ALBERT

Description: The cartilaginous tubercles of the mantle of the squid Cranchia scabra have been examined with the scanning electron microscope. Some tubercles are small, simple nodules whereas others are large with a complex Maltese cross form. The varying shapes and sizes probably represent a developmental sequence. The possible role of the tubercles is discussed.

Description: Investigations indicate that the Iceland Ice Sheet was reduced in size during MIS 3 but readvanced to the shelf break at the LGM. Retreat occurred very rapidly around 15 k–16 k cal. yr BP. By contrast, the margin of the ice sheet on the East Greenland shelf, north of the Denmark Strait, was at or close to the shelf break during MIS 3 and 2 and retreat starting ∼17 k cal. yr BP. Quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis of the 〈2 mm sediment fraction was undertaken on 161 samples from Iceland and East Greenland diamictons, and from cores on the slopes and margins of the Denmark Strait. Weight% mineralogical data are used in a principal component analysis to differentiate sediments derived from the two margins. The first two PC axes explain 52% of the variance. These associations are used to characterise sediments as being affiliated with (a) Iceland, (b) East Greenland or (c) mixed. The contribution from Iceland becomes prominent during MIS 2. The extensive outcrop of early Tertiary basalts on East Greenland between 68° and 71° N is an alternative source for basaltic clasts and North Atlantic sediments with εNd(0) values close to ±0.

Description: Two cores were recovered in the southeastern part of Lake Shkodra (Montenegro and Albania) and sampled for identification of tephra layers. The first core (SK13, 7.8 m long) was recovered from a water depth of 7 m, while the second core (SK19, 5.8 m long) was recovered close to the present-day shoreline (water depth of 2 m). Magnetic susceptibility investigations show generally low values with some peaks that in some cases are related to tephra layers. Naked-eye inspection of the cores allowed the identification of four tephra layers in core SK13 and five tephra layers in core SK19. Major element analyses on glass shards and mineral phases allowed correlation of the tephra layers between the two cores, and their attribution to six different Holocene explosive eruptions of southern Italy volcanoes. Two tephra layers have under-saturated composition of glass shards (foiditic and phonolitic) and were correlated to the AD 472 and the Avellino (ca. 3.9 cal. ka BP) eruptions of Somma-Vesuvius. One tephra layer has benmoreitic composition and was correlated to the FL eruption of Mount Etna (ca. 3.4 cal. ka BP). The other three tephra layers have trachytic composition and were correlated to Astroni (ca. 4.2 cal. ka BP), Agnano Monte Spina (ca. 4.5 cal. ka BP) and Agnano Pomici Principali (ca. 12.3 cal. ka BP) eruptions of Campi Flegrei. The ages of tephra layers are in broad agreement with eight 14C accelerator mass spectrometric measurements carried out on plant remains and charcoal from the lake sediments at different depths along the two cores. The recognition of distal tephra layers from Italian volcanoes allowed the physical link of the Holocene archive of Lake Shkodra to other archives located in the central Mediterranean area and the Balkans (i.e. Lake Ohrid). Five of the recognised tephra layers were recognised for the first time in the Balkans area, and this has relevance for volcanic hazard assessment and for ash dispersal forecasting in case of renewed explosive activity from some of the southern Italy volcanoes. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Description: In this study, a series of drained triaxial tests were performed in order to examine the effect of cementation on the shear behavior of granular soil. It was observed that the brittle nature and dilative tendency of granular soil is dominant under a low confining stress level, while high confining stress results in a contractive behavior despite the strong cementation bond. Based on experimental results, an idealized concept is suggested to define the shear strength of cemented sand in three distinctive zones: the cementation control zone with a constant cohesion intercept at a low confining stress level, the transition zone in which the cohesion intercept is gradually reduced after a breaking point, and the stress control zone with almost zero cohesion intercept due to breakage of cementation bonds at a high confining stress level. It was shown that the sitting pressures during cementation have little effect on the strength parameters of cemented sand, while the increase of gypsum content and relative density, and the decrease of particle size, result in an increase of the cohesion intercept and the breaking point. In addition, the prediction equations for the shear strength and cohesion intercept in the cementation control zone and the transition zone are suggested from the analytical and experimental interpretation.

Description: This paper presents a temperature reconstruction of the past 1000 years for Central Europe, based on chronological records. The advantages and limitations of this hermeneutic, text-based approach are discussed and the statistic methodology is introduced. Historical documents represent direct observation of weather and atmospheric conditions with highest temporal resolution available and precise dating. A major advantage of these extensive data is that they allow the reconstruction of large numbers of variables such as winter temperature, precipitation, pressure patterns or climate extremes as well as floods or storms. Within this hermeneutic climatological research approach, even human impacts and social dimensions of climate development can be examined. In order to quantify the historical information, statistical methods are applied, based on an index approach.

Description: The dry weight and the crest length of the upper and lower beak, the length of the radula ribbon, the average width of the base of the six proximal and distal rachidian teeth as well as the total number of these teeth have all been related to the live body weight of octopuses between 1.1 and 4440 g. From any one of these parameters it is possible to estimate the size and approximate age of the animal.

Description: Features of the brain of this oceanic squid have been investigated and related, as far as possible, to its habits and mode of life. The body and arms are much vacuolated for buoyancy and the animal probably lives with the head upwards. The very long whip-like tentacles are not vacuolated and perhaps hang downwards. They are covered by numerous minute pedunculated suckers, perhaps providing a sticky surface. A special nerve running outside the brain carries signals from the arms and tentacles to the magnocellular lobe, which is very large and of complex structure. However, there are no giant cells and the mantle is weak. Propulsion is mainly by the large fins, which are controlled from the magnocellular lobe, presumably using the information from the arms and tentacles.

Description: Meiobenthos densities and higher taxon composition were studied in an active gas seepage area at depths from 182 to 252 m in the submarine Dnieper Canyon located in the northwestern part of the Black Sea. The meiobenthos was represented by Ciliata, Foraminifera, Nematoda, Polychaeta, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Amphipoda, and Acarina. Also present in the sediment samples were juvenile stages of Copepoda and Cladocera which may be of planktonic origin. Nematoda and Foraminifera were the dominant groups. The abundance of the meiobenthos varied between 2397 and 52,593 ind.·m−2. Maximum densities of Nematoda and Foraminifera were recorded in the upper sediment layer of a permanent H2S zone at depths from 220 to 250 m. This dense concentration of meiobenthos was found in an area where intense methane seeps were covered by methane-oxidizing microbial mats. Results suggest that methane and its microbial oxidation products are the factors responsible for the presence of a highly sulfidic and biologically productive zone characterized by specially adapted benthic groups. At the same time, an inverse correlation was found between meiofauna densities and methane concentrations in the uppermost sediment layers. The hypothesis is that the concentration of Nematoda and Foraminifera within the areas enriched with methane is an ecological compromise between the food requirements of these organisms and their adaptations to the toxic H2S.

Description: The distribution of five dominant calanoid copepods was related to different water masses in the Angola-Benguela Front system. Five water bodies were identified by principal component analysis, on the basis of abiotic parameter such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, phosphate, silicate, nitrate and nitrite. These parameters were reduced to single factors and arranged along two principal component axes. The copepod species incuded females and copepodites C5 of Calanoides carinatus and females of Metridia lucens, Centropages brachiatus, Nannocalanus minor and Aetideopsis carinata. The water bodies identified in the frontal system were related to currents, upwelling processes, an oxygen minimum layer and biological modification. The different copepod species, as well as the two ontogenetic stages of C. carinatus, showed clear preference for specific water bodies, and their behavioural and physiological adaptations to the environment are discussed.

Description: Force chain buckling, leading to unjamming and shear banding, is examined quantitatively via a discrete element analysis of a two-dimensional, densely-packed, cohesionless granular assembly subject to quasistatic, boundary-driven biaxial compression. A range of properties associated with the confined buckling of force chains has been established, including: degree of buckling, buckling modes, spatial and strain evolution distributions, and relative contributions to non-affine deformation, dilatation and decrease in macroscopic shear strength and potential energy. Consecutive cycles of unjamming–jamming events, akin to slip–stick events arising in other granular systems, characterize the strain-softening regime and the shear band evolution. Peaks in the dissipation rate, kinetic energy and local non-affine strain are strongly correlated: the largest peaks coincide with each unjamming event that is evident in the concurrent drops in the macroscopic shear stress and potential energy. Unjamming nucleates from the buckling of a few force chains within a small region inside the band. A specific mode of force chain buckling, prevalent in and confined to the shear band, leads to above-average levels of local non-affine strain and release of potential energy during unjamming. Ongoing studies of this and other buckling modes from a structural stability standpoint serve as the basis for the formulation of internal variables and associated evolution laws, central to the development of thermomicromechanical constitutive theory for granular materials.

Description: An automatic food dispenser was designed for use with Octopus vulgaris Lamarck. One live crab was delivered each time the octopus pulled a white shape attached to the dispenser. The apparatus provided a continuous record of the time and frequency of feeding over periods of up to 15 days.

Description: A new 30-arc second resolution global topography/bathymetry grid (SRTM30_PLUS) has been developed from a wide variety of data sources. Land and ice topography comes from the SRTM30 and ICESat topography, respectively. Ocean bathymetry is based on a new satellite-gravity model where the gravity-to-topography ratio is calibrated using 298 million edited soundings. The main contribution of this study is the compilation and editing of the raw soundings, which come from NOAA, individual scientists, SIO, NGA, JAMSTEC, IFREMER, GEBCO, and NAVOCEANO. The gridded bathymetry is available for ftp download in the same format as the 33 tiles of SRTM30 topography. There are 33 matching tiles of source identification number to convey the provenance of every grid cell. The raw sounding data, converted to a simple common format, are also available for ftp download.

Description: Cirripedes are one of the major groups of fouling organism in the marine environment. The cyprid can, before a permanent attachment, actively explore and walk on the substratum using its antennules in a bipedal fashion without leaving the surface. Studying the structure of the cyprid antennule is therefore important for understanding the events that culminate in biofouling by barnacles. There are at present no complete, standardised accounts of the structure of the cyprid antennules in thoracican barnacles, and moreover, the existing accounts vary in their use of terminology. This article describes the cyprid antennule of the barnacle Megabalanus rosa. This barnacle species is common in E Asia, and the cyprids have previously been used in several biofouling studies. All externally visible setae on the antennules have been mapped; these comprise both chemosensors with a terminal pore, a putative aesthetasc-like seta and mechano-sensory setae. More setae were found on the attachment disc than in previous scanning electron microscope-based studies, but not all structures that can be seen with transmission electron microscopy were visible. The disc itself seems to have a variable surface area, which could assist in exploring rough surfaces. The various lengths of the antennular setae, coupled with the disposition of the segments, enable the cyprid to cover a wide swath of substratum during exploratory walking. A new terminology is proposed for cyprid antennular setae, which will form a basis for future comparative and functional studies of cirripede settlement.

