittent electricity production from environment-friendly renewable energy. Hydrogen (H2), produced by electrolysis, can be used to produce synthetic methane (CH4) by reacting with carbon dioxide (CO2) that is captured from carbon emission sources. Subsurface gas storage is one of the most important processes in a PtG system. However, nearly a half of the total stored gas is used as cushion gas to maintain a suitable reservoir pressure, indicating large amounts of CH4 might be wasted and trapped in geological formations. Based on a PtG system, CO2 can be a promising choice as a cushion gas due to its high effective compressibility near its critical conditions. In this paper, a numerical model is established based on the theory of the fluid flow and molecular diffusion to study the role of CO2 as a cushion gas in increasing the gas storage capacity. The accuracy of this model is verified by comparing with that of Curtis M. Oldenburg. However, because of the declining purity of recovered gas induced by the convection and diffusion of two kinds of gases in the same reservoir. The influences of reservoir thickness on the distribution of mixed region are discussed. The results show that thicker reservoir would be a better choice for the geological storage of CH4 with CO2 as a cushion gas.

Description: QuantumFrontiers_HLSST_SLR_COMB2019s is a series of monthly gravity field models based on high-low satellite-to-satellite (HLSST) tracking and satellite laser ranging (SLR) data up to degree and order 60. The combination of HLSST and SLR data is done on the normal equation level using Variance Component Estimation. The series spans from 2003 to 2018 and thus covers the entire period between GRACE and GRACE Follow-On. It is therefore a prime candidate to bridge the data gap between these two satellite mission considering long-wavelength features on a global scale. The model has been developed with data contributions from the Astronomical Institute, University Bern (AIUB), the Institute of Geodesy, Theoretical Geodesy and Satellite Geodesy, Graz University of Technology, the Institute for Geodesy, Leibniz University Hannover and the European Space Agency. More details on the processing can be found in "Time-Variable Gravity Signal in Greenland Revealed by High-Low Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking" (Weigelt et al, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrb.50283) Funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy – EXC-2123 QuantumFrontiers – 390837967.

Description: Magmatic-hydrothermal systems form a variety of ore deposits at different proximities to upper-crustal hydrous magma chambers, ranging from greisenization in the roof zone of the intrusion, porphyry mineralization at intermediate depths to epithermal vein deposits near the surface. The physical transport processes and chemical precipitation mechanisms vary between deposit types and are often still debated. For this study, we investigate the fluid evolution from proximal to distal settings at the Pirquitas and Chinchillas Mines in NW Argentina and the Sweet Home Mine, Colorado. New results from fluid inclusion and isotopic analyses indicate a contribution of magmatic fluids in the formation of the SnAg Pirquitas Mine, even though no direct association to a magmatic intrusion is visible. Therefore, this deposit may represent a rather distal setting. In contrast, the Ag-Pb-Zn Chinchillas Mine is hosted in volcanic extrusive units and is directly associated to an underlying dacite diatreme. In that respect, this deposit is proximal to a volcanic complex, but due to its shallow emplacement is distal to an inferred magmatic intrusion at depth. The Ag-polymetallic Sweet Home Mine (currently mined for gemmy rhodochrosite) is related to an assumed hidden Mo porphyry, but may be located more proximal to a magmatic intrusion as compared to the other deposits. Performing fluid inclusion analysis, Raman spectroscopy, noble gas isotopic compositions and LA-ICPMS measurements as well as the analysis of stable (H, O, S) and radiogenic (Pb, Sr) isotopic compositions, we aim to reconstruct the evolution and P-T-x properties of the ore-forming fluids in the respective ore deposits. As all studied deposits are characterized by a distinct sulfide mineralization stage, we also investigate whether this stage has formed by mixing of magmatic fluids with variable amounts of externally derived fluids. Furthermore, numerical modelling of the transition from a porphyry to an epithermal environment, considering country rock permeability, fluid pressure distribution, fluid temperatures, and varying locations of the magmatic plume, is used to build a quantitative model for the formation of these types of epithermal deposits.

Description: Samples of the Cu2Cd x Zn1−x SnS4 solid solution series were synthesized by a mechanochemical process, exhibiting high crystallinity due to an annealing step under flowing H2S gas. The composition-dependent structural transition between the kesterite- and stannite-type phases was determined for Cd content close to x Cd ≈ 0.4 by means of x-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopic probes, in excellent agreement with earlier investigations. Our DFT calculations predicted a critical Cd concentration value of x Cd = 0.5 as the 'border' between the stannite- and kesterite-type structure in the Cu2Cd x Zn1−x SnS4 solid solution series. The somewhat higher calculated Cd content value compared to the experimental case can be accounted by partial Cu/Zn disorder present in the synthesized samples. The measured optical band gaps E g of the Cu2Cd x Zn1−x SnS4 solid solution series decrease by ~0.3 eV upon immediate introduction of Cd into the lattice, with E g being almost constant with varying Cd concentration. All of our observations are interpreted within the framework of earlier reports on composition-dependent kesterite-to-stannite transition, where local structural variations due to the Zn2+ substitution by the larger Cd2+ cations appear to dictate the transition process.

Description: Skarn deposits are found on every continents and were formed at different times from Precambrian to Tertiary. Typically, the formation of a skarn is induced by a granitic intrusion in carbonates-rich sedimentary rocks. During contact metamorphism, fluids derived from the granite interact with the sedimentary host rocks, which results in the formation of calc-silicate minerals at the expense of carbonates. Those newly formed minerals generally develop in a metamorphic zoned aureole with garnet in the proximal and pyroxene in the distal zone. Ore elements contained in magmatic fluids are precipitated due to the change in fluid composition. The temperature decrease of the entire system, due to the cooling of magmatic fluids and the entering of meteoric water, allows retrogression of some prograde minerals. The Hämmerlein skarn deposit has a multi-stage history with a skarn formation during regional metamorphism and a retrogression of primary skarn minerals during the granitic intrusion. Tin was mobilized during both events. The 340 Ma old tin-bearing skarn minerals show that tin was present in sediments before the granite intrusion, and that the first Sn enrichment occurred during the skarn formation by regional metamorphism fluids. In a second step at ca. 320 Ma, tin-bearing fluids were produced with the intrusion of the Eibenstock granite. Tin, which has been added by the granite and remobilized from skarn calc-silicates, precipitated as cassiterite. Compared to clay or marl, the skarn is enriched in Sn, W, In, Zn, and Cu. These metals have been supplied during both regional metamorphism and granite emplacement. In addition, the several isotopic and chemical data of skarn samples show that the granite selectively added elements such as Sn, and that there was no visible granitic contribution to the sedimentary signature of the skarn The example of Hämmerlein shows that it is possible to form a tin-rich skarn without associated granite when tin has already been transported from tin-bearing sediments during regional metamorphism by aqueous metamorphic fluids. These skarns are economically not interesting if tin is only contained in the skarn minerals. Later alteration of the skarn (the heat and fluid source is not necessarily a granite), however, can lead to the formation of secondary cassiterite (SnO2), with which the skarn can become economically highly interesting.

Description: Skarn-Lagerstätten befinden sich auf allen Kontinenten und wurden zu unterschiedlichen Zeiten vom Präkambrium bis zum Tertiär gebildet. Typischerweise wird die Bildung eines Skarns durch die Intrusion eines Granits in karbonatreiche Sedimentgesteine induziert. Während der Kontaktmetamorphose reagieren die Fluide aus dem Granit mit dem sedimentären Wirtgestein, was zur Bildung von Kalksilikaten auf Kosten von Karbonaten führt. Diese neu gebildeten Minerale entwickeln sich im Allgemeinen in einer metamorph zonierten Aureole mit Granat im proximalen und Pyroxen im distalen Bereich. Erzelemente die in magmatischen Fluiden enthalten sind werden aufgrund der veränderten Fluidzusammensetzung ausgefällt. Die Temperaturabsenkung des gesamten Systems, hervorgerufen durch die Abkühlung von magmatischen Fluiden sowie durch das Eindringen meteorischen Wassers, führen zu teilweisen oder vollständigen Umwandlung prograder Minerale. Die Skarn-Lagerstätte Hämmerlein hat eine mehrstufige Geschichte mit Skarnsbildung während der regionalen Metamorphose und Retrogression der primären Skarn-Minerale während der Intrusion von Graniten. Zinn wurde während beiden Ereignissen mobilisiert. Die 340 Ma alten zinnhaltigen Skarnminerale zeigen, dass Zinn in Sedimenten bereits vor dem Graniteintrag vorhanden war, und dass die erste Sn-Anreicherung während der Bildung des Skarns durch Fluide der Regionalmetamorphose stattfand. In einem zweiten Schritt um 320 Ma wurden Zinn-haltige Fluide durch die Intrusion des Eibenstockgranits freigesetzt. Diese Fluide überprägten den Skarn. Das freisetzen und das neu zugefügte Zinn ist in Kassiterit gebunden und führten dem System zusätzliches Zinn zu, wobei Zinn aus den Skarn-Kalksilikaten remobilisiert wurde. Im Vergleich zu Tonstein oder Mergel sind die Skarn mit Sn, W, In, Zn, und Cu angereichet. Diese Metalle sind während der Regionalmetamorphose und der Granitplatznahme zu unterschiedlichen Teilen zugeführt worden. Darüber hinaus zeigen die verschiedenen isotopen und chemischen Daten der Skarn-Proben, dass der Granit selektiv einige Elemente wie Sn hinzugefügt, und dass es keinen sichtbar granitischen Beitrag zur sedimentären Signatur des Skarns gab. Das Beispiel Hämmerlein zeigt, dass es möglich ist einen zinnreichen Skarn ohne zugehörigen Granit zu bilden, wenn Zinn von zinnhaltigen Sedimenten während einer Regionalmetamorphose mit wässrigen metamorphen Fluiden transportiert worden ist. Diese Skarne sind wirtschaftlich uninterssant wenn das Zinn nur in den Skarn-Mineralen enthalten ist. Spätere Umwandlung des Skarns (die Quelle der Wärme und Fluiden ist nicht unbedingt ein Granit) kann jedoch zur Bildung von sekundärem Kassiterite (SnO2) führen, womit der Skarn plötzlich wirtschaftlich hoch interessant sein kann.