Description: This paper presents an event stratigraphy based on data documenting the history of vegetation cover, lake-level changes and fire frequency, as well as volcanic eruptions, over the Last Glacial–early Holocene transition from a terrestrial sediment sequence recovered at Lake Accesa in Tuscany (north-central Italy). On the basis of an age–depth model inferred from 13 radiocarbon dates and six tephra horizons, the Oldest Dryas–Bølling warming event was dated to ca. 14 560 cal. yr BP and the Younger Dryas event to ca. 12 700–11 650 cal. yr BP. Four sub-millennial scale cooling phases were recognised from pollen data at ca. 14 300–14 200, 13 900–13 700, 13 400–13 100 and 11 350–11 150 cal. yr BP. The last three may be Mediterranean equivalents to the Older Dryas (GI-1d), Intra-Allerød (GI-1b) and Preboreal Oscillation (PBO) cooling events defined from the GRIP ice-core and indicate strong climatic linkages between the North Atlantic and Mediterranean areas during the last Termination. The first may correspond to Intra-Bølling cold oscillations registered by various palaeoclimatic records in the North Atlantic region. The lake-level record shows that the sub-millennial scale climatic oscillations which punctuated the last deglaciation were associated in central Italy with different successive patterns of hydrological changes from the Bølling warming to the 8.2 ka cold reversal. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Description: A simple unified critical state constitutive model for bonded geomaterials is presented in this paper. The model, which is called CASM-n, is an enhancement of an existing unified critical state model for reconstituted geomaterials (CASM). Characteristic behaviours of a bonded geomaterial such as the pre-yield higher strength and stiffness and the cohesive–frictional shearing mode in the post-yield region are taken into account and included in the reference model. The salient feature of the proposed model is the incorporation of cohesive component into the stress–dilatancy relationship. Consideration of the contribution of cohesion to plastic flow allows the modelling of delayed dilatancy and softening–contraction behaviour, which are two interesting phenomena observed in bonded geomaterials.

Description: The movements of the isolated buccal mass of Octopus vulgaris have been investigated. The beaks undergo rhythmic cycles of activity in the absence of applied stimulation and after electrical stimulation of the inter-buccal connective. Initial opening, closing, retraction and re-opening phases of movement are described. This cycle of movements is taken to resemble those in the intact animal. Anatomical and electrical evidence identifies the superior mandibular muscle as being partly responsible for the closing and retraction phases of movement. The inferior buccal ganglion determines the sequence of these buccal movements, but modification by sensory feed-back from the musculature is also implied. The preparation will allow a closer comparison of the control of movement in cephalopods and gastropods.

Description: Taonius megalops is a neutrally buoyant oceanic squid, very different in form when young and old. The young, has a round, sac-like mantle and relatively long tentacles, while the adult has an elongated cone-like mantle and relatively short tentacles. The transition in shape and form is gradual and has been followed in animals of between 3 and 180 mm dorsal mantle length. Statistical tests on various parameters investigated, both external and internal, revealed good correlation with the dorsal mantle length and confirmed the descriptions of the development of the chromatophores and subocular light organs with growth. It was concluded that these animals, captured in the Atlantic Ocean, all belonged to the species T. megalops Prosch 1849. This study has permitted us to suggest a tentative outline of the life cycle, although no adults were present in the material available.

Description: A crab which has been captured and paralysed by an octopus but retrieved 1 1/2 min later cannot at first be pulled apart by the experimenter: 27 min later it can be dismembered easily. This demonstrates that there is external digestion when Octopus vulgaris feeds upon crabs. However, it is strictly limited at this stage to the arthrodial membrane and the musculo-skeletal attachment mechanisms as the exoskeleton separates at the joints allowing the muscles to be drawn out of the appendages. And yet, two hours after capture, pieces of crab meat are still recognizable in the octopus's stomach. The process of paralysing and cleaning a crab was noticeably slowed after the surgical removal of the radula, salivary papilla or the lateral buccal palps.

Description: The changes in body weight of 12 octopuses, fed on fish or crabs, were followed under laboratory conditions for periods of 1 to 7 1/2 months. The food intake was estimated and compared with the changes in body weight of the octopuses; 25 to 55% of the total intake of food appeared to be incorporated. The range of the average increase in weight over the whole observation period of each of the animals was 1.9 to 7.7g per day (1 to 7 1/2 months); the mean value was 4.8g per day. The effect of changing the diet of small octopuses (fish or crab)was followed for four weeks but there was no evidence that alteration of the diet affected the rate of changes in body weight of animals of more than 47g initial body weight.

Description: Three new species of siphonophores (Rhodaliidae), a little known, uniquely benthic, family of Physonectae (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria), are described from specimens observed and collected at depths between 120 and 360 m off Indonesia and South Africa by the submersible JAGO. Special reference is made to in situ observations and video close‐ups that revealed detailed information on locomotory, fishing and feeding behaviour.

Description: Data from New Zealand and northern Victoria Land, Antarctica, indicate that the Cambrian Takaka Terrane intra-oceanic arc/backarc assemblage and the Bowers Terrane intra-oceanic arc/back-arc assemblage were accreted to the Gondwana margin by the Late Cambrian. Compelling similarities between the arc rocks and the immediate post-arc sediments firmly place the two regions in the same tectonic framework and imply close paleogeographic proximity. Currently, the Ross Orogen is thought to be the result of sinistral oblique convergence with west-directed subduction, and accretion of the arc assemblages is attributed to closure of backarc basins. Syntectonic fluvial conglomerates in both regions attest to the development of fluvial systems draining both the accreted arc and the contemporaneous continental margin arc. Trilobite faunas indicate that fluvial sedimentation commenced earlier in New Zealand than in northern Victoria Land. In the context of the widely accepted sinistral oblique convergence model, these data suggest an original position for New Zealand to the south of northern Victoria Land, probably in the region of the southern Ross Sea.

Description: Diosmetin, 5,7,3′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone shows chemopreventive, antimutagenic, and antiallergic effects. On the other hand, chrysoeriol, 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′-methoxyflavone induced nodABC-lacZ in Rhizobium meliloti. Both of them belong to hydroxymethoxy- flavones. One major difference between diosmetin and chrysoeriol is the substituted position of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups. In order to elucidate the relationships between their structures and activity, one of the first things to be done is the determination of their structures. However, most flavones occur widely in nature, and thus it is difficult to obtain in sufficient amounts from natural sources to identify their structures. Assignments of NMR data of several hydroxymethoxyflavones may help us to identify novel flavonoid compounds isolated from natural sources based on their NMR experiments. Therefore, we report here the complete assignments of 1H and 13C NMR data of 13 hydroxymethoxyflavones.

Description: Sediments of upwelling regions off Namibia, Peru, and Chile contain dense populations of large nitrate-storing sulfide-oxidizing bacteria, Thiomargarita, Beggiatoa, and Thioploca. Increased contents of monounsaturated C16 and C18 fatty acids have been found at all stations studied, especially when a high density of sulfide oxidizers in the sediments was observed. The distribution of lipid biomarkers attributed to sulfate reducers (10MeC16:0 fatty acid, ai-C15:0 fatty acid, and mono-O-alkyl glycerol ethers) compared to the distribution of sulfide oxidizers indicate a close association between these bacteria. As a consequence, the distributions of sulfate reducers in sediments of Namibia, Peru, and Chile are closely related to differences in the motility of the various sulfide oxidizers at the three study sites. Depth profiles of mono-O-alkyl glycerol ethers have been found to correlate best with the occurrence of large sulfide-oxidizing bacteria. This suggests a particularly close link between mono-O-alkyl glycerol ether-synthesizing sulfate reducers and sulfide oxidizers. The interaction between sulfide-oxidizing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria reveals intense sulfur cycling and degradation of organic matter in different sediment depths.

Description: Reproductive mechanisms in the seven species of the thecosomatous pteropod genus Limacina are described and compared. All species are protandrous hermaphrodites. Five species–L. bulimoides, L. helicina, L. lesueuri, L. retroversa and L. trochiformis–have a similar reproductive anatomy in which the gonoduct leading from the gonad to the common genital pore functions as a seminal vesicle in the male and is elaborated into mucous and albumen glands in the female. The male system consists of a prostate gland and penis connected to the common genital pore by an external ciliary tract. All five species have a free-swimming veliger stage which hatches from free-floating egg masses. Limacina helicoides has the same reproductive anatomy but is ovoviviparous, with embryos retained in capsules in the mucous gland until they are juveniles of 50 mm in shell diameter. Limacina inflata lacks mucous and albumen glands and a penis; a spermatophore formed by the prostate gland is used in aphallic sperm transfer. This species exhibits brood protection with un-encapsulated embryos retained in the mantle cavity until they are released as veligers measuring 0067 mm in diameter. L. inflata is the most abundant of the seven species despite lowered fecundity; reasons for its ecological success are discussed.

Description: A variety of methods were successfully applied to examine the efficacy of a modular ballast water system according to the standards as adopted by the International Maritime Organization. The ballast water treatment system had a capacity of 530 m3 h−1 consisted of a pump system, a hydrocyclone, a 50 μm mesh-size self-cleaning filter and an installation for the addition of a chemical disinfectant (PERACLEAN® Ocean). The land-based testing facility used natural sea water of high turbidity during the spring phytoplankton bloom. The mesozooplankton fraction was inspected with a standard binocular. Larger zooplankton were effectively removed with the filter; the smaller sized fraction containing larvae and nauplia were killed after chemical treatment. The phytoplankton component was monitored using flow cytometry. The huge colonies of the phytoplankton Phaeocystis globosa were disrupted in the hydrocyclone liberating the colony cells which passed as single cells through the filter. These cells remained viable but were finally killed in the secondary (chemical) step. Bacteria also passed all mechanical treatment steps unharmed but were killed in the final step. Viability tests with SYTOX Green, which were specifically designed for phytoplankton, showed that mechanical treatment did not affect the percentage of viable cells a short-term, but after several hours the viable cell counts dropped down to 70%. Phytoplankton cells recovered within a single day and formed a new dense bloom rapidly. The bacteriostatic component of the chemical disinfectant (H2O2) remained present for several days preventing regrowth of bacteria for up to 15 days after addition. In conclusion, the IMO standards were met using the modular ballast water treatment unit and the applied instruments and assays were effective and rapid tools to qualify and quantify the organisms present as well as their viability.