Description: Earthquake swarms are characterized by large numbers of events occurring in a short period of time within a confined source volume and without significant mainshock aftershock pattern as opposed to tectonic sequences. Intraplate swarms in the absence of active volcanism usually occur in continental rifts as for example in the Eger Rift zone in North West Bohemia, Czech Republic. A common hypothesis links event triggering to pressurized fluids. However, the exact causal chain is often poorly understood since the underlying geotectonic processes are slow compared to tectonic sequences. The high event rate during active periods challenges standard seismological routines as these are often designed for single events and therefore costly in terms of human resources when working with phase picks or computationally costly when exploiting full waveforms. This methodological thesis develops new approaches to analyze earthquake swarm seismicity as well as the underlying seismogenic volume. It focuses on the region of North West (NW) Bohemia, a well studied, well monitored earthquake swarm region. In this work I develop and test an innovative approach to detect and locate earthquakes using deep convolutional neural networks. This technology offers great potential as it allows to efficiently process large amounts of data which becomes increasingly important given that seismological data storage grows at increasing pace. The proposed deep neural network trained on NW Bohemian earthquake swarm records is able to locate 1000 events in less than 1 second using full waveforms while approaching precision of double difference relocated catalogs. A further technological novelty is that the trained filters of the deep neural network’s first layer can be repurposed to function as a pattern matching event detector without additional training on noise datasets. For further methodological development and benchmarking, I present a new toolbox to generate realistic earthquake cluster catalogs as well as synthetic full waveforms of those clusters in an automated fashion. The input is parameterized using constraints on source volume geometry, nucleation and frequency-magnitude relations. It harnesses recorded noise to produce highly realistic synthetic data for benchmarking and development. This tool is used to study and assess detection performance in terms of magnitude of completeness Mc of a full waveform detector applied to synthetic data of a hydrofracturing experiment at the Wysin site, Poland. Finally, I present and demonstrate a novel approach to overcome the masking effects of wave propagation between earthquake and stations and to determine source volume attenuation directly in the source volume where clustered earthquakes occur. The new event couple spectral ratio approach exploits high frequency spectral slopes of two events sharing the greater part of their rays. Synthetic tests based on the toolbox mentioned before show that this method is able to infer seismic wave attenuation within the source volume at high spatial resolution. Furthermore, it is independent from the distance towards a station as well as the complexity of the attenuation and velocity structure outside of the source volume of swarms. The application to recordings of the NW Bohemian earthquake swarm shows increased P phase attenuation within the source volume (Qp 〈 100) based on results at a station located close to the village Luby (LBC). The recordings of a station located in epicentral proximity, close to Nový Kostel (NKC), show a relatively high complexity indicating that waves arriving at that station experience more scattering than signals recorded at other stations. The high level of complexity destabilizes the inversion. Therefore, the Q estimate at NKC is not reliable and an independent proof of the high attenuation finding given the geometrical and frequency constraints is still to be done. However, a high attenuation in the source volume of NW Bohemian swarms has been postulated before in relation to an expected, highly damaged zone bearing CO 2 at high pressure. The methods developed in the course of this thesis yield the potential to improve our understanding regarding the role of fluids and gases in intraplate event clustering.

Description: Erdbebenschwärme zeichnen sich durch eine große Anzahl an Ereignissen in einem relativ kleinen Zeitraum und Volumen aus. Im Gegensatz zu tektonischen Sequenzen ist in der Regel keine signifikantes Muster von Vor- und Nachbeben erkennbar. In Abwesenheit aktiven Vulkanismusses, kommen Erdbebenschwärme innerhalb kontinentaler Platten häufg an kontinentalen Verwerfungen vor, wie Beispielsweise im Bereich des Egergrabens im nordböhmischen Becken (Tschechien). Eine übliche Hypothese verbindet den Erdbebenentstehungsprozess mit Hochdruckfluiden. Der exakte kausale Zusammenhang ist jedoch häufig enigmatisch, da die zugrundeliegenden geotektonischen Prozesse im Vergleich zu tektonischen Sequenzen relativ langsam sind. Die hohe Erdbebenrate während aktiver Phasen stellt hohe Anforderungen an etablierte seismologische Routinen da diese häufg für Einzelereignisse konzipiert sind. So können sie einen hohen Aufwand bei manueller Selektion seismischer Phasen (picking) bedeuten oder rechenerisch aufwändig sein wenn volle Wellenformen verarbeitet werden sollen. Im Rahmen dieser methodologischen Thesis werden neue Ansätze zur Analyse seismischer Schwärme, sowie des zugrundeliegenden seismogenen Volumens entwickelt. Der Fokus liegt hierbei auf der gut untersuchten und überwachten nordböhmischen Schwarmregion. Ich entwickle und teste in dieser Arbeit einen innovativen Ansatz zur Detektion und Lokalisation von Erdbeben basierend auf einem tiefen konvolvierenden neuronalen Netzwerk. Diese Technologie bietet großes Potential da sie es erlaubt große Datenmengen effizient zu verarbeiten was durch die zunehmenden Datenmengen seismologischer Datenzentren immer weiter an Bedeutung gewinnt. Das entwickelte tiefe neuronale Netzwerk, trainiert auf Aufnahmen nordböhmischer Erdbebenschwärme, ist in der Lage 1000 Eregnisse in weniger als 1 Sekunde bei Verwendung voller Wellenformen zu lokalisieren und erreicht eine Präzision die vergleichbar ist mit der Genauigkeit eines Katalogs, der mittels Doppelte Differenzen Methode relokalisiert wurde. Eine weitere technologische Neuheit ist, dass die trainierten Filter der ersten Schicht des tiefen neuronalen Netzwerkes als Mustererkennungsfilter umfunktioniert werden und damit als Ereignisdetektor dienen können, ohne, dass zuvor explizit auf Rauschdaten trainiert werden muss. Für die weitere technologische Entwicklung stelle ich ein neues, automatisiertes Werkzeug für die synthetisierung realistischer Erdbebenschwarmkataloge, sowie hierauf basierender synthetischer voller Wollenform vor. Die Eingabeparameter werden durch die Geometrie des Quellvolumens, der Nukleationscharakteristik und Magnitude-Häufigkeitsverteilung definiert. Weiter können Rauschsignale realer Daten verwendet werden um äußerst realistische synthetische Daten zu generieren. Dieses Werkzeug wird verwendet um die Vollständigkeitmagnitude eines Detektors für volle Wellenformen anhand synthetischer Daten zu evaluieren. Die synthetisierten Daten sind Motiviert durch ein Hydrofrackingexperiment in Wysin (Polen). Des Weiteren stelle ich einen neuen Ansatz vor, der die Effekte der Wellenausbreitung zwischen Erdbeben und Stationen ausblendet und die Bestimmung der Dämpfung unmittelbar im Quellvolumen von Schwarmerdbeben erlaubt. Diese neue Methode benutzt das hochfrequente spektrale Verhältnis von Ereignispaaren mit gemeinsamen Strahlenwegen. Synthetische Tests zeigen, dass die Methode in der Lage ist die Dämpfung innerhalb des Quellvolumens mit hoher räumlicher Genauigkeit zu bestimmen. Weiter ist sie im Einzelnen unabhängig von der Entfernung zwischen Ereignis und Station als auch von der Komplexität der Dämpfungs und Geschwindigkeitsstruktur außerhalb des Quellvolumens. Die Anwendung auf Daten des nordböhmischen Erdbebenschwarms zeigt eine erhöhte P Phasen Dämpfung im Quellvolumen (Qp 〈 100) basierend auf Daten einer Station in der Nähe des Dorfes Luby (LBC). Die Wellenformen einer Station in unmittelbarer epizentraler Nähe, bei Novy Kostel (NKC), weisen eine relativ hohe Komplexität auf, was darauf hindeutet, dass seismische Wellen, die diese Station erreichen relativ stark gestreut werden im Vergleich zu anderen Stationen. Das hohe Maß an Komplexität destabilisiert die Methode und führt zu ungenauen Schätzungen an der Station NKC. Daher bedarf es einer weiteren unabhängigen Validierung der hohen Dämpfung bei gegebenen geometrischen und spektralen Voraussetzungen. Nichtsdestoweniger wurde bereits eine hohe Dämpfung im Quellvolumen der nordböhmischen Schwärme postuliert und erwartet, insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit einer Zone hoher Brüchigkeit die CO2 bei hohen Drücken beinhaltet. Die Methoden die im Rahmen dieser Thesis entwickelt werden haben das Potential unser Verständnis bezüglich der Rolle von Fluiden und Gasen bei Erdbebenschärmen innerhalb kontinentaler Platten zu verbessern.

Description: Partial melting is a first order process for the chemical differentiation of the crust (Vielzeuf et al., 1990). Redistribution of chemical elements during melt generation crucially influences the composition of the lower and upper crust and provides a mechanism to concentrate and transport chemical elements that may also be of economic interest. Understanding of the diverse processes and their controlling factors is therefore not only of scientific interest but also of high economic importance to cover the demand for rare metals. The redistribution of major and trace elements during partial melting represents a central step for the understanding how granite-bound mineralization develops (Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994). The partial melt generation and mobilization of ore elements (e.g. Sn, W, Nb, Ta) into the melt depends on the composition of the sedimentary source and melting conditions. Distinct source rocks have different compositions reflecting their deposition and alteration histories. This specific chemical “memory” results in different mineral assemblages and melting reactions for different protolith compositions during prograde metamorphism (Brown and Fyfe, 1970; Thompson, 1982; Vielzeuf and Holloway, 1988). These factors do not only exert an important influence on the distribution of chemical elements during melt generation, they also influence the volume of melt that is produced, extraction of the melt from its source, and its ascent through the crust (Le Breton and Thompson, 1988). On a larger scale, protolith distribution and chemical alteration (weathering), prograde metamorphism with partial melting, melt extraction, and granite emplacement are ultimately depending on a (plate-)tectonic control (Romer and Kroner, 2016). Comprehension of the individual stages and their interaction is crucial in understanding how granite-related mineralization forms, thereby allowing estimation of the mineralization potential of certain areas. Partial melting also influences the isotope systematics of melt and restite. Radiogenic and stable isotopes of magmatic rocks are commonly used to trace back the source of intrusions or to quantify mixing of magmas from different sources with distinct isotopic signatures (DePaolo and Wasserburg, 1979; Lesher, 1990; Chappell, 1996). These applications are based on the fundamental requirement that the isotopic signature in the melt reflects that of the bulk source from which it is derived. Different minerals in a protolith may have isotopic compositions of radiogenic isotopes that deviate from their whole rock signature (Ayres and Harris, 1997; Knesel and Davidson, 2002). In particular, old minerals with a distinct parent-to-daughter (P/D) ratio are expected to have a specific radiogenic isotope signature. As the partial melting reaction only involves selective phases in a protolith, the isotopic signature of the melt reflects that of the minerals involved in the melting reaction and, therefore, should be different from the bulk source signature. Similar considerations hold true for stable isotopes.