Description: A simple method for initializing coupled general circulation models (CGCMs) using only sea surface temperature (SST) data is comprehensively tested in an extended set of ensemble hindcasts with the Max-Planck-Institute (MPI) climate model, MPI-OM/ECHAM5. In the scheme, initial conditions for both atmosphere and ocean are generated by running the coupled model with SST nudged strongly to observations. Air–sea interaction provides the mechanism through which SST influences the subsurface. Comparison with observations indicates that the scheme is performing well in the tropical Pacific. Results from a 500-yr control run show that the model's El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability is quite realistic, in terms of strength, structure and period. The hindcasts performed were six months long, initiated four times per year, consisted of nine ensemble members, and covered the period 1969–2001. The ensemble was generated by only varying atmospheric initial conditions, which were sampled from the initialization run to capture intraseasonal variability. At six-month lead, the model is able to capture all the major ENSO extremes of the period. However, because of poor sampling of ocean initial conditions and model deficiencies, the ensemble-mean anomaly correlation skill for Niño3 SST is only 0.6 at six-month lead. None the less, the results presented here demonstrate the potential of such a simple scheme, and provide a simple method by which SST information may be better used in more complex initialization schemes.

Description: Myrionecta rubra, a ubiquitous planktonic ciliate, has received much attention due to its wide distribution, occurrence as a red tide organism, and unusual cryptophyte endosymbiont. Although well studied in coastal waters, M. rubra is poorly examined in the open ocean. In the Irminger Basin, North Atlantic, the abundance of M. rubra was 0–5 cells/ml, which is low compared with that found in coastal areas. Distinct patchiness (100 km) was revealed by geostatistical analysis. Multiple regression indicated there was little relationship between M. rubra abundance and a number of environmental factors, with the exception of temperature and phytoplankton biomass, which influenced abundance in the spring. We also improve on studies that indicate distinct size classes of M. rubra; we statistically recognise four significantly distinct width classes (5–16, 12–23, 18–27, 21–33 μm), which decrease in abundance with increasing size. A multinomial logistic regression revealed the main variable correlated with this size distribution was ambient nitrate concentration. Finally, we propose a hypothesis for the distribution of sizes, involving nutrients, feeding, and dividing of the endosymbiont.

Description: Meteorite impacts cause conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy. Part of this thermal energy is used to form a melt sheet, part is dissipated to heat the target rocks and these together with the hot rocks that elastically rebound from the depth of several kilometres (central uplift) activate hydrothermal circulation. Impact-generated hydrothermal systems have been documented from several impact structures world-wide. Three Australian examples—Shoemaker, Woodleigh and Yarrabubba—provide evidence of hydrothermal fluid flow both within and around the structures. Field observations, and petrographic and geochemical data suggest a common evolutionary trend of post-impact hydrothermal activity from early high-temperature alkali metasomatism to a later lower temperature H + metasomatism, resulting in the overprinting by hydrous mineral assemblages. Hydrothermal systems activated by meteorite-impact events are important because they may also form economic mineral deposits, as is documented for several impact structures in the world. A working model of hydrothermal circulation in terrestrial impact structures posits two main stages: (i) initial high-temperature fluids percolate downward causing widespread alkali metasomatism of the shattered target rocks below the melt sheet, resulting in their modification to rocks of syenitic affinity; and (ii) inflow of meteoric water and progressive cooling of the melt sheet leads to a lower temperature stage, in which hydrothermal fluid flow tends to move upward, resulting in mineral assemblages and alteration patterns that resemble those of epithermal systems. In addition, these fluids can discharge at the surface as hot springs.

Description: Understanding the influence of growth temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) on seed quality in terms of seed composition, subsequent seedling emergence and early seedling vigour is important under present and future climates. The objective of this study was to determine the combined effects of elevated temperature and CO2 during seed-filling of parent plants on seed composition, subsequent seedling emergence and seedling vigour of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Plants of cultivar ‘Montcalm’, were grown at daytime maximum/nighttime minimum sinusoidal temperature regimes of 28/18 and 34/24 °C at ambient CO2 (350 μmol mol−1) and at elevated CO2 (700 μmol mol−1) from emergence to maturity. Seed size and seed composition at maturity and subsequent per cent emergence, early seedling vigour (rate of development) and seedling dry matter production were measured. Elevated CO2 did not influence seed composition, emergence, or seedling vigour of seeds produced either at 28/18 or 34/24 °C. Seed produced at 34/24 °C had smaller seed size, decreased glucose concentration, but significantly increased concentrations of sucrose and raffinose compared to 28/18 °C. Elevated growth temperatures during seed production decreased the subsequent per cent emergence and seedling vigour of the seeds and seedling dry matter production of seed produced either at ambient or elevated CO2.

Description: Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is a high spatial resolution analytical method which has been applied to the analysis of silicic tephras. With current instrumentation, around 30 trace elements can be determined from single glass shards as small as ∼ 40 µm, separated from tephra deposits. As a result of element fractionation during the ablation process using a 266 nm laser, a relatively complex calibration strategy is required. Nonetheless, such a strategy gives analyses which are accurate (typically within ±5%) and have an analytical precision which varies from ∼ ±2% at 100 ppm, to ∼ ±15% at 1 ppm. Detection limits for elements used in correlation and discrimination studies are well below 1 ppm. Examples of the application of trace element analysis by LA-ICP-MS in tephra studies are presented from the USA, New Zealand and the Mediterranean. Improvements in instrumental sensitivity in recent years have the potential to lower detection limits and improve analytical precision, thus allowing the analysis of smaller glass shards from more distal tephras. Laser systems operating at shorter wavelengths (e.g. 193 nm) are now more widely available, and produce a much more controllable ablation in glasses than 266 nm lasers. Crater sizes of 〈10 µm are easily achieved, and at 193 nm many of the elemental fractionation issues which mar longer wavelengths are overcome. By coupling a short wavelength laser to a modern ICP-MS it should be possible to determine the trace element composition of glass shards as small as 20 µm and, providing sample preparation issues can be overcome, the determination of the more abundant trace elements in glass shards as small as 10 µm is within instrumental capabilities. This will make it possible to chemically fingerprint tephra deposits which are far from their sources, and will greatly extend the range over which geochemical correlation of tephras can be undertaken.

Description: Absolute barriers to dispersal are not common in marine systems, and the prevalence of planktonic larvae in marine taxa provides potential for gene flow across large geographic distances. These observations raise the fundamental question in marine evolutionary biology as to whether geographic and oceanographic barriers alone can account for the high levels of species diversity observed in marine environments such as coral reefs, or whether marine speciation also operates in the presence of gene flow between diverging populations. In this respect, the ecological hypothesis of speciation, in which reproductive isolation results from divergent or disruptive natural selection, is of particular interest because it may operate in the presence of gene flow. Although important insights into the process of ecological speciation in aquatic environments have been provided by the study of freshwater fishes, comparatively little is known about the possibility of ecological speciation in marine teleosts. In this study, the evidence consistent with different aspects of the ecological hypothesis of speciation is evaluated in marine fishes. Molecular approaches have played a critical role in the development of speciation hypotheses in marine fishes, with a role of ecology suggested by the occurrence of sister clades separated by ecological factors, rapid cladogenesis or the persistence of genetically and ecologically differentiated species in the presence of gene flow. Yet, ecological speciation research in marine fishes is still largely at an exploratory stage. Cases where the major ingredients of ecological speciation, namely a source of natural divergent or disruptive selection, a mechanism of reproductive isolation and a link between the two have been explicitly documented are few. Even in these cases, specific predictions of the ecological hypothesis of speciation remain largely untested. Recent developments in the study of freshwater fishes illustrate the potential for molecular approaches to address specific questions related to the ecological hypothesis of speciation such as the nature of the genes underlying key ecological traits, the magnitude of their effect on phenotype and the mechanisms underlying their differential expression in different ecological contexts. The potential provided by molecular studies is fully realized when they are complemented with alternative (e.g. ecological, theoretical) approaches.

Description: Meteorite impacts cause conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy. Part of this thermal energy is used to form a melt sheet, part is dissipated to heat the target rocks and these together with the hot rocks that elastically rebound from the depth of several kilometres (central uplift) activate hydrothermal circulation. Impact-generated hydrothermal systems have been documented from several impact structures world-wide. Three Australian examples—Shoemaker, Woodleigh and Yarrabubba—provide evidence of hydrothermal fluid flow both within and around the structures. Field observations, and petrographic and geochemical data suggest a common evolutionary trend of post-impact hydrothermal activity from early high-temperature alkali metasomatism to a later lower temperature H+ metasomatism, resulting in the overprinting by hydrous mineral assemblages. Hydrothermal systems activated by meteorite-impact events are important because they may also form economic mineral deposits, as is documented for several impact structures in the world. A working model of hydrothermal circulation in terrestrial impact structures posits two main stages: (i) initial high-temperature fluids percolate downward causing widespread alkali metasomatism of the shattered target rocks below the melt sheet, resulting in their modification to rocks of syenitic affinity; and (ii) inflow of meteoric water and progressive cooling of the melt sheet leads to a lower temperature stage, in which hydrothermal fluid flow tends to move upward, resulting in mineral assemblages and alteration patterns that resemble those of epithermal systems. In addition, these fluids can discharge at the surface as hot springs.

Description: Groundwater seeps are known to occur in Eckernförde Bay, Baltic Sea. Their discharge rate and dispersion were investigated with a new schlieren technique application, which is able to visualize heterogeneous water parcels with density anomalies down to Drt ¼ 0.049 on the scale of millimeters. With the use of an inverted funnel, discharged fluids can be captured and the outflow velocity can be determined. Overall, 46 stations could be categorized by three different cases: active vent sites, seep-influenced sites, and non-seep sites. New seep locations were discovered, even at shallow near-shore sites, lacking prominent sediment depression, which indicate submarine springs. The detection of numerous seeps was possible and the groundwater-influenced area was defined to be approximately 6.3 km2. Flow rates of between 0.05 and 0.71 l m)2 min)1 were measured. A single focused fluid plume, which was not disturbed by the funnel was recorded and revealed a flux of 59.6 ± 20 ml cm)2 min)1 and it was calculated that this single focused plume would be strong enough to produce a flow rate through the funnel of 1.32 ± 0.44 l m)2 min)1. The effect of different seep-meter funnel sizes is discussed.

Description: Shells of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis remain free of fouling organisms as long as they possess an intact periostracum, and a multiple antifouling defence that comprises a ripple-like microtopography and the production of chemical antifouling compounds has been suggested previously. This study investigates the chemical defence strategy of blue mussels for the first time. Six crude extracts of the periostracum of intact shells were made using solvents of increasing polarity. These extracts were tested against common fouling organisms in laboratory based bioassays. Non-polar and moderately polar fractions showed the highest activities: the diethyl ether fraction strongly inhibited attachment of Balanus amphitrite cyprids and the marine bacteria Cobetia marina and Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus. Attachment of the benthic diatom Amphora coffeaeformis was significantly reduced by the dichloromethane extract, whereas both ethyl acetate and diethyl ether fractions slowed diatom growth. These results provide the first evidence of surface bound compounds that may moderate surface colonisation.