Description: Partielle Schmelzbildung ist ein zentraler Prozess für die geochemische Differentiation der Erdkruste (Vielzeuf et al., 1990). Die Umverteilung chemischer Elemente während der Schmelzbildung beeinflusst die Zusammensetzung der oberen und unteren Erdkruste entscheidend und stellt einen Mechanismus zur Konzentration und zum Transport chemischer Elemente dar. Das Verständnis der diversen Prozesse und der kontrollierenden Faktoren ist deshalb nicht nur von wissenschaftlichem Interesse sondern auch von ökonomischer Bedeutung um die Nachfrage für seltene Metalle zu decken. Die Umverteilung von Haupt- und Spurenelementen während des partiellen Aufschmelzens ist ein entscheidender Schritt für das Verständnis wie sich granitgebundene Lagerstätten bilden (Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994). Die Schmelzbildung und die Mobilisierung von Erz-Elementen (z. B. Sn, W, Nb, Ta) in die Schmelze hängt von der Zusammensetzung der sedimentären Ausgangsgesteine und den Schmelzbedingungen ab. Verschiedene Ausgangsgesteine haben aufgrund ihrer Ablagerungs- und Verwitterungsgeschichte unterschiedliche Zusammensetzungen. Dieses spezifische geochemische „Gedächtnis“ resultiert in unterschiedlichen Mineralparagenesen und Schmelzreaktionen in verschiedenen Ausgangsgesteinen während der prograden Metamorphose. (Brown and Fyfe, 1970; Thompson, 1982; Vielzeuf and Holloway, 1988). Diese Faktoren haben nicht nur einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die Verteilung chemischer Elemente während der Schmelzbildung, sie beeinflussen auch das Volumen an Schmelze, die Extraktion der Schmelze aus dem Ausgangsgestein und deren Aufstieg durch die Erdkruste (Le Breton and Thompson, 1988). Auf einer grösseren Skala unterliegen die Verteilung der Ausgangsgesteine und deren chemische Alteration (Verwitterung), die prograde Metamorphose mit partieller Schmelzbildung, Schmelzextraktion und die Platznahme granitischer Intrusionen einer plattentektonischen Kontrolle. Das Verständnis der einzelnen Schritte und deren Wechselwirkungen ist entscheidend um zu verstehen wie granitgebunden Lagerstätten entstehen und erlaubt es, das Mineralisierungspotential bestimmter Gebiete abzuschätzen. Partielles Aufschmelzen beeinflusst auch die Isotopensystematik der Schmelze und des Restites. Die Zusammensetzungen radiogener und stabiler Isotopen von magmatischen Gesteinen werden im Allgemeinen dazu verwendet um deren Ursprungsgesteine zu identifizieren oder um Mischungsprozesses von Magmen unterschiedlichen Ursprunges zu quantifizieren (DePaolo and Wasserburg, 1979; Lesher, 1990; Chappell, 1996). Diese Anwendungen basieren auf der fundamentalen Annahme, dass die Isotopenzusammensetzung der Schmelze derjenigen des Ausgangsgesteines entspricht. Unterschiedliche Minerale in einem Gestein können unterschiedliche, vom Gesamtgestein abweichende, Isotopenzusammensetzungen haben (Ayres and Harris, 1997; Knesel and Davidson, 2002). Insbesondere für alte Minerale, mit einem unterschiedlichen Mutter-Tochter Nuklidverhältnis, ist eine spezifische Isotopenzusammensetzung zu erwarten. Da im partiellen Schmelzprozess nur bestimmte Minerale eines Gesteines involviert sind, entspricht die Isotopenzusammensetzung der Schmelze derjenigen der Minerale welche an der Schmelzreaktion teilnehmen. Daher sollte die Isotopenzusammensetzung der Schmelze von derjenigen des Ursprungsgesteines abweichen. Ähnliche Überlegungen treffen auch für stabile Isotopen zu.

Description: The Central Andes host large reserves of base and precious metals. The region represented, in 2017, an important part of the worldwide mining activity. Three principal types of deposits have been identified and studied: 1) porphyry type deposits extending from central Chile and Argentina to Bolivia, and Northern Peru, 2) iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits, extending from central Peru to central Chile, and 3) epithermal tin polymetallic deposits extending from Southern Peru to Northern Argentina, which compose a large part of the deposits of the Bolivian Tin Belt (BTB). Deposits in the BTB can be divided into two major types: (1) tin-tungsten-zinc pluton-related polymetallic deposits, and (2) tin-silver-lead-zinc epithermal polymetallic vein deposits. Mina Pirquitas is a tin-silver-lead-zinc epithermal polymetallic vein deposit, located in north-west Argentina, that used to be one of the most important tin-silver producing mine of the country. It was interpreted to be part of the BTB and it shares similar mineral associations with southern pluton related BTB epithermal deposits. Two major mineralization events related to three pulses of magmatic fluids mixed with meteoric water have been identified. The first event can be divided in two stages: 1) stage I-1 with quartz, pyrite, and cassiterite precipitating from fluids between 233 and 370 °C and salinity between 0 and 7.5 wt%, corresponding to a first pulse of fluids, and 2) stage I-2 with sphalerite and tin-silver-lead-antimony sulfosalts precipitating from fluids between 213 and 274 °C with salinity up to 10.6 wt%, corresponding to a new pulse of magmatic fluids in the hydrothermal system. The mineralization event II deposited the richest silver ores at Pirquitas. Event II fluids temperatures and salinities range between 190 and 252 °C and between 0.9 and 4.3 wt% respectively. This corresponds to the waning supply of magmatic fluids. Noble gas isotopic compositions and concentrations in ore-hosted fluid inclusions demonstrate a significant contribution of magmatic fluids to the Pirquitas mineralization although no intrusive rocks are exposed in the mine area. Lead and sulfur isotopic measurements on ore minerals show that Pirquitas shares a similar signature with southern pluton related polymetallic deposits in the BTB. Furthermore, the major part of the sulfur isotopic values of sulfide and sulfosalt minerals from Pirquitas ranges in the field for sulfur derived from igneous rocks. This suggests that the main contribution of sulfur to the hydrothermal system at Pirquitas is likely to be magma-derived. The precise age of the deposit is still unknown but the results of wolframite dating of 2.9 ± 9.1 Ma and local structural observations suggest that the late mineralization event is younger than 12 Ma.

Description: Die zentralen Anden beherbergen große Reserven von unedlen und Edelmetallen. Die Region war 2017 ein wichtiger Teil der weltweiten Bergbautätigkeit. Bisher wurden drei Hauptlagerstätten identifiziert und untersucht: 1) Porphyr-Lagerstätten, die sich von Zentralchile und Argentinien bis Bolivien und Nord-Peru erstrecken; 2) Eisenoxid-Kupfer-Gold-Lagerstätten (IOCG), die sich von Zentralperu bis Zentralchile ausdehnen, sowie 3) polymetallische epithermale Zinnlagerstätten, die sich von Südperu bis nach Nordargentinien erstrecken und einen Großteil der Lagerstätten des bolivianischen Zinngürtels (Bolivian Tin Belt - BTB) bilden. Lagerstätten im BTB können in zwei Haupttypen unterteilt werden: (1) polymetallische Lagerstätten aus Zinn-Wolfram-Zink im Zusammenhang mit Plutonen und (2) polymetallische Zinn-Silber-Blei-zink Anlagerungen in epithermalen gangförmigen Lagerstätten. Mina Pirquitas ist eine epithermale Zinn-Silber-Blei-Zink-Polymetallvenenlagerstätte im Nordwesten Argentiniens, die früher eine der wichtigsten Zinnsilber-Mine meines Landes war. Es wurde als Teil der BTB interpretiert und hat ähnliche Mineralstoffverbände mit südlichen Pluton-bezogenen BTB-Epithermalvorkommen. Es wurden zwei bedeutende Mineralisierungsereignisse identifiziert, die sich auf drei mit meteorischem Wasser gemischte magmatische Fluide beziehen. Das erste Ereignis kann in zwei Stufen unterteilt werden: 1) Stufe I-1, wobei Quarz, Pyrit und Cassiterit aus Fluiden zwischen 233 und 370 ° C und einem Salzgehalt zwischen 0 und 7,5 Gew .-% ausfallen, entsprechend einem ersten Flüssigkeitsimpuls, und 2) Stufe I-2 mit Sphalerit und Zinn-Silber-Blei-Antimonsulfosalzen, die aus Fluiden zwischen 213 und 274 ° C mit einem Salzgehalt von bis zu 10,6 Gew .-% ausfallen, was einem neuen Impuls magmatischer Fluiden im hydrothermalen System entspricht. Durch die Mineralisierung II wurden die reichsten Silbererze bei Pirquitas abgelagert. Die Temperaturen und Salzgehalte von Event II liegen zwischen 190 und 252 ° C bzw. zwischen 0,9 und 4,3 Gew .-%. Dies entspricht der abnehmenden Versorgung mit magmatischen Fluiden. Edelgasisotopenzusammensetzungen und -konzentrationen in mit Erz beherbergten Flüssigkeitseinschlüssen zeigen einen signifikanten Beitrag magmatischer Fluiden zur Pirquitas-Mineralisierung, obwohl keine intrusiven Gesteine im Minengebiet exponiert sind. Messungen von Blei- und Schwefelisotopen an Erzmineralien zeigen, dass Pirquitas eine ähnliche Signatur mit südlichen Pluton-verwandten polymetallischen Lagerstätten in der BTB teilt. Darüber hinaus liegt der größte Teil der Schwefelisotopenwerte von Sulfid- und Sulfosaltmineralien aus Pirquitas im Bereich von Schwefel aus magmatischem Gestein. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass der Hauptbeitrag von Schwefel zum hydrothermalen System bei Pirquitas wahrscheinlich aus Magma stammt. Das genaue Alter der Lagerstätte ist noch nicht bekannt, aber die Ergebnisse der Wolframit-Datierung von 2,9 ± 9,1 Ma und lokalen Strukturbeobachtungen legen nahe, dass die späten Mineralisierungsereignisse jünger als 12 Ma sind.

Description: We present the Neural-network-based Upper hybrid Resonance Determination (NURD) algorithm for automatic inference of the electron number density from plasma wave measurements made on board NASA's Van Allen Probes mission. A feedforward neural network is developed to determine the upper hybrid resonance frequency, fuhr, from electric field measurements, which is then used to calculate the electron number density. In previous missions, the plasma resonance bands were manually identified, and there have been few attempts to do robust, routine automated detections. We describe the design and implementation of the algorithm and perform an initial analysis of the resulting electron number density distribution obtained by applying NURD to 2.5 years of data collected with the Electric and Magnetic Field Instrument Suite and Integrated Science (EMFISIS) instrumentation suite of the Van Allen Probes mission. Densities obtained by NURD are compared to those obtained by another recently developed automated technique and also to an existing empirical plasmasphere and trough density model.

Description: EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program, www.enmap.org) is a German, Earth observing, imaging spectroscopy, spaceborne mission planned for launch in 2020. The data products will cover the spectral range from 420 nm to 2450 nm with a spectral sampling distance between 5 and 12 nm with an expected signal-to-noise-ratio of 400:1 in the visible near-infrared and 180:1 in the shortwave infrared parts of the electro-magnetic spectrum. The resulting images will cover an area of 30 km in the across- track direction with a ground sampling distance of 30 m. The across-track tilt-capability of 30° enables revisit times of less than four days. The resulting data products will be freely available to the scientific user community for measuring, deriving, and analyzing diagnostic parameters, which describe vital processes on the Earth's surface comprising agriculture, forestry, soil and geological environments, as well as coastal zones and inland waters. This work concentrates on the description of activities performed and facilities involved for the preparation of these products. It starts out by the description of the User Portals for observation requests and acquisition planning, touches the aspects of creating the time-lines, the commanding and controlling of the satellite, the downlink of the telemetry and payload data, the design of the processing chain and the archiving of data plus a set of activities flanking the above for the provision of high-quality data products.