Description: The regional dust model system LM-MUSCAT-DES was developed in the framework of the SAMUM project. Using the unique comprehensive data set of near-source dust properties during the 2006SAMUMfield campaign, the performance of the model system is evaluated for two time periods in May and June 2006. Dust optical thicknesses, number size distributions and the position of the maximum dust extinction in the vertical profiles agree well with the observations. However, the spatio-temporal evolution of the dust plumes is not always reproduced due to inaccuracies in the dust source placement by the model. While simulated winds and dust distributions are well matched for dust events caused by dry synoptic-scale dynamics, they are often misrepresented when dust emissions are caused by moist convection or influenced by small-scale topography that is not resolved by the model. In contrast to long-range dust transport, in the vicinity of source regions the model performance strongly depends on the correct prediction of the exact location of sources. Insufficiently resolved vertical grid spacing causes the absence of inversions in the model vertical profiles and likely explains the absence of the observed sharply defined dust layers.

Description: Tropical cyclones (TC) under different climate conditions in the Northern Hemisphere have been investigated with the Max Planck Institute (MPI) coupled (ECHAM5/MPI-OM) and atmosphere (ECHAM5) climate models. The intensity and size of the TC depend crucially on resolution with higher wind speed and smaller scales at the higher resolutions. The typical size of the TC is reduced by a factor of 2.3 from T63 to T319 using the distance of the maximum wind speed from the centre of the storm as a measure. The full three-dimensional structure of the storms becomes increasingly more realistic as the resolution is increased. For the T63 resolution, three ensemble runs are explored for the period 1860 until 2100 using the IPCC SRES scenario A1B and evaluated for three 30 yr periods at the end of the 19th, 20th and 21st century, respectively. While there is no significant change between the 19th and the 20th century, there is a considerable reduction in the number of the TC by some 20% in the 21st century, but no change in the number of the more intense storms. Reduction in the number of storms occurs in all regions. A single additional experiment at T213 resolution was run for the two latter 30-yr periods. The T213 is an atmospheric only experiment using the transient sea surface temperatures (SST) of the T63 resolution experiment. Also in this case, there is a reduction by some 10% in the number of simulated TC in the 21st century compared to the 20th century but a marked increase in the number of intense storms. The number of storms with maximum wind speeds greater than 50 m s−1 increases by a third. Most of the intensification takes place in the Eastern Pacific and in the Atlantic where also the number of storms more or less stays the same. We identify two competing processes effecting TC in a warmer climate. First, the increase in the static stability and the reduced vertical circulation is suggested to contribute to the reduction in the number of storms. Second, the increase in temperature and water vapour provide more energy for the storms so that when favourable conditions occur, the higher SST and higher specific humidity will contribute to more intense storms. As the maximum intensity depends crucially on resolution, this will require higher resolution to have its full effect. The distribution of storms between different regions does not, at first approximation, depend on the temperature itself but on the distribution of the SST anomalies and their influence on the atmospheric circulation. Two additional transient experiments at T319 resolution where run for 20 yr at the end of the 20th and 21st century, respectively, using the same conditions as in the T213 experiments. The results are consistent with the T213 study. The total number of TC were similar to the T213 experiment but were generally more intense. The change from the 20th to the 21st century was also similar with fewer TC in total but with more intense cyclones.

Description: Screening for pathogenic micro-organisms is an essential component of translocation-based conservation management. While there are some data on pathogens in New Zealand passerines, little is known about the distribution and prevalence of pathogens infecting New Zealand Psittaciformes. We conducted a survey for pathogens of the vulnerable New Zealand endemic red-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae in two wild populations (Little Barrier Island and Raoul Island), and in a translocated population (Tiritiri Matangi Island). A total of 101 cloacal samples were tested for Salmonella and Yersinia. Of these, 82 samples were also tested for Campylobacter. None of these microorganisms were detected. Although our sampling effort was insufficient to detect a low prevalence of Campylobacter, modelling of minimum detectable prevalence of Salmonella and Yersinia indicates that these micro-organisms would have been detected if present as common or chronic conditions of red-crowned parakeets at these sites.

Description: Quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis of the 〈2mm sediment fraction was carried out on 1257 samples (from the seafloor and 16 cores) from the Iceland shelf west of 188 W. All but one core (B997-347PC) were from transects along troughs on theNW to N-central shelf, an area that in modern and historic times has been affected by drift ice. The paper focuses on the non-clay mineralogy of the sediments (excluding calcite and volcanic glass). Quartz and potassium feldspars occupy similar positions in an R-mode principal component analysis, and oligoclase feldspar tracks quartz; these minerals are used as a proxy for ice-rafted detritus (IRD). Accordingly, the sum of these largely foreign minerals (Q&K) (to Icelandic bedrock) is used as a proxy for drift ice. A stacked, equi-spaced 100 a record is developed which shows both low-frequency trends and higher-frequency events. The detrended stacked record compares well with the flux of quartz (mg cm-2 a-1) at MD99-2269 off N Iceland. The multi-taper method indicated that there are three significant frequencies at the 95% confidence level with periods of ca. 2500, 445 and 304 a. Regime shift analysis pinpoints intervals when there was a statistically significant shift in the average Q&K weight %, and identifies four IRDrich events separated by intervals with lower inputs. There is some association between peaks of IRD input, less dense surface waters (from d18O data on planktonic foraminifera) and intervals of moraine building.

Description: Cephalopods play a significant role in coastal and oceanic ecosystems, both as consumers of invertebrates and small fish and as the prey of some fish, seabirds and marine mammals and other large predators. Approximately 30 species of cephalopod have been recorded in the north-eastern Atlantic and adjacent waters, including 18 teuthid (squid), seven sepiolid (bobtail), three sepiid (cuttlefish) and 10 octopod (octopus) species. A number of these are exploited commercially and support important target and by-catch fisheries in Western Europe. During the past decade, annual landings of cephalopods from the north-eastern Atlantic (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea [ICES] area) have ranged from 40,000 to 55,000 t, including substantial catches of long-fin (loliginid) squid (7000–11,000 t per annum), short-fin (ommastrephid) squid (3000–10,000 t), cuttlefish (including sepiolids; 16,000–24,000 t) and octopods (12,000–18,000 t). The most important exploited species in the north-eastern Atlantic are Eledone cirrhosa, Illex coindetii, Loligo forbesi, Loligo vulgaris, Octopus vulgaris, Todarodes sagittatus, Todaropsis eblanae and Sepia officinalis. Other species including Alloteuthis subulata, Gonatus fabricii and certain sepiolids, appear to be abundant and may be marketable. Cephalopods tend to rapidly concentrate heavy metals and other toxic substances in their tissues and this plays an important role in the bioaccumulation of these pollutants in marine predators as well as having implications for human consumption. High levels of cadmium and mercury are often recorded in cephalopod tissues. Another important environmental issue concerns the potential impact of widespread human activity on cephalopod spawning areas, particularly bottom-fishing operations but also shipping, and oil exploration and production. In contrast to many finfish species that spawn annually over a number of years, most cephalopods live only 1–2 yr and die after spawning. Therefore, failure to reproduce and recruit adequately in any given year may seriously impact the long-term viability of cephalopod stocks. Climate change is expected to have a significant effect on many species in the north-eastern Atlantic. This review provides a detailed account of the zoogeography, biology and ecology of cephalopods in the north-eastern Atlantic, on a species-by-species basis. Important economic, ecological and conservation issues affecting cephalopods in this area are also discussed

Description: Greywacke, argillite, greyschist and hypabyssal igneous rocks have been obtained from an Ocean Drilling Program core on the Queensland Plateau and from xenoliths in a volcanic breccia dredged from the crest of the Lord Howe Rise. Low to intermediate detrital quartz contents, 260 – 240 Ma K – Ar ages, and only moderately radiogenic Sr and Nd isotope compositions, suggest a correlation with the New England Orogen of eastern Australia, rather than with Australia's Lachlan Orogen or other adjacent geological provinces. Our results indicate that the New England Orogen terranes continue towards New Zealand at least as far as the southern Lord Howe Rise. The projected offshore boundaries of the major east Australian orogens are now known with more confidence, and do not appear to require any major cross-orogen offsets.

Description: Sea level changes in the Baltic Sea are dominated by internal, short-term variations that are mostly caused by the ephemeral nature of atmospheric conditions over the Baltic area. Tides are small and their influence decreases from western parts of the Baltic Sea to the Baltic Proper. Superimposed to the large short-term sea level changes (up to few decimeters from day to day) are seasonal and interannual variations (centimeters to decimeters). This study focuses on the comparison of sea surface heights obtained from observations and from a high resolution oceanographic model of the Baltic Sea. From this comparison, the accuracy of the modeled sea surface variations is evaluated, which is a necessary precondition for the further use of the oceanographic model in geodetic applications. The model reproduces all observed Baltic sea level variations very reliably with an accuracy of 5 to 9 cm (rms) for short-term variations (up to 2 months) and 8 cm (rms) for long-term variations (〉2 months). An additional improvement of the model can be attained by including long-period sea level variations of the North Sea. The model performs well also in the case of extreme sea level events, as is shown for a major storm surge that occurred at the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in November 1995.

Description: An experimental study was performed to disentangle parental and environmental effects on the growth of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua larvae and juveniles. Eggs were collected during the spawning season from spawning pairs (families) kept separately in specially designed spawning compartments. Newly hatched larvae were released simultaneously into two mesocosms of 2500 and 4400 m3. Larval growth was monitored by sampling over a 10 week period, after which juveniles were transferred to on-growing tanks, where they were tagged and kept for up to 2 years. Maternal origin was determined by individual microsatellite genotyping of the larvae (n = 3949, 24 families) and juveniles (n = 600). The results showed significant positive correlations between egg size and larval size during the whole mesocosm period. Correlations, however, weakened with time and were no longer significant at the first tank-rearing sampling at an age of 9 months. Significant family-specific differences in growth were observed. The coefficient of variation (c.v.) was calculated in order to examine variation in standard length of larvae during the mesocosm period. Inter-family c.v. was on average 69% of intra-family c.v. Differences in zooplankton densities between the two mesocosms were reflected in larval growth, condition factor and c.v. Low food abundance appeared to reduce c.v. and favour growth of larvae that showed relatively slow growth at high food abundance. It is suggested that genetically determined variation in growth potential is maintained by environmental variability.

Description: The properties of the body surface play a crucial role in most interactions of marine organisms. Critical ecological properties such as drag, morphology, uptake and release of radiation and organic matter are linked to the body surface of an aquatic organism. The properties and functions of this interface may be modified substantially by the presence and activities of epibiotic communities. This, in turn, may lead to substantial modulation of the interactions between the organism bearing epiphytes and its environment, with consequences for the relative fitness of the host organism (basibiont) and its interactors, and ultimately, the structure and functioning of the assemblage. Epibiosis may act as an ecological lever via these indirect effects, greatly amplifying or buffering biotic and abiotic stress.