Description: In this study we derive the stress tensor and its local variations throughout the Marmara region, Turkey. Based on a recently compiled 10-year earthquake catalogue, we directly invert first-motion polarity data and quantify confidence intervals for the principal stress orientations. We find a combined strike-slip and normal faulting stress field for the Marmara region generally reflecting the overall transtensional setting. However, the results clearly show moderate local variations of the stress field. The largest (σ1) and intermediate (σ2) principal stresses show an average regional trend of N125∘E and locally varying plunges. The least principal stress (σ3) is well resolved in its confidence interval and consistent throughout the region with an average trend of ∼ N35∘E and a subhorizontal plunge. The eastern Sea of Marmara shows local stress field orientations with pronounced strike-slip (northern part) and normal faulting (southern part) components. Along the central Marmara region, normal faulting tends to dominate, while a well resolved strike-slip stress regime is found in the western Sea of Marmara region. Regarding the faulting mechanism of an earthquake with magnitude up to 7.4 which is expected in this area in direct vicinity of the Istanbul metropolitan region, our results imply that neither strike-slip nor normal faulting kinematics can be excluded.

Description: Deliverable D5.2 presents the experimental outcome of jetting experiments at simulated reservoir conditions. Different rock types are tested under various conditions with the use of three different types of test bench. At first jetting experiments are conducted under submerged conditions in order to derive a better understanding of the governing erosion mechanism. Therefore pitting tests are combined with PIV measurements in order to derive and explain the erosion pattern of the occurring cavitation erosion and why the rock is more like to be eroded by the stagnation pressure of the impinging jet. Second, jetting experiments under pressure controlled conditions are performed. Rate of penetrations (ROP) of up to 100 m/h can be achieved which proofs the successful application of RJD technology especially in sand stone reservoir rock types. Especially the rotating nozzle design bears the highest potential for jetting operations where the static nozzle designs tend to fail, especially when pore pressure increases. The third experimental series under application of a bi- axial stress field show that the current RJD technology, as being used by project partner WSG, is not able to penetrate harder sandstone rock types (e.g. Dortmund sandstone) when field operating conditions are applied. The induced stress in the specimen does not initiate or enhance ROP. A second experiment thereby shows that higher nozzle exit speeds can lead to massive breakouts. Fourth, experiments are performed under a tri-axial stress field in collaboration with TU DELFT. Rock cubes are tested under different and very severely stress regimes while jetting into them. Compared to tests at atmospheric conditions it can be stated that the application of a stress field does not enhance the erosion of rock. At last experiments are conducted with the project partner WSG in order to determine the jetability of the Icelandic Basalt rock type and Icelandic inter basalt sediment layer. The experiments show that already higher pump pressures result in higher jetting performance, hence making them jetable as previously not expected. Furthermore the experiments approved the feasibility of the planned field test in Iceland when the soft sediment layer is the target zone. All in all the experiments conducted with the RJD technology show different results at simulated reservoir conditions compared to those at atmospheric which are described in deliverable D5.1 (Hahn & Wittig, 2017). Therefor, further testing at conditions representing the reservoir conditions more closer are needed in order to better understand and analyze the jetting process downhole.

Description: In this deliverable, the objectives of the Imperial College team are to consider jetted boreholes in the context of conventional borehole wall-rock stability analysis and to utilise an in-house advanced combined finite-discrete element code to examine the wall-rock failure process for jetted holes. The geomechanical modelling of Lateral Stability in D7.2 presented here is in addition to the main focus on modelling the water-jetting breakdown of the rock itself, reported in D7.1.

Description: The aim of this research is to investigate the failure mechanism for different types of rock in the context of water jet drilling and to predict the jet-ability or assess the radial jet drilling (RJD) performance prior to drilling and at the well petrophysical analysis stage. The main approach is to numerically simulate the water jet drilling for different types of rock using ICL’s in-house fluid-solid coupling codes. The rock properties, CT-scan data and jetting results obtained from D4.1 (Bakker et al., 2018) and D5.1 (Hahn et al., 2017) provide a good foundation for the related numerical results.

Description: The climate is a complex dynamical system involving interactions and feedbacks among different processes at multiple temporal and spatial scales. Although numerous studies have attempted to understand the climate system, nonetheless, the studies investigating the multiscale characteristics of the climate are scarce. Further, the present set of techniques are limited in their ability to unravel the multi-scale variability of the climate system. It is completely plausible that extreme events and abrupt transitions, which are of great interest to climate community, are resultant of interactions among processes operating at multi-scale. For instance, storms, weather patterns, seasonal irregularities such as El Niño, floods and droughts, and decades-long climate variations can be better understood and even predicted by quantifying their multi-scale dynamics. This makes a strong argument to unravel the interaction and patterns of climatic processes at different scales. With this background, the thesis aims at developing measures to understand and quantify multi-scale interactions within the climate system. In the first part of the thesis, I proposed two new methods, viz, multi-scale event synchronization (MSES) and wavelet multi-scale correlation (WMC) to capture the scale-specific features present in the climatic processes. The proposed methods were tested on various synthetic and real-world time series in order to check their applicability and replicability. The results indicate that both methods (WMC and MSES) are able to capture scale-specific associations that exist between processes at different time scales in a more detailed manner as compared to the traditional single scale counterparts. In the second part of the thesis, the proposed multi-scale similarity measures were used in constructing climate networks to investigate the evolution of spatial connections within climatic processes at multiple timescales. The proposed methods WMC and MSES, together with complex network were applied to two different datasets. In the first application, climate networks based on WMC were constructed for the univariate global sea surface temperature (SST) data to identify and visualize the SSTs patterns that develop very similarly over time and distinguish them from those that have long-range teleconnections to other ocean regions. Further investigations of climate networks on different timescales revealed (i) various high variability and co-variability regions, and (ii) short and long-range teleconnection regions with varying spatial distance. The outcomes of the study not only re-confirmed the existing knowledge on the link between SST patterns like El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, but also suggested new insights into the characteristics and origins of long-range teleconnections. In the second application, I used the developed non-linear MSES similarity measure to quantify the multivariate teleconnections between extreme Indian precipitation and climatic patterns with the highest relevance for Indian sub-continent. The results confirmed significant non-linear influences that were not well captured by the traditional methods. Further, there was a substantial variation in the strength and nature of teleconnection across India, and across time scales. Overall, the results from investigations conducted in the thesis strongly highlight the need for considering the multi-scale aspects in climatic processes, and the proposed methods provide robust framework for quantifying the multi-scale characteristics.

Description: Das Klima ist ein komplexes Zusammenspiel verschiedener Mechanismen und Rückkopplungen auf mehreren zeitlichen und räumlichen Skalen. Viele Studien beschäftigten sich mit dem diesem System, nur wenige jedoch konzentrierten sich auf das Multiskalenverhalten des Klimas. Vor allem die bis dato verfügbaren Techniken schränkten eine vertiefte Analyse der Klimavariabilität auf unterschiedlichen Skalen ein. Von großen Interesse in der aktuellen Klimaforschung sind Extremereignisse und plötzliche Veränderungen, welche höchstwahrscheinlich aus dem Zusammenwirken von Prozessen auf unterschiedlichen Skalen hervorgehen. Um Stürme, wiederkehrende Wetterlagen, jahreszeitliche Phänomene wie El Niño, Fluten, Dürren oder Klimaschwankungen über Jahrzehnte besser zu verstehen oder sogar vorhersagen zu können, müssen wir deren Dynamik auf unterschiedlichen Skalen quantifizieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Mittel und Wege präsentiert um das Zusammenwirken auf verschiedenen Skalen im Klimasystem besser zu verstehen und zu quantifizieren. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit stelle ich zwei Methoden, multi-scale event synchronization (MSES) und wavelet multi-scale correlation (WMC) vor, welche skalenspezifischen Eigenschaften in klimatischen Prozessen abbilden. Die vorgestellte Methode wurde mit mehreren synthetischen und realen Zeitreihen getestet um ihre Anwendbarkeit und Reproduzierbarkeit zu überprüfen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass beide Methoden Beziehungen auf unterschiedlichen zeitlichen Skalen detaillierter als traditionelle Ansätze abbilden können. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit bilde ich klimatische Netzwerke mithilfe eines Maßes zur Ähnlichkeit auf Multiskalen. Dabei untersuche ich die Entwicklung von räumlichen Beziehungen um klimatische Prozesse auf mehreren Zeitskalen zu verstehen. Die Methoden WMC und MSES werden zusammen mit komplexen Netzwerken auf zwei Datensätze angewendet. In der ersten Anwendung werden klimatische Netzwerke mit WMC für univariate globale Meeresoberflächentemperaturen gebildet. Auf unterschiedlichen Zeitskalen sollen dabei kurze und lange Fernwirkungen, welche andernfalls auf einer einzigen Zeitskale unerkannt blieben, entdeckt werden. In diesem Klimanetzwerk ließ sich eine starke Variabilität über die Zeit feststellen, was auf eine skalenfreie und kleinräumige Netzstruktur auf großem, beziehungsweise kleinem Maßstab schließen lässt. Weitere Untersuchungen von Klimanetzwerken auf unterschiedlichen Zeitskalen zeigte (i) hohe Variabilität und Co-Variabilität in Regionen, und (ii) Fernbeziehungen auf kurzen und langen Entfernungen mit variabler räumlicher Distanz. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen bekannte physikalischen Wechselwirkungen und daher auch die Stärken meines Ansatzes. Dadurch ergeben sich neue Einblicke in die Klimatologie von Ozeanen, sodass beispielsweise konvektive Prozesse in der Atmosphäre eine Abhängigkeit über weite Entfernungen aufweisen können. In der zweiten Anwendung verwendeten wir das von mir entwickelte, nicht-lineare MSES Ähnlichkeitsmaß um multivariate Fernbeziehungen zwischen Starkniederschlägen und klimatischen Mustern über Indien zu quantifizieren. Unsere Ergebnisse bestätigen signifikante, nicht-lineare Einflüsse, welche von traditionellen Methoden bisher unzureichend abgebildet wurden. Des Weiteren fanden wir deutliche Schwankungen in der Stärke und in der Ausprägung von Fernbeziehungen über Indien und über Zeitskalen. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Fallstudien, dass Multiskalen in Klimaprozessen entschieden berücksichtigt werden müssen und dass der entwickelte methodische Rahmen adäquat die charakteristischen Prozesse quantifizieren kann.

Description: The C-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellites of Sentinel-1 with capability to obtain acquisition in Terrain Observation with Progressive Scan (TOPS) mode have brought new opportunities for large-scale monitoring of the ground surface deformation using interferometric SAR (InSAR) technique. However, despite the potential to generate large-scale interferograms, the highly spatiotemporal variability in troposphere, limits InSAR measurements accuracy. In addition, the measurement accuracy might be degraded by the signals due to the ionosphere, which is not negligible even at C-band data. One way for the atmospheric delay correction in interferograms is using external sources such as the global navigation satellite system (GNSS). The total electron content (TEC) and the zenith total delay (ZTD) values measured from a dense network of the GNSS receivers can be used to retrieve the ionospheric and tropospheric contributions to the interferometric phase, respectively. However, interpolation of the data is a big challenge, as we need to find a suitable function to predict the delay for the whole interferogram, which is challenging for large-scale Sentine-1 interferograms. In this study, we propose a new technique based on machine learning (ML) regression approach using the combination of small-baseline interferograms and the GNSS derived TEC and ZTD values to mitigate the atmospheric contributions. The technique produces the differential atmospheric (using the TEC and ZTD values) map for short-interval intergerograms based on the phase-atmosphere relation by this assumption that the deformation contribution to the interferometric phase is negligible in the short intervals. It then estimates the differential atmospheric maps for the longer-interval interferograms using the atmospheric maps with short intervals. The technique facilitates the corrections, as we do not need to deal with finding a suitable function for interpolation of distributed external observations. We implement our method on 12 concatenated frames of Sentinel-1 images acquired between May-October 2016 along a track over Norway to correct the interferograms from the atmospheric effects. Then, we apply the small baseline subset (SBAS) approach on the atmospherically corrected interferograms. The results on the stack of large-scale Sentinel-1 interferograms show that the ML-based method largely removes the ionospheric and tropospheric effects and thus improves the InSAR time series analysis results. To validate the results we compare the displacement time-series derived by small-baseline interferograms corrected by our method with the displacement time-series observed by GNSS receivers.

Description: Calcium sulfate minerals are found in nature as three hydrates: gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), bassanite (CaSO4·0.5H2O), and anhydrite (CaSO4). Due to their relevance in natural and industrial processes, the formation pathways of calcium sulfates from aqueous solution have been the subject of intensive research, and there is a growing body of literature, suggesting that calcium sulfates form through nonclassical nanoparticle-mediated crystallization processes. We showed earlier (Stawski et al. Nat. Commun.2016, 7, 11177) that at the early stages in the precipitation reaction, calcium sulfate nanocrystals nucleate through the reorganization and coalescence of aggregates rather than through classical unit addition. Here, we used low-dose dark field (DF) transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron diffraction and document that these restructuring processes do not continue until a final near-perfectly homogeneous single crystal is obtained. Instead, we show that the growth process yields a final imperfect mesocrystal with an overall morphology resembling that of a single crystal, yet composed of smaller nanodomains. Our data reveal that organic-free calcium sulfate mesocrystals grown by a particle mediated-pathway may preserve in the final crystal structure a “memory” or “imprint” of their nonclassical nucleation process, something that has been overlooked until now. Furthermore, the nanoscale misalignment of the structural subunits within these crystals might propagate through the length-scales, which is potentially expressed macroscopically as misaligned zones/domains in large single crystals. This is akin to observations in some of the giant crystals from the Naica Mine, Chihuahua, Mexico.

Description: Jasmine Kaur Sandhu, Maria-Theresia Walach, Hayley Allison and Clare Watt report on the RAS meeting The Global Response of the Terrestrial Magnetosphere during Storms and Substorms.

Description: Abstract Observations of the electron radiation belts have shown links between increases in the low-energy seed population and enhancements in the 〉1-MeV flux. During active times, low-energy electrons are introduced to the radiation belt region before being accelerated to higher energies via a range of mechanisms. The impact of variations in the seed population on the 1-MeV flux level were explored using the British Antarctic Survey Radiation Belt Model. We find that, for a period from the 21 April to 9 May 2013, the increase in the low-energy electron flux was vital to recreate the observed 1-MeV flux enhancement on the 1 May but was less important for the 1-MeV enhancement on the 27 April 2013. To better understand the relationships between the different energy populations, a series of idealized experiments with the 2-D British Antarctic Survey Radiation Belt Model were performed, which highlight a careful balance between losses and acceleration from chorus waves. Seed population enhancements alter this balance by increasing the phase space density gradient, and consequently, the rate of energy diffusion, allowing acceleration to surpass loss. Additionally, we demonstrate that even with the same chorus diffusion coefficients and the same low-energy boundary condition, the flux of ∼500-keV to 1-MeV electrons increased when starting with a hard spectrum but decreased for a soft initial spectrum. This suggests that initial energy gradients in the phase space density were important to determine whether 〉500-keV electrons were enhanced due to chorus wave acceleration.

Description: During the past decade, the relevance of research data has been rising significantly and the free and open access not only to scientific results, but to research datasets has been identified as a key issue by the scientific community, funding agencies and the public. As a consequence, there is a dynamic coevolution of national and international guidelines on management of and open access to research data (e.g. Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities, G8 Open Data Charter, EU Horizon 2020 Guidelines, etc.) and the development of concepts to make data persistently accessible and citable products of research. Especially in permafrost and climate research, longterm observatories and world-wide monitoring programmes are essential to understand the impact of, e.g., permafrost thaw on the Earth climate system and consequently of climate change. Many datasets are online available, via data portals or databases like, e.g. at the National Snow and Ice Datacentre, the GTN-P Database, NORPERM, Fluxnet, etc., but often without the possibility to give the data providers recognition and acknowledgement for contributing data to a global network. During the past years, the publication of research datasets with assigned digital object identifier (DOI) has emerged as best practice for citable and persistent open access research data together with the deserved recognition of the data providers. An important step for the international acceptance and recognition of DOI-referenced data publication is the‘Statement of Commitment’of the Coalition for Data Publication in the Earth and Space Sciences (COPDESS) that aims to promote joint policies and procedures for the publication and citation of data across Earth Science journals. Key commitments, signed by many publishers and data centres, are the acceptance of data citations within reference lists of research articles, the improvement of cross-references between journal articles and published datasets, and the strong recommendation to, whenever possible, store datasets in appropriate, theme-specific data repositories, in which data access and long-term preservation are guaranteed and datasets are accompanied by sufficient metadata to enable data reuse and discovery. A comprehensive data description is essential for data reuse. Data publication is mostly known as supplementary material to scientific articles. Very often, however, the data description in the journal article is not sufficient for data reuse leading to many published dataset not being used as much as they could be. To improve this, many disciplines have developed and are developing “Data Journals” that aim to publish scientific articles with the detailed description of datasets, data portals or data collections that will be published along with the datasets. There are different formats for articles in data journals, but all have in common that they lack of any scientific interpretation of the described datasets. For standalone publication of datasets where neither format is an option, accompanying data reports are a convenient and flexible tool for enhanced data description.

Description: Due to a strong Arctic warming trend, potentially large greenhouse gas emissions from Arctic and sub- Arctic areas are of concern. The Lena River Delta located in north-east Siberia is the largest delta within the Arctic Circle, characterized by wetland ecosystems and wet polygonal tundra environments. These environments are currently thought to be sinks for carbon dioxide and sources of methane. Tower-based eddy covariance is the most widely used direct method for quantifying exchanges of momentum, energy and trace gases between the surface and the atmosphere. However, they cover a relatively small footprint and constitute point measurements relative to the vast extend of tundra ecosystems. To improve spatial coverage and spatial representativeness of these direct flux measurements, airborne eddy covariance flux measurements across large areas are required. We used the helicopter-carried measurement system “Helipod” equipped with a turbulence probe, fast temperature and humidity sensors, and a fast response gas analyzer to measure turbulent fluxes of heat, carbon dioxide, and methane across the Lena River Delta in Russia in 2012 and 2014. The 2014 campaign covered several periods of the season from April to August 2014. Wavelet transforms are used to improve spatial resolution of the flux measurements and footprint analysis is applied to find relations between surface fluxes and biophysically relevant land cover properties. Strong regional differences in trace gas fluxes were detected, indicating a non-uniform distribution of sources especially in wet sedge-, moist grass-, and moss-dominated tundra. In contrast, the sensible heat flux showed less variability across the investigation area. The obtained results are essential in understanding the role of Arctic ecosystems in the greenhouse gas budgets and to evaluate regional scale model simulations.

Description: Understanding the gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) formation pathway from aqueous solution has been the subject of intensive research in the past years. This interest stems from the fact that gypsum appears to fall into a broader category of crystalline materials whose formation does not follow classical nucleation and growth theories. The pathways involve transitory precursor cluster species, yet the actual structural properties of such clusters are not very well understood. Here, we show how in situ high-energy X-ray diffraction experiments and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations can be combined to derive the structure of small CaSO4 clusters, which are precursors of crystalline gypsum. We fitted several plausible structures to the derived pair distribution functions and explored their dynamic properties using unbiased MD simulations based on both rigid ion and polarizable force fields. Determination of the structure and (meta)stability of the primary species is important from both a fundamental and applied perspective; for example, this will allow for an improved design of additives for greater control of the nucleation pathway.

Description: Knowledge of the quality factor of near-surface materials is of fundamental interest in various applications. Attenuation can be very strong close to the surface and thus needs to be properly assessed. In recent years, several researchers have studied the retrieval of attenuation coefficients from the cross correlation of ambient seismic noise. Yet, the determination of exact amplitude information from noise-correlation functions is, in contrast to the extraction oftraveltimes, not trivial. Most ofthe studies estimated attenuation coefficients on the regional scale and within the microseism band. In this paper, we investigate the possibility to derive attenuation coefficients from seismic noise at much shallower depths and higher frequencies (〉1 Hz). The Euroseistest area in northern Greece offers ideal conditions to study quality factor retrieval from ambient noise for different rock types. Correlations are computed between the stations of a small scale array experiment (station spacings 〈2 km) that was carried out in the Euroseistest area in 2011. We employ the correlation of the coda of the correlation (C3) method instead of simple cross correlations to mitigate the effect of uneven noise source distributions on the correlation amplitude. Transient removal and temporal flattening are applied instead of 1-bit normalization in order to retain relative amplitudes. The C3 method leads to improved correlation results (higher signal-to-noise ratio and improved time symmetry) compared to simple cross correlations. The C3 functions are rotated from the ZNE to the ZRT system and we focus on Love wave arrivals on the transverse component and on Love wave quality factors QL. The analysis is performed for selected stations being either situated on soft soil or on weathered rock. Phase slowness is extracted using a slant-stack method. Attenuation parameters are inferred by inspecting the relative amplitude decay ofLove waves with increasing interstation distance. We observe that the attenuation coefficient γ and QL can be reliably extracted for stations situated on soft soil whereas the derivation ofattenuation parameters is more problematic for stations that are located on weathered rock. The results are in acceptable conformance with theoretical Love wave attenuation curves that were computed using 1-D shear wave velocity and quality factor profiles from the Euroseistest area.

Description: GRACE/GRACE-FO Level-3 product based on GFZ RL06 Level-2B products (Dahle & Murböck, 2019) representing Ocean Bottom Pressure (OBP) variations provided at 1° latitude-longitude grids as defined over ocean areas. The OBP grids are provided in NetCDF format divided into yearly batches. The files each contain seven different variables: 1) 'barslv': gravity-based barystatic sea-level pressure 2) 'std_barslv': gravity-based barystatic sea-level pressure uncertainties 3) 'resobp': gravity-based residual ocean circulation pressure resobp 4) 'std_resobp': gravity-based residual ocean circulation pressure uncertainties 5) 'leakage': apparent gravity-based bottom pressure due to continental leakage 6) 'model_ocean': background-model ocean circulation pressure 7) 'model_atmosphere': background-model atmospheric surface pressure These Level-3 products are visualized at GFZ's web portal GravIS (http://gravis.gfz-potsdam.de). Link to data products: ftp://isdcftp.gfz-potsdam.de/grace/GravIS/GFZ/Level-3/OBP

Description: Mechanistic understanding of tree-ring formation and its modelling requires a cellular-based and spatially organized characterization of a tree ring, moving from whole rings, to intra-annual growth zones and individual cells. A tracheidogram is a radial profile of conifer anatomical features, such as lumen area and cell wall thickness, of sequentially- and positionally-ranked tracheids. However, its construction is tedious and time-consuming since image-analysis-based measurements do not recognize the position of cells within a radial file, and present-day tracheidograms must be constructed manually. Here we present the R-package RAPTOR that complements tracheid anatomical data obtained from quantitative wood anatomy software (e.g., ROXAS, WinCELL, ImageJ), with the specific positional information necessary for the automated construction of tracheidograms. The package includes functions to read and visualize tracheid anatomical data, and uses local search algorithms to ascribe a ranked position to each tracheid in identified radial files. The package also provides functions to ensure that tracheids are adequately aligned for identifying the first tracheid in each radial file, and obtaining the correct ranking of tracheids along each radial file. Additional functions allow automating the analyses for multiple samples and rings (batch mode) and exporting data and plots for quality control. RAPTOR allows tracheidogram users to take advantage of the latest generation of cell anatomical measuring systems. With this R-package we aim to facilitate the construction of more robust and versatile tracheidograms for the benefit of the research community.