Description: Modern antifouling coatings use heavy metals and toxic organic molecules to prevent biofouling, the undesirable growth of marine organisms on man-made substrata. In an ongoing survey of deep-sea microorganisms aimed at finding low toxic antifouling metabolites, an actinomycete bacterium was isolated from the Pacific sediment at the depth of about 5000 m. The bacterium was closely related to Streptomyces fungicidicus (99% similarity) according to 16S ribosomal RNA sequence information. The spent culture medium of this bacterium inhibited barnacle larval attachment. Bioassay-guided fractionation was employed to isolate antifouling compounds. The ethyl acetate extract was fractionated by using an open silica gel column. Active fractions were further purified on a HPLC C18 column. Five diketopiperazines, cyclo-(L-Leu-L-Pro), cyclo-(L-Phe-L-Pro), cyclo-(L-Val-L-Pro), cyclo-(L-Trp-L-Pro), and cyclo-(L-Leu-L-Val) were isolated for the first time from a deep sea bacterium, and the structures of the compounds were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The pure diketopiperazines were tested for antilarval activity using the barnacle Balanus amphitrite. Effective concentrations that inhibited 50% larval attachment (EC50) after 24 h ranged from 0.10- 0.27 mM. The data suggest that diketopiperazines and other compounds from deep-sea bacteria may be used as novel antifoulants.

Description: The SAMUM field campaign in southern Morocco in May/June 2006 provides valuable data to study the emission, and the horizontal and vertical transports of mineral dust in the Northern Sahara. Radiosonde and lidar observations show differential advection of air masses with different characteristics during stable nighttime conditions and up to 5-km deep vertical mixing in the strongly convective boundary layer during the day. Lagrangian and synoptic analyses of selected dust periods point to a topographic channel from western Tunisia to central Algeria as a dust source region. Significant emission events are related to cold surges from the Mediterranean in association with eastward passing upper-level waves and lee cyclogeneses south of the Atlas Mountains. Other relevant events are local emissions under a distinct cut-off low over northwestern Africa and gust fronts associated with dry thunderstorms over the Malian and Algerian Sahara. The latter are badly represented in analyses from the European Centre for Medium–Range Weather Forecasts and in a regional dust model, most likely due to problems with moist convective dynamics and a lack of observations in this region. This aspect needs further study. The meteorological source identification is consistent with estimates of optical and mineralogical properties of dust samples.

Description: The annual cycle of extreme 1-day precipitation events across the UK is investigated by developing a statistical model and fitting it to data from 689 rain gauges. A generalized extreme-value distribution (GEV) is fit to the time series of monthly maxima, across all months of the year simultaneously, by approximating the annual cycles of the location and scale parameters by harmonic functions, while keeping the shape parameter constant throughout the year. We average the shape parameter of neighbouring rain gauges to decrease parameter uncertainties, and also interpolate values of all model parameters to give complete coverage of the UK. The model reveals distinct spatial patterns for the estimated parameters. The annual mean of the location and scale parameter is highly correlated with orography. The annual cycle of the location parameter is strong in the northwest UK (peaking in late autumn or winter) and in East Anglia (where it peaks in late summer), and low in the Midlands. The annual cycle of the scale parameter exhibits a similar pattern with strongest amplitudes in East Anglia. The spatial patterns of the annual cycle phase suggest that they are linked to the dominance of frontal precipitation for generating extreme precipitation in the west and convective precipitation in the southeast of the UK. The shape parameter shows a gradient from positive values in the east to negative values in some areas of the west. We also estimate 10-year and 100-year return levels at each rain gauge, and interpolated across the UK.

Description: From September to October 2002, shallow drilling, using the submersible (5 m) Rockdrill of the British Geological Survey and the German R/V Sonne revealed critical information on the subsurface nature of two distinct hydrothermal systems in the New Ireland fore-arc and the Manus Basin of Papua New Guinea. Drilling at Conical Seamount significantly extends the known surface extent of the previously discovered vein-style gold mineralization (up to 230 g/t Au) at this site. Drilling the conventional PACMANUS volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit recovered complexly textured massive sulfide with spectacular concentrations of gold in several core sections including 0.5 m @ 28 g/t Au, 0.35 m @ 30 g/t Au, and 0.20 m @ 57 g/t Au. Shallow drilling is a fast and cost efficient method that bridges the gap between surface sampling and deep (ODP) drilling and will become a standard practice in the future study of seafloor hydrothermal systems and massive sulfide deposits.

Description: The importance of crustal fluid chemical composition in driving the marine deep subseafloor biosphere was examined in northeast Pacific ridge-flank sediments. At IODP Site U1301, sulfate from crustal fluids diffuses into overlying sediments, forming a transition zone where sulfate meets in situ-produced methane. Enhanced cell counts and metabolic activity suggest that sulfate stimulates microbial respiration, specifically anaerobic methane oxidation coupled to sulfate reduction. Cell counts and activity are also elevated in basement-near layers. Owing to the worldwide expansion of the crustal aquifer, we postulate that crustal fluids may fuel the marine deep subseafloor biosphere on a global scale.

Description: Barnacle cypris larvae respond to many cues when selecting a settlement site. The settlement of over a million larvae on tiles of different textures, orientations and densities of incumbent settlers was measured on the rocky intertidal at Great Cumbrae, Scotland. Half of the tiles were replaced every tide whereas the others simultaneously accumulated settlers. Factor effects varied on each tide, and converged in the accumulating deployment. Increasing incumbent density led to net loss of settlement, which was less probable on the textures on which fastest settlment occurred ('very fine'), and more probable on those on which settlement was slowest ('smooth'). More settlement occurred on down-facing orientations during daylight and vice versa. Cue ranks were non-linear, so a path analysis model quantified the relative influence of each factor. Gregariousness was the most influential cue measured, although unmeasured factors had greater effects, highlighting the complexity of settlement influences in this species.

Description: Fluorescence excitation-emission matrices showed the spectral signature of dissolved organic matter (DOM) downstream in the River Tet at all seasons corresponding to humic substances with maximum fluorescence emission em=420-460nm for excitations of ex=340-360nm and the occasional presence of tryptophan, tracer of anthropogenic pressure, spectroscopically identified by ex/em=310/350nm. A factorial discriminant analysis, performed using the parameters selected (ex/em pairs of wavelength), succeeded in a better discrimination of seasons than stations, and clearly showed the presence of two fluorophores. Fluorophore 1, with two absorption bands: ex=260-320nm and 330-390nm for em=440-500nm, and Fluorophore 2, with one absorption band: ex=300-360nm for em=410nm, which are attributed to humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA), respectively. Variations of DOM relative contents downstream in the River Tet, according to seasons and stations, showed high amounts of DOM (pedogenic character) along the river in the humid period, with the highest value obtained in the mountain section. In contrast, in summer, the DOM contents were low (aquagenic character). Moreover, DOM presents a relatively constant composition with a percentage of FA ranging from 40% at the mountain station to 48% at the mouth river, whatever the season.

Description: Epipelagic pterotracheid heteropods and young cranchiid squids rely primarily on transparency for concealment; yet they have opaque structures, the eyes and visceral organs that compose the visceral nuclei, which can only be camouflaged in other ways. These two groups have achieved convergent solutions to this problem. The visceral nucleus has a narrow and conical shape and a covering layer of iridophores that lies parallel to the surface of the organ. The eyes also have iridophore layers and tapered shapes. A minimal ventral silhouette results when the long axes of the visceral nucleus and eyes are oriented vertically, with the narrowest ends directed downward. In pterotracheids, this is actively achieved by tilting the nucleus and eyes and flexing the body and proboscis. In cranchiids, tilting of the organs alone suffices and adjustments are accomplished much more rapidly than in the pterotracheids.

Description: Since early 2008, an increasing number of countries have ratified an international treaty to ban the application of antifouling (AF) coatings based on organotin compounds (eg tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin). As a result, the demand for environmentally friendly, non-toxic or low-toxicity AF compounds and technologies (green AF agents) has become an urgent reality. Marine coatings based on Cu2O and various other biocides have a negative impact on the environment and they must eventually be replaced by new, effective, and environmentally friendly AF compounds. This mini-review describes important AF compounds discovered from a variety of organisms from 2004 until mid 2009, and discusses recent and general trends in the discovery of AF compounds. Finally, a perspective on the future of AF compound development is presented. The discussion is aimed at updating scientists and engineers on the current challenges facing AF research.

Description: Coccoliths were studied from the ODP Hole 1002C and core PL07-39PC in the Cariaco Basin. Increases in Emiliania huxleyi are synchronous with decreases of Gephyrocapsa oceanica and vice versa. A new index (GEX) based on the relative abundances of these two taxa is proposed, and correlates with various other proxies. It is shown that GEX can serve as upwelling proxy. This confirms that the Intertropical Convergence Zone shifted north during the Bølling/Allerød, south during the Younger Dryas and back north during the Preboreal. The upwelling proxy shows few discrepancies with the terrigenous record.

Description: A visible tephra horizon in the NGRIP ice core has been identified by geochemical analysis as the Fugloyarbanki Tephra, a widespread marker horizon in marine cores from the Faroe Islands area and the northern North Atlantic. An age of 26 740 ± 390 yr b2k (1s uncertainty) is derived for this tephra according to the new Greenland Ice Core Chronology (GICC05) based on multiparameter counting of annual layers. Detection of this tephra for the first time within the NGRIP ice core provides a key tie-point between marine and ice-core records during the transition between MIS 3 and 2. Identification of this volcanic event within the Greenland records demonstrates the future potential of using tephrochronology to precisely correlate palaeoarchives in widely separated localities that span the last glacial period, as well as providing a potential method for examining the extent of the radiocarbon marine reservoir effect at this time.

Description: A study of the diet of Sepia officinalis and S. elegans in the Ria de Vigo has shown that crustaceans are the most abundant prey in both species, followed by fish. Changes in the food composition of both species occur with growth. The type of prey eaten by the two sexes of these species is very similar. The possibility of trophic competition between juveniles of S. qficinalis and S. elegans is discussed.

Description: The presented study assessed the heavy metal contamination risk in a former sludge deposit field of the River Ruhr in Essen, Germany. Therefore, the temporal and spatial distribution in soils and plants, chemical fractionation, mobilization potential, and transfer characteristics have been investigated. Soil samples, roots and shoots of rushes (Juncus sp.), and stem wood disks of willows (Salix sp.) were analyzed for Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cd. Plant available and mobile heavy metal portions have been determined using a sequential extraction procedure. The results show that the soils and the rushes are highly contaminated, although there is a considerable decrease compared to initial concentrations some 20 years ago. The willows show only small heavy metal enrichment. pH induced mobilization potential in soil is high for Cd, Zn and Ni. Additionally, these elements contain high portions of plant-available fractions. High transfer rates from soil to roots and very high rates from roots to shoots of rushes have been determined for Cd and Zn, indicating an accumulation of these elements in shoots of rushes. The rushes reflect the temporal and spatial heavy metal distribution in soil and might thus be used as a bioindicator or for phytoremediation.