Description: The SHARE European Earthquake Catalogue (SHEEC) 1900-2006 has been compiled by GFZ Potsdam in the frame of an independant project and represents a temporal and spatial excerpt of "The European-Mediterranean Earthquake Catalogue" (EMEC) for the last millennium (Grünthal & Wahlström, 2012) with a few modifications, which are described in Grünthal et al. (2013). It was compiled under the coordination of INGV, Milan. It builds on the data contained in AHEAD (Archive of Historical Earthquake Data) and with the methodology developed in the frame of the I3, EC project "Network of Research Infrastructures for European Seismology" (NERIES), module NA4. The catalogue (SHEEC) 1000-1899 and the Greek part of 1900-2006 have been partially supported by the EC 7th framework programme project SHARE. Background Information The SHARE European Earthquake Catalogue (SHEEC) 1900-2006 is basically an excerpt of the European-Mediterranean Earthquake Catalogue (EMEC) by Grünthal & Wahlström (2012), the latter covering also historical time in a larger area. Minor differences between SHEEC and EMEC in this time period are described by Grünthal et al. (2013). In both catalogues., the magnitudes threshold is Mw = 3.5 for earthquake locations at latitudes ≥ 44° N and Mw = 4.0 at latitudes 〈 44° N. The parameters of the catalogue have been determined by: - special algorithms to select one out of several possible focal parameter solutions - location, time, depth (optional), Mw magnitude, and intensity - if given by different sources - transformation equations to calculate Mw, if not original, from other magnitude types according to a strict hierarchy - routines to eliminate fake and other non-tectonic events, and to avoid duplicates

Description: RHUM-RHUM is a seismic experiment to study the deep structure of the Reunion plume. La Reunion is one of the most promising locations for a deep whole-mantle plume. Waveform data are available from the GEOFON data centre, under network code X1 under CC-BY 4.0 license.

Description: We describe EnMAP-like imaging spectroscopy data files to be used for mineral mapping with the EnMAPBOX software. It is simulated EnMAP satellite data, which is based on hyperspectral flight cam-paign data with the AVIRIS-NG and HyMap sensors. In preparation of the EnMAP satellite mission, an EnMAPBOX software package provides tools for visualization and scientific analysis of the data. Among many applications, the EnMAPBOX contains geological mapping tools (EnGeoMAP). Here we apply these tools to several representative test cases (Boesche, 2015; Boesche et al., 2016; Mielke et al., 2016). The test data comprise two study sites. The first scene covers the Mountain Pass open pit mine - a carbonatite deposit in California, USA. It contains calcitic rock units and rare earth element (REE) bearing minerals of the bastnaesite group, also called fluorocarbonates (Olson et al., 1954). The REE concentrations at mountain pass are 9.2% on average, among the highest in the world (Brüning and Böhmer, 2011). The high concentration and the open pit activities make Mountain Pass an ideal test site to investigate the rare earth element distribution in the surface layer. The airborne image data were collected in 2014 by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), USA, with the AVIRIS-NG sensor and form the basis for EnMAP simulations (Segl et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2015). The second HyMap spectral image data covers part of the Miocene Cabo de Gata-Nίjar volcanic field, in southeast Spain. It comprises a subset of (Chabrillat et al., 2016) covering the Rodalquilar and Lomilla Calderas, which host the economically relevant gold-silver, lead-zinc-silver-gold and alunite deposits. It is a hydrothermal alteration complex, representing the silicic alteration, the advanced argillic alter-ation zone, which grades into the argillic and propylitic zone (Arribas et al., 1995, 1989). The image data are part of the Cabo de Gata-Nίjar HyMap imagery which was collected during the DLR HyEurope airborne campaign 2005 in the frame of the GFZ land degradation program (Chabrillat et al., 2016, 2005). We use these datasets to simulate EnMAP-like images for classification and mapping using spectro-scopic remote sensing techniques in the EnGeoMAP tools. The EnMAP end-to-end Simulation (EeteS) tool produced simulated EnMAP like data with a spatial sampling distance of 30 x 30 m and 242 spectral bands (Guanter et al., 2015; Segl et al., 2012).

Description: The GEOFON program consists of a global seismic network (GE Network), a seismological data centre (GEOFON DC) and a global earthquake monitoring system (GEOFON EQinfo). These three pillars are part of the MESI research infrastructure of the Helmholtz Centre Potsdam - GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences aiming at facilitating scientific research. GEOFON provides real-time seismic data, access to its own and third party data from the archive facilities as well as global and rapid earthquake information. The GEOFON Seismological Software can be considered a fourth cross-cutting module of the GEOFON Program. Data, services, products and software openly distributed by GEOFON are used by hundreds of scientists and data centres worldwide. Its earthquake information service is accessed directly by tens of thousands of visitors. The SeisComP software package is the flagship software provided to the community, which is geared for seismic observatory and data centre needs and used extensively to support our internal operations. Like all other MESI (Modular Earth Science Infrastructure) modules GEOFON has the majority of users outside the GFZ as well as an external advisory committee that provides advice to the GFZ Executive Board and to the GEOFON team. This report describes the main activities carried out within the three GEOFON pillars and the software development group.

Description: Advancements in the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS) have enabled us to investigate the effects of lateral heterogeneities in the internal Earth structure on long-term surface deformations caused by the Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA). Many theories have been developed so far to consider such effects based on analytical and numerical approaches, and 3D viscosity distributions have been inferred. On the other hand, fewer studies have been conducted to assess the effects of lateral heterogeneities on short-term, elastic deformations excited by surface fluids, with 1D laterally homogeneous theories being frequently used. In this paper, we show that a spectral finite-element method is applicable to calculate the elastic deformation of an axisymmetric spherical Earth. We demonstrate the effects of laterally heterogeneous moduli with horizontal scales of several hundred kilometers in the upper mantle on the vertical response to a relatively large-scale surface load. We found that errors due to adopting a 1D Green’s function based on a local structure could amount to 2–3% when estimating the displacement outside the heterogeneity. Moreover, we confirmed that the mode coupling between higher-degree spherical harmonics needs to be considered for simulating smaller-scale heterogeneities, which agreed with results of previous studies.

Description: One of the lowest geoid anomalies on Earth lies in the Indian Ocean just south of the Indian peninsula. Several theories have been proposed to explain this negative geoid anomaly, most of which invoke past subduction. Some recent studies have argued that high-velocity anomalies in the lower mantle coupled with low-velocity anomalies in the upper mantle are responsible for these geoid lows. However, there is no general agreement regarding the source of the geoid low in the Indian Ocean. We investigate the source of this anomaly by using instantaneous models of density-driven mantle convection. Our study is the first to successfully explain the presence of this anomaly using a global convection model driven by present-day density anomalies derived from seismic tomography. We test various tomography models in our flow calculations using different radial and lateral viscosity variations. Although quite a few of them produce a fairly high correlation to the observed geoid globally, only a few (SMEAN2, GyPSuM, SEMUCB, and LLNL-JPS) could match the exact location and pattern of the geoid low in the Indian Ocean. The source of this low is a low-density anomaly stretching from a depth of 300 km down to ∼900 km in the northern Indian Ocean region. This density anomaly potentially originates from plume material rising along the edge of the African Large Low Shear Velocity Province, which moves toward the northeast, along with the movement of the Indian plate in the same direction.

Description: The worlds 30 largest rivers represent half of the total runoff to the ocean and thus integrate the fluxes of Earth surface weathering and erosion over a large portion of global tectonic, geomorphic, and climatic zones. In-situ produced cosmogenic nuclides (10Be, 26Al) in detrital quartz sand can be used to constrain the mean millennial-scale denudation of these large basins. Yet cosmogenic nuclides have mostly been applied to small and intermediate size basins of significant relief. One reason is that in these settings, lowland sediment storage and burial are short compared to the half life of the nuclide (e.g. 1.4 Myr for 10Be). However, if sediment storage is long compared to the half-life, paired nuclides (e.g. 26Al/10Be), through their differential decay, allow to assess the duration of sediment transfer and burial ages from source to sink[1]. Here we present a new dataset of cosmogenic nuclides from 60 large rivers that integrate over ~30% of Earth’s terrestrial surface. 26Al/10Be ratios of around 6 to 7.5 for most rivers reveal burial durations shorter than the nuclides’ decay time scales, indicating high source-sink connectivity. In slowly-eroding basins such as the tectonically quiescent Australian Murray-Darling or the central African Okavango and Congo rivers, 26Al/10Be ratios of 〈6 indicate decay of nuclide concentrations. Such low nuclide ratios evolve during Myr-scale sediment burial during slow source to sink transfer. We converted denudation rates to sediment fluxes by estimating their actively eroding source areas. Extrapolating these millennial-scale sediment fluxes to global source areas provides an estimate of the global sediment flux. The comparison with estimates of modern sediment fluxes from river load gauging offers to deciphering the controls of sediment generation versus sediment transport across large basins.

Description: On 25 December 2016, a Mw 7.6 earthquake broke a portion of the Southern Chilean subduction zone south of Chiloé Island, located in the central part of the Mw 9.5 1960 Valdivia earthquake. This region is characterized by repeated earthquakes in 1960 and historical times with very sparse interseismic activity due to the subduction of a young (~15 Ma), and therefore hot, oceanic plate. We estimate the co-seismic slip distribution based on a kinematic finite fault source model, and through joint inversion of teleseismic body waves and strong motion data. The coseismic slip model yields a total seismic moment of 3.94×1020 Nm that occurred over ~30 s, with the rupture propagating mainly downdip, reaching a peak-slip of ~4.2 m. Regional moment tensor inversion of stronger aftershocks reveals thrust type faulting at depths of the plate interface. The fore- and aftershock seismicity is mostly related to the subduction interface with sparse seismicity in the overriding crust. The 2016 Chiloé event broke a region with increased locking and most likely broke an asperity of the 1960 earthquake. The updip limit of the main event, aftershocks, foreshocks and interseismic activity are spatially similar, located ~15 km offshore and parallel to Chiloé Islands west coast. The coseismic slip model of the 2016 Chiloé earthquake suggests a peak slip of 4.2 m that locally exceeds the 3.38 m slip deficit that has accumulated since 1960. Therefore, the 2016 Chiloé earthquake possibly released strain that has built up prior to the 1960 Valdivia earthquake.

Description: Deciphering the response of sediment routing systems to climatic forcing is fundamental for understanding theimpacts of climate change on landscape evolution and depositional systems. In the Sub-Himalaya, late Pleistoceneto Holocene alluvial fills and fluvial terraces record periodic fluctuations of sediment supply and transport capacityon timescale of 103to 105years, most likely related to past climatic fluctuations. To evaluate the climatic controlon sediment supply and transport capacity, we analyze remnant alluvial fans and terraces in the Kangra Basin ofthe northwestern Sub-Himalaya.Based on field observations and OSL and CRN-dating, we recognized two sedimentary cycles with ma-jor sediment aggradation and subsequent re-incision phases. The large one developed over the entire last glacialperiod with∼200 m high alluvial fan (AF1) and the second one during the latest Pleistocene/Holocene with∼50m alluvial fan (AF2) and its re-incision . Surface-exposure dating of six terrace levels with in-situ cosmogenic nu-clides (10Be) indicates the onset of channel abandonment and ensuing incision phases. Two terrace surfaces fromthe highest level (T1) sculpted into the oldest-preserved AF1 dates back to 48.9±4.1 ka and 42.1±2.7 ka (2σerror). T2 surfaces sculpted into the remnants of AF1 have exposure ages of 16.8±2 ka and 14.1±0.9 ka, whileterraces sculpted into the late Pleistocene- Holocene fan (AF2) provide ages of 8.4±0.8 ka, 6.6±0.7 ka, 4.9±0.4 ka and 3.1±0.3 ka. Together with previously-published ages on the timing of aggradation, we find a correla-tion between variations in sediment transport with oxygen-isotope records from regions affected by Indian SummerMonsoon. During stronger monsoon phases and post-LGM glacial retreat manifested by increased sediment de-livery (moraines and hillslope-derived) to the trunk streams, causing aggradation in the basin; whereas, weakenedmonsoon phases characterized by reduced sediment-delivery from the hillslope or moraines resulted into inci-sion of the transiently-stored sediments. Sediment cycles in the Kangra Basin are largely synchronous with thosedocumented from other NW Himalayan valleys.

Description: Volcanic and seismic activities produce a variety of phenomena that put population at risk. In order to assess the seismic and volcanic hazard, many instruments are deployed around active volcanoes and seismic fault zones. Their records are useful to observe the activity of the volcanoes and faults in order to understand better their behaviour and issue warnings to authorities in charge of the public security. In this study, we used optical cables around Etna volcano to observe seismic and pressure signals associated with volcanic activity. The 2018 expedition consisted of three experiments. Firstly, we used a 4-km long telecom line in Zafferana and recorded all geodynamic and other activities for about 20 days. At this site, the fibre is known to cross active faults that are linked to the eastern volcano flank slowly sliding towards the sea. Secondly, we tested a 40 km-long cable from an internet provider at the western side of the volcano. Thirdly, we used a fibre cable deployed at the summit area of the volcano to test its ability to detect small volcanic events. In each of the three parts, a DAS system (iDASTM interrogator provided by Silixa) sent repeatedly coherent light pulses with a gauge length of 10 m and deduced the strain rate from interferometric measurements of the back-scattered light. We were able to measure every 2 metres the strain rate associated with several volcanic event types, earthquakes and many other signals from human activity. We validated the optical records with records from additional sensors such as seismic broadband stations, geophones and infrasound sensors. We present results from all experiments.

Description: In natural coastal wetlands, high supplies of marine sulfate suppress methanogenesis. Coastal wetlands are, however, often subject to disturbance by diking and drainage for agricultural use and can turn to potent methane sources when rewetted for remediation. This suggests that preceding land use measures can suspend the sulfate-related methane suppressing mechanisms. Here, we unravel the hydrological relocation and biogeochemical S and C transformation processes that induced high methane emissions in a disturbed and rewetted peatland despite former brackish impact. The underlying processes were investigated along a transect of increasing distance to the coastline using a combination of concentration patterns, stable isotope partitioning, and analysis of the microbial community structure. We found that diking and freshwater rewetting caused a distinct freshening and an efficient depletion of the brackish sulfate reservoir by dissimilatory sulfate reduction (DSR). Despite some legacy effects of brackish impact expressed as high amounts of sedimentary S and elevated electrical conductivities, contemporary metabolic processes operated mainly under sulfate-limited conditions. This opened up favorable conditions for the establishment of a prospering methanogenic community in the top 30–40 cm of peat, the structure and physiology of which resemble those of terrestrial organic-rich environments. Locally, high amounts of sulfate persisted in deeper peat layers through the inhibition of DSR, probably by competitive electron acceptors of terrestrial origin, for example Fe(III). However, as sulfate occurred only in peat layers below 30–40 cm, it did not interfere with high methane emissions on an ecosystem scale. Our results indicate that the climate effect of disturbed and remediated coastal wetlands cannot simply be derived by analogy with their natural counterparts. From a greenhouse gas perspective, the re-exposure of diked wetlands to natural coastal dynamics would literally open up the floodgates for a replenishment of the marine sulfate pool and therefore constitute an efficient measure to reduce methane emissions.

Description: We propose to investigate the structure and evolution of the Main Pamir Thrust (MPT) with a high-density seismological array. The MPT, with its surface expression along the east-west trending Alai Valley, marks the northern boundary of the Pamir. The Alai Valley, separating the Pamir and the Tien Shan, constitutes the last vestige of a formerly continuous basin that linked the Tarim and the Tajik Basins. The MPT manifests itself as a place of high seismic activity with frequently occurred disastrous earthquakes. The array is about 50 km long, consisted of 90 three-component geophones (stations G?? and C??) and 10 Trillium-Compact seismometers (stations T??), and equipped with 100 CUBE dataloggers. We will construct a high-resolution receiver function profile to image the MPT and accurately locate the local earthquakes associated with the MPT. Funded by BMBF, within the framework of CaTeNA project – Climatic and Tectonic Natural Hazards in Central Asia. Waveform data are available from the GEOFON data centre, under network code 7A and are embargoed until Jan 2024.

Description: Despite its unique properties the diffracted seismic wavefield is still rarely exploited in common practice. Although the first works on seismic diffraction date back at least as far as the 1950s, a first rigorous theoretical framework for diffraction imaging only evolved decades later and many important questions still remain unanswered until the present day. While this comparably slow progression can partly be explained by the lack of densely sampled high quality recordings, recent advances in acquisition and dedicated processing suggest we might be at the door step to a paradigm shift in which seismic diffraction could play an important role. Despite the fact that most major progress—in terms of data acquisition and processing—has been achieved for the reflected wavefield, upon closer inspection it becomes obvious that the concept of diffraction is deeply ingrained in migration-type seismic imaging. With the aim of complementing existing contributions on the topic, this chapter is an attempt to provide an intuitive introduction to the process of seismic diffraction. Discussed are the deep conceptual roots in optics, physical links to the Kirchhoff integral as well as diffraction types and their importance in different contexts of application. By means of controlled synthetic and academic as well as industry-scale field data examples, I suggest a simple integrated framework for noninvasive diffraction separation and high-resolution imaging, which remains computationally affordable and can be reproduced by the reader. Different applications suggest that the faint diffracted background wavefield is surprisingly rich and, once it is given a voice, it announces highly resolved features such as faults, fractures, and erosional unconformities, which remain notoriously hard to image conventionally. Extending the dominant theme of high-resolution seismic imaging, I illustrate how the superior illumination due to the uniform radiation of diffraction carries the additional potential for drastically reduced acquisitions and discuss the possibility of a systematic extraction of inter-scatterer traveltimes from coda waves.

Description: Glacial-isotactic adjustment (GIA) is one of the key processes considering relative sea-level (RSL) and paleo-topography during the last glacial cycle. Especially in former ice-covered regions the subsidence of the solid Earth due to ice loads can reach more than 500 m and contributes to the stability of ice-sheets (e.g. position of grounding line and ice-sheet elevation), whereas at the coasts of the world oceans the deformation is governed by global RSL fall of more than 100 m. Because the viscoelastic response of the solid Earth is governed by its viscosity structure, the effect of lateral viscosity variations on deformations due to GIA has to be estimated. The importance was already shown for the differences in earth structure below the glacial ice sheets of Fennoscandia and Laurentide, as well as for a number of peripheral and far-field regions. One open question arises: Can the 3D earth properly be parameterized by locally optimized 1D earth structures? In this study, we apply a 3D Earth structure which we derived from seismic tomography and further geodynamic constraints as an a priori estimation of the Earth viscosity distribution. Applying a standard glaciation history, we compare the response characteristics of 1D and 3D earth parameterizations and discuss the limits of optimized 1D earth parametrizations. We will focus on reconstructions of RSL during the last deglaciation in view of sea level index points which are generally used for validating the GIA process.

Description: Enclosed topographic depressions are characteristic of karst landscapes on Earth. The developmental relationship between depression types, such as sinkholes (dolines) and uvalas, has been the subject of debate, mainly because the long developmental timescales in classical limestone karst settings impede direct observation. Here we characterize the morphometric properties and spatio-temporal development of ∼1150 sinkholes and five uvalas formed from ∼1980 to 2017 in an evaporite karst setting along the eastern coast of the hypersaline Dead Sea (at Ghor Al-Haditha, Jordan). The development of sinkhole populations and individual uvalas is intertwined in terms of onset, evolution and cessation. The sinkholes commonly develop in clusters, within which they may coalesce to form compound or nested sinkholes. In general, however, the uvalas are not defined by coalescence of sinkholes. Although each uvala usually encloses several clusters of sinkholes, it develops as a larger-scale, gentler and structurally distinct depression. The location of new sinkholes and uvalas shows a marked shoreline-parallel migration with time, followed by a marked shoreline-perpendicular (i.e. seaward) growth with time. These observations are consistent with theoretical predictions of karstification controlled by a laterally migrating interface between saturated and undersaturated groundwater, as induced by the 35 m fall in the Dead Sea water level since 1967. More generally, our observations indicate that uvalas and the sinkhole populations within them, although morphometrically distinct, can develop near-synchronously by subsidence in response to subsurface erosion.