Description: Natural communities are constantly changing due to a variety of interacting external processes and the temporal occurrence and intensity of these processes can have important implications for the diversity and structure of marine sessile assemblages. In this study, we investigated the effects of temporal variation in a disturbance regime, as well as the specific timing of events within different regimes, on the composition and diversity of marine subtidal fouling assemblages. We did this in a multi-factorial experiment using artificial settlement tiles deployed at two sites on the North East coast of England. We found that although there were significant effects of disturbances on the composition of assemblages, there were no effects of either the variation in the disturbance regime or the specific timing of events on the diversity or assemblage composition at either site. In contrast to recent implications we conclude that in marine fouling assemblages, the variability in disturbance regimes (as a driving force) is unimportant, while disturbance itself is an important force for structuring robust ecosystems.

Description: Improved monitoring of non-CO2 greenhouse gases in air samples is presented, achieved using a new analytical system based on preconcentration, gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry. In addition to the major HFCs, HCFCs and CFCs, the new observations include the first in situ time series of the C1–C3 PFCs (CF4, C2F6 and C3F8) and the more volatile of the HFCs (CHF3, CH2F2, CH3CF3) alongside SF6, all of which are now monitored routinely as part of the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE). Observed trends in newly monitored species are shown, obtained from 1–2 years continuous in situ air analyses at remote monitoring sites at Mace Head (Ireland) and Cape Grim (Australia). Observed deviations in the air background for these gas species are linked to modelled trajectories of air masses arriving at the monitoring stations to indicate potential source regions for emissions in Europe and Australia. In addition, preliminary estimates of 2004 mixing ratio growth rates of compounds are deduced from the observations, which highlight the importance of continuous atmospheric monitoring for verification of consumption-based emission estimates of non-CO2 greenhouse gases.

Description: Development of microbial biofilms and the recruitment of propagules on the surfaces of man-made structures in the marine environment cause serious problems for the navies and for marine industries around the world. Current antifouling technology is based on the application of toxic substances that can be harmful to the natural environment. For this reason and the global ban of tributyl tin (TBT), there is a need for the development of “environmentally-friendly” antifoulants. Marine microbes are promising potential sources of non-toxic or less-toxic antifouling compounds as they can produce substances that inhibit not only the attachment and/or growth of microorganisms but also the settlement of invertebrate larvae and macroalgal spores. However, so far only few antilarval settlement compounds have been isolated and identified from bacteria. In this review knowledge about antifouling compounds produced by marine bacteria and diatoms are summarised and evaluated and future research directions are highlighted.

Description: The measurements of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) in seawater are key in global change and coastal eutrophication studies. Nowadays, the high-temperature combustion (HTC) technique is a widely used method for DOC and TDN analysis. However, uncertainties exist about the operation of the catalyst in the conversion process of DOC and TDN in the HTC method. In this study, five different 'catalyst' materials were tested for their blanks, calibration slopes, and conversion efficiency of DOC and TDN using the Shimadzu TOC 5000A total organic carbon analyser coupled to a Sievers NCD 255 nitrogen chemiluminescence detector. The materials included four metallic catalysts (Shimadzu and Johnson 0.5 Pt-alumina, 13 Cu(II)O-alumina, 0.5 Pd-alumina) and quartz beads. The results indicated that DOC blank signals for the HTC approach using metallic catalysts with an alumina support are higher compared with quartz beads, as a result of the amphoteric nature of the alumina. However, the slopes of the standard calibration graphs were lowest for DOC and TDN determinations on the quartz beads. The DOC recoveries for the metallic catalysts were close to 100 for all compounds tested, with the exception of ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate. Using quartz beads, poor recoveries were obtained for a range of organic compounds, including the commonly used calibration compounds potassium hydrogen phthalate and glycine. The TDN recoveries for all compounds were typically >90, with the exception of NaNO2. Furthermore, analysis using the CuO-alumina and Pd-alumina catalysts and quartz beads showed low recoveries for NH4Cl. This study showed that catalyst performance should be verified on a regular basis using model compounds and blank checks made during every run, and that the Shimadzu 0.5 Pt-alumina material was an efficient catalyst for DOC and TDN analyses using the coupled total organic carbon-nitrogen chemiluminescence detector (TOC-NCD) analyser. © 2007 Taylor & Francis.

Description: Draft regulations for prospecting and exploration of polymetallic sulphides in the “Area” are currently being considered for implementation by the International Seabed Authority. This paper examines possible models for allocation of lease blocks for exploration and the proposed schedule for relinquishing blocks during the exploration phase. One model for granting of exploration licenses under the proposed regulations involves contiguous lease blocks, similar to that being considered for nodules and crusts; another model involves non-contiguous blocks. An analysis of the occurrence and distribution of known polymetallic sulphides in 32 training areas shows that the regulations for prospecting and exploration of crusts likely cannot be applied equally to polymetallic sulphides.

Description: Data from two cross-shelf sediment sampling cruises were used to explain reasons for the sediment biogeochemical variability in respect of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, and how the cycling of these elements governs the biogeochemistry of the overlying water through their control of the redox conditions. The spatial extent of this benthic–pelagic flux link is limited to the innershelf mud belt system on the Namibian shelf. The inshore mud belt is the primary deposition area of the carbon and nitrogen new production export flux. The offshore organic-rich zones are thought to be relict particulate organic matter originating from the inshore mud belt rather than from an overlying pelagic source. These data were used to set up a multi-layer sediment model that was used through sensitivity analyses to elucidate the input characteristics that result in the most significant feedbacks on hypoxia in the overlying water. The analyses showed that, although the new production flux is a requirement to drive an oxygen demand in the sediments, the onset and persistence of anoxia may depend critically on a low-oxygen boundary condition threshold. This is thought to be a key differentiating factor between systems that, despite comparable carbon export fluxes, are characterised by a persistent hypoxia/anoxia signal and those that are characterised by episodic hypoxia events. It was concluded that sediment oxygen demand and methane and 'sulphide' emissions from the central Benguela sediments are responses to external hypoxia boundary conditions rather than the local drivers of oxygen variability.

Description: Archived scales and otoliths constitute a unique source of DNA that potentially enables extension of the temporal scale of genetic studies of fish populations by decades and even centuries. We review recent insights into fish population and conservation genetics obtained using analysis of DNA from archived samples. This involves both new knowledge about demographic parameters and population structure in wild populations and insights into consequences of anthropogenic pressure resulting from over-harvesting, habitat degradation and stocking. We show that the latter category of studies have led to significant changes of management practices. Ongoing improvement of genetic methods will undoubtedly further expand the ability to utilize historical DNA samples. We envisage that temporal comparisons of large numbers of coding genes will lead to novel insights into selective responses of fish populations to anthropogenic challenges, particularly fisheries-induced selection and global warming. However, both acquisition and storage of historical DNA samples can be hurdles to temporal genetic analyses, while degradation and low copy number in historical DNA samples render genetic data from such sources prone to technical artefacts. We summarize recommendations for storage of samples and DNA extraction and provide checklists for validation of genotyping results. Finally, we stress that validation procedures also involve documentation of the time and population of origin of historical samples, and the inferences drawn should account for the technical and statistical uncertainties associated with historical DNA analysis.

Description: The purpose of this study was to monitor and evaluate the specific characteristics and properties of the most important water resources in Dalmatia, located in Southern Croatia, for a period of five years (1999–2003). The paper presents a detailed account of the water's chemical content, classification and concentration of salts. The bacteriological pollution levels are indicated by the total coliform bacterial levels (MPN coli/100 ml). The water characteristics are expressed by coefficients which represent the ratios between water ingredients. The Ca/Mg eq ratio, SO4/Cl eq ratio and K1, K2 for bicarbonate hardness were calculated. The hygienic characteristics of the water samples were expressed by the total coliform bacteria estimation (MPN coli/100 ml), the permanganate consumption (KMnO4) and biological oxygen demand (BOD5). Karst waters, i.e. rain waters, in Dalmatia are moderately hard, the SO4/Cl ratio is 0.38-1.6, non corrosive (K1 lower than 0.2) and not significantly mineralised (〈500 mg/L minerals). Sulfate waters are generally hard, the SO4/Cl ratio is higher than 1.6, K1 is 0.2-0.65. Marine waters are quite hard or hard, particularly at the river estuaries, the SO4/Cl ratio is lower than 0.38, and K1 is higher than 0.65. Rain water direction equation, marine direction equation and sulfate direction equation are calculated on the base of SO4/Cl ratio. The groundwater and springs in Dalmatia are less polluted than surface waters. A majority of the water observed, 24 of 42 locations, have geometric average values of MPN coli〈150/100 ml of water. This group includes the majority of springs in Dalmatia, as well as some sections of rivers studied. The highest bacteriological pollution was found at nine locations where MPN coli〉1000/100 ml. Moderate pollution was found at nine locations where MPN coli is between 150–1000/100 ml of water. The water in Dalmatia is quite safe and mainly preserves its natural properties.

Description: A wide variety of terrestrial biomass feed stocks have been identified as suitable candidates for fractionation and conversion into biofuels. In particular, microalgae have been promoted as a future source of transportation fuels primarily because of their stated potential to produce up to 10 times more oil per acre than traditional biofuel crops. Their ability to grow relatively fast, be harvested on a daily basis, and grown in earthen ponds or closed photobioreactors that occupy marginal or poor crop lands using salt or brackish water, are often referenced. When these attractive traits are coupled with the potential to concomitantly harvest valuable co‐products such as biopolymers, proteins, and animal feeds, one can see why microalgae are often touted as biotechnology's “green gold”. The development of large‐scale microalgae farms, however, has been slowed by limitations in downstream processing technology. For example, traditional methods to dewater, extract, and recover bio‐oil from oil‐seeds possess little utility for microalgae. The extreme requirement of dewatering poses tremendous hurdles for any technology processing biofuels from microalgae. To further complicate matters, identifying the most appropriate paths for appropriate extraction technology depends heavily on the microalgal species and its cultivation status, both of which are highly characterized for higher plants as compared to microalgae. In this review we discuss existing extraction methodologies as they have and can be applied to microalgae. Commentary is provided on their potential as a unit operation that exists within the framework of an industrial‐scale microalgal cultivation process that extends from the production of biomass in photobioreactors to the fractionation of the recovered bio‐oil.

Description: Cephalopods are increasingly acknowledged as an ecologically important group in Chilean ecosystems, but are also one of their less-known biogeographic components. Notably, this group is represented virtually exclusively by non-endemic species, although we hypothesized that their distribution over the coast should be constrained by similar physical determinants to those affecting endemic taxa. We thus present a first evaluation of the latitudinal patterns of diversity and distribution of cephalopod species in Chile, based on geographical data obtained from a review of the available literature. We constructed presence–absence binary matrices of coastal and oceanic species in 20 latitudinal units (2°), for then calculating the respective similarity matrices to obtain a distribution dendrogram using hierarchical cluster analysis (UPGM). The original binary matrices were resampled performing 1000 stochastic reassignments to calculating the 95th percentile as the criterion to identify significant clusters. Statistical comparisons between distributional groupings were performed using ANOSIM. We recorded 86 cephalopods in Chile, including oceanic (71) and coastal (15) species. Species richness showed two major breaks at 30° S and 42° S, and decreased toward higher latitudes. Cephalopod species showed well-defined endpoints of distribution within the Chilean coast, differentiating three main biogeographical units: northern (18–30° S), central (30–42° S) and southern (42–56° S) areas. Biogeographical patterns of cephalopod species in Chile showed no particular difference with those already described for most Chilean taxa. The marked distribution breaks of cephalopods at 30° and 42° S suggest that external forcing and physical factors other than temperature gradients may strongly constrain their dispersal.

Description: The functional response of Sepia officinalis early stages, preying on mysids of the species Mesopodopsis slabberi was investigated. The effects of five prey densities (12.5, 25, 37.5, 50 and 125 mysids l−1) and two hatchling ages (1-day-old and 7-day-old) on consumption rate and the frequency of non-feeding animals were tested. Older animals were approximately 50% heavier than newly hatched ones. Hatchlings were individually assayed under 0.25 W m−2 natural light, 37.8 psu in salinity and 19°C. The effect of prey density on consumption rate was highly significant and no effect of age was detected within the age range tested. Maximal values recorded for consumption rate were about 0.45 mysids h−1. The frequency of non-feeding individuals was strongly reduced at saturating prey densities. The functional response curve showed an interval of prey densities for which density-dependent prey mortality is probable.

Description: A study of Rossia macrosoma in Portuguese waters with emphasis on its biogeographical, biological and biochemical characteristics is presented. Approximately 1000 specimens collected in 32 cruises between 1990 and 2003 were used to determine the distribution and abundance of the species and some population biology parameters (weight, length, sex and maturation). The first biochemical characterization of the species at different stages of gonad development was made. The species was found at depths up to 860 m along the whole Portuguese coast. The sex ratio was approximately 1:1 and did not vary with depth or position along the coast (P≫0.05). Females grew larger (84:67 mm mantle length) and heavier (161:100 g total body weight) than males. Mature specimens of both sexes constituted 〈1% of all records. Immature and maturing specimens were found year round, without significant differences between female monthly distributions (P 〉 0.05). No significant difference between sexes in the distribution of maturity stages with depth or position along the coast was noted (P≫0.05). During sexual maturation there was a significant increase (P 〈 0.05) in total amino acid, protein, lipid and fatty acid contents in the gonad, but the allocation of these organic compounds from digestive gland and muscle was not evident. In the three tissues analysed, the major fatty acids were 16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 20:1, 20:4n-6, 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3, the major essential amino acids were lysine, leucine and arginine and the major non-essential amino acids were glutamic acid, aspartic acid and serine.

Description: A visible pathological condition located in the arms and mantle of the Hubb octopus Octopus hubbsorum from the Northeast Pacific waters is described for the first time. Histological sections confirmed later stages (fibrosis) of a chronic inflammatory condition of unknown aetiology.

Description: Physiological studies have shown that the epidermal head and arm lines in cephalopods are a mechanoreceptive system that is similar to the fish and amphibian lateral lines (. A lateral line analogue in cephalopods: Water waves generate microphonic potentials in the epidermal head lines of Sepia officinalis and Lolliguncula brevis. J. Comp. Physiol. A 164:1–5.); however, the biological significance of the epidermal lines remains unclear. To test whether cuttlefish show behavioural responses to local water movements, juvenile Sepia officinalis were exposed to local sinusoidal water movements of different frequencies (0.01–1000 Hz) produced by a vibrating sphere. Five behavioural responses were recorded: body pattern changing, moving, burrowing, orienting, and swimming. Cuttlefish responded to a wide range of frequencies (20–600 Hz), but not to all of the frequencies tested within that range. No habituation to repeated stimuli was seen. Results indicate that cuttlefish can detect local water movements (most likely with the epidermal head and arm lines) and are able to integrate that information into behavioural responses.

Description: Sexual dimorphism in size and morphology of the lower beak of the warty onychoteuthid squid Moroteuthis ingens is analysed. Beaks of maturing males exhibit a band of weak, clear cartilage across the shoulder region, while mature males exhibit a pronounced excavation of this area; the hood remains intact. Female beaks attain greater size, but relatively shorter lower rostral lengths (LRL) than those of males; they display neither the shoulder cartilage nor later erosion, but the hood is consistently eroded in mature specimens. The angle ridge in females is considerably longer than in males. Due to the difference in LRL relative to overall beak size, M. ingens beaks from predator stomachs should be sexed prior to calculating prey size using LRL; for both sexes, the LRL‐mantle length (ML) relationship is linear while the LRL‐weight relationship is exponential. Sex‐specific equations are provided for reconstructing ML and weight using LRL. Based on several incidences of male‐female pairs collected with beaks interlocked, M. ingens is postulated to mate in a head‐to‐head position, with both individuals incurring beak damage during the event.

Description: Octopuses of the family Octopodidae adopt two major life-history strategies. The first is the production of relatively few, large eggs resulting in well-developed hatchlings that resemble the adults and rapidly adopt the benthic habit of their parents. The second strategy is production of numerous small eggs that hatch into planktonic, free-swimming hatchlings with few suckers, simple chromatophores and transparent musculature. These distinctive planktonic stages are termed paralarvae and differ from conspecific adults in their morphology, physiology, ecology and behaviour. This study aims to review available knowledge on this subject. In benthic octopuses with planktonic stages, spawning characteristics and duration of planktonic life seem to play an important role in their dispersal capacities. Duration of the hatching period of a single egg mass can range from 2 days to 11 wk, while duration of the planktonic stage can range from 3 wk to half a year, depending on the species and temperature. Thus these paralarvae possess considerable potential for dispersal. In some species, individuals reach relatively large sizes while living as part of the micronekton of oceanic, epipelagic waters. Such forms appear to delay settlement for an unknown period that is suspected to be longer than for paralarvae in more coastal, neritic waters. During the planktonic period, paralarval octopuses feed on crustaceans as their primary prey. In addition to the protein, critical to the protein-based metabolism of octopuses (and all cephalopods), the lipid and copper contents of the prey also appear important in maintaining normal growth. Littoral and oceanic fishes are their main predators and defence behaviours may involve fast swimming speeds, use of ink decoys, dive responses and camouflage. Sensory systems of planktonic stages include photo-, mechano- and chemoreceptors controlled by a highly evolved nervous system that follows the general pattern described for adult cephalopods. On settlement, a major metamorphosis occurs in morphology, physiology and behaviour. Morphological changes associated with the settlement process include positive allometric arm growth; chromatophore, iridophore and leucophore genesis; development of skin sculptural components and a horizontal pupillary response. At the same time, animals lose the Kölliker organs that cover the body surface, the ‘lateral line system’ and the oral denticles of the beaks. Strong positive phototaxis is a common response for hatchlings and some later paralarval stages but this response reduces, disappears or reverses after settlement. There are many gaps in our knowledge of the planktonic phases of benthic octopuses. Most of our understanding of octopus paralarvae comes from studies of just two species (Octopus vulgaris and Enteroctopus dofleini) and knowledge of the vast majority of benthic octopus species with planktonic stages is considered rudimentary or non-existent. Research is needed in a variety of fields, from taxonomy to ecology. Studies of feeding and nutrition are critical in order to develop the nascent aquaculture of key species and ageing studies are necessary to understand planktonic population dynamics,particularly in commercially valuable species targeted by fisheries. Current and potential anthropogenic impacts on these early life stages of octopuses, such as pollution, overfishing and global warming, are also identified.

Description: Reproductive features of the poorly known oceanic squid Octopoteuthis sicula are described and quantified to gain insight into the reproductive biology of the species. The data are based on 39 complete and partial specimens from southern African waters, collected between 1975 and 2005. The specimens ranged in mantle length from 38 mm to 290 mm and included juveniles and mature females and males. The species shows female-biased sexual size dimorphism. Ovulation is asynchronous, indicating a repeated spawning strategy. Males transfer spermatophores presumably by using their long terminal organ. Spermatangia (discharged spermatophores) were found implanted in several parts of the body in both females and males, including in the anterior dorsal and ventral rugose, semi-gelatinous mantle tissue of maturing and mature females. This modified mantle tissue was only well developed in females. The morphologies of the spermatophore and the spermatangium of O. sicula are described. The spermatophoric reaction is reconstructed, using various stages of discharge, to provide insight into the process of intradermal implantation of spermatangia of this species.

Description: To construct in situ velocity-porosity relationships for oceanic basalt, considering crack features, P- and S-wave velocity measurements on basaltic samples obtained from the eastern flank of the Juan de Fuca Ridge were carried out under confining pressures up to 40 MPa. Assuming that the changes in velocities with confining pressures are originated by micro-crack closure, we estimated micro-crack aspect ratio spectra using the Kuster-Toksöz theory. The result demonstrates that the normalised aspect ratio spectra of the different samples have similar characteristics. From the normalised aspect ratio spectrum, we then constructed theoretical velocity-porosity relationships by calculating an aspect ratio spectrum for each porosity. In addition, by considering micro-crack closure due to confining pressure, a velocity-porosity relationship as a function of confining pressure could be obtained. The theoretical relationships that take into account the aspect ratio spectra are consistent with the observed relationships for over 100 discrete samples measured at atmospheric pressure, and the commonly observed pressure dependent relationships for a wide porosity range. The agreement between the laboratory-derived data and theoretically estimated values demonstrates that the velocity-porosity relationships of the basaltic samples obtained from the eastern flank of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, and their pressure dependence, can be described by the crack features (i.e. normalised aspect ratio spectra) and crack closure.

Description: A long-synonymized species Benthoctopus normani (Massy 1907) (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae) is redescribed from material collected over 30 years by the National Oceanography Centre, Southampton and the National Museums of Scotland. It can be distinguished from other octopodid specimens found in deep waters of the Northeast Atlantic by its biserial suckers, lack of ink sac, and simple ligula, which lacks transverse ridges. Examination of the collections led to the identification of a new species of Benthoctopus from the Northeast Atlantic, which is described herein.

Description: We report data on the stomach contents of the long‐finned pilot whale, Globicephala melas, recovered from a group of whales stranded on Ruakaka Beach, northeastern New Zealand, in November 2006. In nine whales for which identifiable stomach contents were recovered (three that stranded on 10 November and six that stranded on 11 November) prey remains comprised exclusively cephalopod beaks attributed to five squid species. The stomachs of a further two whales contained unidentifiable upper beaks only, while the stomachs of five whales were completely empty. No whale appeared to have been satiated immediately before stranding, given that the maximum biomass of prey recently consumed by any one whale was calculated to be 〈5 kg. All squids ingested represented oceanic species, found from 50 to 1000 m but more common towards the deeper end of this range. These data both complement and contrast with the only other dietary information available for this species in New Zealand waters, reported from stomach contents of whales stranded on Farewell Spit, South Island in December 2005.