Description: The CNES/GRGS RL04 Earth gravity models are a set of gravity field solutions based on GRACE and SLR data, provided at different time samplings: (A) CNES/GRGS RL04 time series (A/1) A monthly GRACE+SLR time series of gravity field models (A/2) A 10-day GRACE+SLR time series of gravity field models (B) A mean gravity model EIGEN-GRGS.RL04.MEAN-FIELD, computed from the monthly RL04 GRACE+SLR time series and from GOCE data. (A) CNES/GRGS RL04 time series DATA: The data from the Star Camera Assembly (SCA), Accelerometer (ACC), K-Band Ranging (KBR) and GPS receiver are used. The KBR data is processed in the form of the relative velocity between the spacecrafts: K-Band Range-Rate (KBRR). In addition to the data from GRACE, the data from 5 SLR satellites are also used (Lageos, Lageos-2, Starlette, Stella and Ajisai), in order to provide an accurate and consistent description of the very low degrees of the gravity field (mainly degrees 1 and 2). The version of the GRACE data used for RL04 is L1B-v2 for the ACC and GPS data, L1B-v3 for the SCA and KBR data. INVERSION METHOD: By contrast with the GRACE solutions in spherical harmonics provided by other groups, the CNES/GRGS solutions are not obtained by a simple Cholesky inversion. The normal matrices are first diagonalized, ordered by decreasing order of the Eigen values and only the best defined sets of linear combinations of the spherical harmonics are solved. More details can be found here: https://grace.obs-mip.fr/variable-models-grace-lageos/grace-solutions-release-04/rl04-products-description/ (B) EIGEN-GRGS.RL04.MEAN-FIELD mean model EIGEN-GRGS.RL04.MEAN-FIELD is a mean model of Earth's gravity field spherical harmonics coefficients, based on the RL04 version of the CNES/GRGS time series of monthly gravity field determinations from GRACE & SLR data. EIGEN-GRGS.RL04.MEAN-FIELD is complete to degree and order 300. Between degrees 1 and 90, it contains time-variable gravity (TVG) coefficients ; above degree 90, it is a static field. EIGEN-GRGS.RL04.MEAN-FIELD is based on GOCE-DIR5 for the part between degree 91 and 300. The TVG coefficients between degrees 1 and 90 are obtained from a regression on the GRGS-RL04-v1 monthly time series of solutions (2002/09 – 2016/06). For degrees 1 and 2 this TVG part is temporally extended to 1993/01-2019/02 through the use of a GRGS SLR-only solution based on the data of 5 SLR satellites (Lageos, Lageos-2, Starlette, Stella, Ajisai). Outside of the measurements period (1993/01-2019/02 for degrees 1 and 2, 2002/09-2016/06 for degrees 3 to 90), the gravity field is extrapolated in the following way: - for degrees 1 and 2, before 1993/01 : average slope based on historical SLR data, mean annual and semi-annual periodic signals based on their average value between 1993 and 2019 - for degrees 1 and 2, after 2019/02 : average slope & mean annual and semi-annual periodic signals (based on their average value between 1993 and 2019) - for degrees 3 to 90, before 2002/09 : zero-slope extrapolation, mean annual and semi-annual periodic signals based on their average value between 2002 and 2016 - for degrees 3 to 90, after 2016/06 : average slope & mean annual and semi-annual periodic signals (based on their average value between 1993 and 2019) More details can be found here: https://grace.obs-mip.fr/variable-models-grace-lageos/mean-fields/release-04/

Description: WebDC3 is a web interface working on top of SeisComP3 standard seismological services (http://geofon.gfz-potsdam.de/software/webdc3/). It is AJAX-based and allows users to conveniently discover seismic stations and explore events in seismic catalogues, build and submit requests for data and metadata and finally download the results in different formats. Requests can be built using either absolute time windows or by station-event combinations suitable for different data processing pipelines. Furthermore, data requests and downloading of their results can be made in separated steps, allowing for larger requests and better supporting users with low bandwidth or unstable connections. WebDC3 functions in the style of a previous webdc service implemented at GFZ. The new web interface runs as a Python web application using the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI). It has been adopted by a number of seismic agencies.

Description: The software package “ClassifyStorms” version 1.0.1 performs a classification of geomagnetic storms according to their interplanetary driving mechanisms based exclusively on magnetometer measurements from ground. In this version two such driver classes are considered for storms dating back to 1930. Class 0 contains storms driven by Corotating or Stream Interaction Regions (C/SIRs) and class 1 contains storms driven by Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections (ICMEs). The properties and geomagnetic responses of these two solar wind structures are reviewed, e.g., by Kilpua et al. (2017, http://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0411-3). The classification task is executed by a supervised binary logistic regression model in the framework of python's scikit-learn library. The model is validated mathematically and physically by checking the driver occurrence statistics in dependence on the solar cycle phase and storm intensity. A detailed description of the classification model is given in Pick et al. (2019) to which this software is supplementary material. Under “Files” you can download ClassifyStorms-V1.0.1.zip, which contains the jupyter notebook “ClassifyStorms.ipynb” (https://jupyter.org/) and the python modules “Imports.py”, “Modules.py” and “Plots.py”. Check for an up-to-date release of the software on GitLab via https://gitext.gfz-potsdam.de/pick/public/ClassifyStorms (under Project, Releases). The “Readme.md” file provides all information needed to run or modify “ClassifyStorms” from the GitLab source. The software depends on the input data set “Input.nc”, an xarray Dataset (http://xarray.pydata.org/en/stable) saved in NetCDF format (https://www.unidata.ucar.edu/software/netcdf), which you can also download under “Files”. It contains 1. the HMC index: a three-hour running mean with weights [0.25,0.5,0.25] of the original Hourly Magnetospheric Currents index (HMC index, http://doi.org/10.5880/GFZ.2.3.2018.006). 2. the geomagnetic observatory data: vector geomagnetic disturbances from 34 mid-latitude observatories during 1900-2015 in the Cartesian Centered Dipole coordinate system. The original observatory data was downloaded from the WDC for Geomagnetism, Edinburgh (http://www.wdc.bgs.ac.uk/) and processed as described in section 2.1 of Pick et al. (2019). 3. the “reference” geomagnetic storms: universal time hours of 868 geomagnetic storm peaks together with their interplanetary drivers (class labels 0 or 1, see above) as described in section 2.2 of Pick et al., 2019. These events are taken from published lists (Jian et al., 2006a, 2006b, 2011; Shen et al., 2017; Turner et al., 2009), which are gathered in the separate ASCII file “ReferenceEvents.txt” (under “Files”) for a quick overview. 4. additional quantities for plotting: time series of Kp (since 1932) and Dst (since 1957) geomagnetic indices from the WDC for Geomagnetism, Kyoto (http://wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/wdc/Sec3.html) as well as the yearly mean total sunspot number from WDC-SILSO, Royal Observatory of Belgium, Brussels (http://sidc.be/silso/datafiles). The output of ClassifyStorms is "StormsClassified.csv" (under “Files”). This table lists the Date (Year-Month-Day) and Time (Hour:Minutes:Seconds) of 7546 classified geomagnetic storms together with the predicted interplanetary driver class label (0 or 1) and the corresponding probability (between 0 and 1). Version history: 20 Sep 2019: Version 1.0.1: Correction of plotting mistake in Figure m / Figure S4 (see gitlab repository for details)

Description: Surrogate playground is an automated machine learning approach written for rapidly screening a large number of different models to serve as surrogates for a slow running simulator. This code was written for a reactive transport application where a fluid flow model (hydrodynamics) is coupled to a geochemistry simulator (reactions in time and space) to simulate scenarios such as underground storage of CO2 or hydrogen storage for excess energy from wind farms. The challenge for such applications is that the geochemistry simulator is typically slow compared to fluid dynamics and constitutes the main bottleneck for producing highly detailed simulations of such application scenarios. This approach attempts to find machine learning models that can replace the slow running simulator when trained on input-output data from the geochemistry simulator. The code may be of more general interest as this prototype can be used to screen many different machine learning models for any regression problem in general. To illustrate this it also includes a demonstration example using the Boston housing standard data-set.

Description: Gms-index-mediator is a standalone index for spatio-temporal data acting as a mediator between an application and a database. Even modern databases need several minutes to execute a spatio-temporal query to huge tables containing several million entries. Our index-mediator speeds the execution of such queries up by several magnitues, resulting in response times around 100ms. This version is tailored towards the GeoMultiSens database, but can be adapted to work with custom table layouts with reasonable effort.

Description: Oxygen isotope ratios were measured in zircon by laser fluorination and by SIMS from in over 50 silicic (dacite–rhyolite) volcanic rocks of Triassic to Cretaceous (230-98 Ma) age from the Sierra Nevada batholith, White-Inyo Mountains, and Mojave Desert. These data give broad geographic and temporal context of volcanism in the Mesozoic California arcs system that was previously unobtainable because of secondary hydrothermal exchange that routinely alters original magmatic δ18O values in these rocks (c.f., Sorensen et al. GSAB 1998). SIMS analysis of δ18O using 10 µm spot size, augmented by U-Pb dating by LA-ICP-MS, further allows appraisal of variability within zircon grains and grain populations as potential evidence of assimilation or magma mixing within caldera systems, including mixing during eruptions. Values of δ18O(zircon) in most rocks studied are 5.0–7.5‰, and overlap with values of δ18O in plutonic rocks (6.80±1.85‰, S.D., Lackey et al. 2005,2006,2008,2012). A subset of Late Jurassic (152-148 Ma) tuffs distributed from the Mojave Desert to Mt. Goddard pendant that contain zircons whose δ18O values commonly are 〈5.0‰; such low values are not found in coeval plutonic rocks or dikes of the ca. 148 Ma Independence Dike Swarm. Among these rocks, δ18O values are as low as 2.6‰ and average 4.4±0.8‰; porphyries associated with caldera complexes in the Mojave Desert are similarly low. The restriction of these lower values to volcanic rocks of Late Jurassic age suggests that caldera systems at this time interacted with low-δ18O surface water (meteoric or marine). Such infiltration into caldera environments has not been recognized before or after. The Late Jurassic corresponds to a pronounced but brief transtension event in the arc, which is hypothesized to have impelled mafic mantle melts high into the crust, and also encouraged low-δ18O surface water exchange with arc wall rocks (especially volcanic crust). These two factors thus created a period of low-δ18O magmatism in the upper arc crust that is strikingly mismatched with the δ18O record in coeval plutons. Moreover, the volcanic δ18O record may provide previously unrecognized information about tectonic stress regimes in arc systems as they respond to plate-tectonic reorganizations.

Description: A temporary seismic array was installed in combination with a meteorological station in the Dead Sea valley, Jordan. Within the scope of the HGF virtual institute DESERVE we operated 15 temporary seismic stations between February 2014 and February 2015 together with a nearby meteorological station close to the east coast of the Dead Sea. The main aim was to acquire data to study the influence of wind on seismic records and retrieve related meteorological parameters. The study area is scarcely populated and has ideal meteorological conditions to study periodically occurring winds.

Description: Mit ihren katastrophalen Auswirkungen, die den ganzen Globus betreffen, stellen Supereruptionen alle geschichtlich dokumentierten Eruptionen in den Schatten.

Description: Supereruptions represent enormous natural disasters which potentially impact the whole planet. They are unlike any other known and documented eruption.

Description: Neue Studie des KIT zeigt: Pestizide verringern das Summen von Hummeln und damit die Menge des gesammelten Pollens.

Description: New study by KIT shows that pesticides reduce the buzz of bumblebees and thus the amount of pollen collected.

Description: Weltweit stiegen die Temperaturen im Permafrost um durchschnittlich 0,30 °C zwischen 2007 bis 2016, dies vor allem im Norden Russlands. Die Erwärmung des Permafrosts hat drastische Folgen für das globale Klima, aber auch für die Infrastruktur in der Arktis und das Auskommen der vier Millionen dort lebenden Menschen.

Description: Worldwide permafrost temperatures rose on average by 0.30°C over a ten year period from 2007 to 2016 most notably in the Russia North. Permafrost warming has drastic consequences for global climate but also for infrastructure in arctic communities and for the livelihood of the four million people that live there.