Description: Stomach contents of the long‐finned pilot whale, Globicephala melas, are reported for the first time from New Zealand waters. Analyses based on two male and three female whales (2.5–5.3 m in length) that stranded on Farewell Spit, Golden Bay, South Island in December 2005 revealed a diet comprised exclusively of cephalopods (2-33 lower cephalopod beaks per stomach). Two genera of cephalopod from two orders; arrow squid, Nototodarus spp. (Teuthoidea: Ommastrephidae), and common octopus, Pinnoctopus cordiformis (Octopoda: Octopodidae) were represented. A further five pilot whale stomachs were examined and found to be empty.

Description: Intra‐plate volcanism in western Europe shows statistically significant episodicity during the Quaternary period. By comparing the known ages for eruptions in France and Germany, which are compiled here, with a composite oxygen isotope record, we have investigated the link between this episodic volcanism and the climate record over the last two million years. We show that increased volcanism between 415–400 ka and 17–5 ka correlates with warming phases at the end of the last Weichselian (Devensian) and earlier Elsterian (Anglian) glacial stages. The three significant caldera explosions in the eastern Eifel, Germany, are all associated with warming phases at the onset of interglacials. The growth and decay of nearby ice sheets suggest that surface changes in continental mass distribution during glacial Milankovich cycles could provide a mechanism for this correlation by means of the distal effects of flexural loading on the lithosphere.

Description: An analysis of mass (M) and standard length (LS) data for larval, juvenile and adult sprat (Sprattus sprattus; Clupeidae) revealed marked changes in the allometric scaling factor (b in inline image). For sprat 〈44 mm LS, b was 5·0, whereas in larger juveniles and adults, b was c. 3·4 indicating a relatively protracted metamorphic period for this species.

Description: To investigate and disentangle the role of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)‐based ‘good genes' and ‘compatible genes' in mate choice, three‐spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus with specific MHC IIB genotypes were allowed to reproduce in an outdoor enclosure system. Here, fish were protected from predators but encountered their natural parasites. Mate choice for an intermediate genetic distance between parental MHC genotypes was observed, which would result in intermediate diversity in the offspring, but no mate choice based on good genes was found under the current semi‐natural conditions. Investigation of immunological variables revealed that the less‐specific innate immune system was more active in individuals with a genetically more divergent MHC allele repertoire. This suggests the need to compensate for an MHC‐diminished T‐cell repertoire and potentially explains the observed mate choice for intermediate MHC genetic distance. The present findings support a general pattern of mate choice for intermediate MHC diversity (i.e. compatible genes). In addition, the potentially dynamic role of MHC good genes in mate choice under different parasite pressures is discussed in the light of present and previous results.

Description: Individual behaviour of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua in the presence of hypoxic water was measured in situ in the vertically stratified Bornholm Basin of the Baltic Sea. Considering all recaptured individuals, the use of hypoxic habitat was comparable to data derived by traditional survey data, but some G. morhua had migrated towards the centre of the c.100 m deep basin and spent about a third of their time at oxygen saturation 〈50%, possibly to forage on zoobenthos. Maximal residence time per visit in such hypoxic water was limited to a few hours, allowing for the digestion of consumed prey items in waters with sufficient dissolved oxygen.

Description: The seasonal growth trajectories of wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar juveniles by age group within the Margaree River, Canada, are described. Circuli counts from scales were used to infer growth rates at different ages and these were used to predict the proportions of age 2‐ and 3‐year old smolts from different portions of the watershed. In the wild Atlantic salmon juveniles from the Margaree River, there was no bimodality in fork length frequencies and no 1 year old smolts were produced. Water temperature differences during the growing season were insufficient to explain the differences in growth rates and size at age among the sites sampled. There was a positive association between the growth rate in the first year and the subsequent age at smoltification. In the Margaree River, differences in tributary specific growth rates and size at age were expected to produce important differences in the relative ages at smoltification.

Description: This review about the genus Laminaria sensu lato summarizes the extensive literature that has been published since the overview of the genus given by Kain in 1979. The recent proposal to divide the genus into the two genera Laminaria and Saccharina is acknowledged, but the published data are discussed under a 'sensu lato' concept, introduced here. This includes all species which have been considered to be 'Laminaria' before the division of the genus. In detail, after an introduction the review covers recent insights into phylogeny and taxonomy, and discusses morphotypes, ecotypes, population genetics and demography. It describes growth and photosynthetic performance of sporophytes with special paragraphs on the regulation of sporogenesis, regulation by endogenous rhythms, nutrient metabolism, storage products, and salinity tolerance. The biology of microstages is discussed separately. The ecology of these kelps is described with a focus on stress defence against abiotic and biotic factors and the role of Laminaria as habitat, its trophic interactions and its competition is discussed. Finally, recent developments in aquaculture are summarized. In conclusion to each section, as a perspective and guide to future research, we draw attention to the remaining gaps in the knowledge about the genus and kelps in general.

Description: For many coastal areas of the world, a decrease in abundance and depth penetration of perennial macroalgae and seagrasses has been documented and attributed to eutrophication. A surplus of nutrients impairs perennial seaweeds in at least two ways: increased phytoplankton densities reduce the depth penetration of light and in addition filamentous seaweeds and microalgae growing epiphytically shade their perennial hosts. A reduction of depth limit and total abundance has also been observed for the brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus at many sites in the Baltic Sea. However, in most cases the mechanistic reason for the loss of Fucus has been deduced from observations rather than from experimental evidence. Here, we present results of a two-factorial (water depth/light supply and epibionts) experiment that was run in the Kiel Fjord, western Baltic, from August to October 2005. Performance of F. vesiculosus was recorded by growth and chlorophyll measurements, PI-curves and in situ measurements of the photosynthetic activity as the relative rate of electron transport (rETR). rETR and growth decreased with water depth. Chlorophyll a concentrations increased with reduced light intensities, but this apparently could not compensate for the light deficiency. Epibionts enhanced the negative effect of reduced light conditions on growth. According to these findings we estimated the physiological depth limit of F. vesiculosus in the Kiel Fjord to lie between 4 and 6 m water depth.

Description: This article analyzes the legal status of unmanned instruments (particularly, floats and gliders) for observation purposes in the ocean environment. These new kinds of instruments are being deployed by the thousands into the oceans, not the least as part of the Argo Project of the International Oceanographic Commission. Their uncontrolled drifting has raised legal questions, especially when such instruments enter waters subject to the jurisdiction of foreign states. The authors argue that the current international legal framework is insufficient to address the pertinent issues, and that a new legal regime is needed.

Description: Speciation and the maintenance of recently diverged species has been subject of intense research in evolutionary biology for decades. Although the concept of ecological speciation has been accepted, its mechanisms and genetic bases are still under investigation. Here, we present a mechanism for speciation that is orchestrated and strengthened by parasite communities acting on polymorphic genes of the immune system. In vertebrates, these genes have a pleiotropic role with regard to parasite resistance and mate choice. In contrasting niches, parasite communities differ and thus the pools of alleles of the adapted major histocompatibility complex (MHC) also differ between niches. Mate choice for the best‐adapted MHC genotype will favour local adaptations and will accelerate separation of both populations: thus immune genes act as pleiotropic speciation genes –‘magic traits’. This mechanism should operate not only in sympatric populations but also under allopatry or parapatry. Each individual has a small subset of the many MHC alleles present in the population. If all individuals could have all MHC alleles from the pool, MHC‐based adaptation is neither necessary nor possible. However, the typically small optimal individual number of MHC loci thus enables MHC‐based speciation. Furthermore, we propose a new mechanism selecting against species hybrids. Hybrids are expected to have super‐optimal individual MHC diversity and should therefore suffer more from parasites in all habitats.

Description: Precipitation and evaporation budgets over the Baltic Sea were studied in a concerted project called PEP in BALTEX (Pilot study of Evaporation and Precipitation in the Baltic Sea), combining extensive field measurements and modelling efforts. Eddy-correlation-measurements of turbulent heat flux were made on a semi-continuous basis for a 12 month period at four well-exposed coastal sites in the Baltic Proper (the main basin of the Baltic Sea). Precipitation was measured at land-based sites with standard gauges and on four merchant ships travelling between Germany and Finland with the aid of specially designed ship rain gauges (SRGs). The evaporation and precipitation regime of the Baltic Sea was modelled for a 12 month period by applying a wide range of numerical models: the operational atmospheric High Resolution Limited Area Model (HIRLAM, Swedish and Finnish versions), the German atmospheric REgional-scale MOdel, REMO, the operational German Europe Model (only precipitation), the oceanographic model PROBE-Baltic, and two models that use interpolation of ground-based data, the Swedish MESAN model of SMHI and a German model of IFM-GEOMAR Kiel. Modelled precipitation was compared with SRG measurements on board the ships. A reasonable correlation was obtained, but the regional-scale models and MESAN gave some 20% higher precipitation over the sea than is measured. Bulk parameterisation schemes for evaporation were evaluated against measurements. A constant value of C HN and C EN with wind speed, underestimated large fluxes of both sensible and latent heat flux. The limited area models do not resolve the influence of the height of the marine boundary layer in coastal zones and the entrainment (on the surface fluxes), which may explain the observed low correlations between modelled and measured latent heat fluxes. Estimates of evaporation, E, and precipitation, P, for the entire Baltic Proper were made with several models for a 12 month period. While the annual variation was well represented by all predictions, there are still important differences in the annual means. Evaporation ranges from 509 to 625 mm year−1 and precipitation between 624 and 805 mm year−1 for this particular 12 month period. Taking the results of model verification from the present study into account, the best estimate of P–E is about 100 ± 50 mm for this particular 12 month period. But the annual mean of P–E varies considerably from year to year. This is reflected in simulations with the PROBE-Baltic model for an 18 year period, which gave 95 mm year−1 for the 12 month period studied here and 32 mm year−1 as an average for 18 years.

Description: Human activities have differentially altered biogeochemical cycling at local, regional and global scales. We propose that a stoichiometric approach, examining the fluxes of multiple elements and the ratio between them, may be a useful tool for better understanding human effects on ecosystem processes and services. The different scale of impacts of the elements carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus and the different nature of their biogeochemical cycles, imply a large variation of their stoichiometric ratios in space and time and thus divergent impacts on biota. In this paper, we examine the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on nutrient ratios in ecosystems in two examples and one case study. Altered stoichiometry in agricultural systems (example 1) can affect not only crop yield and quality but also the interactions between plants and their pollinators, pests and pathogens. Human activities have also altered stoichiometry in coastal ecosystems (example 2). Increased N loading has especially lead to increased N:P and reduced Si:N ratios, with detrimental effects on ecosystem services derived from coastal pelagic food webs, such as fish yield and water quality. The terrestrial–aquatic linkage in stoichiometric alterations is illustrated with a case study, the Mississippi River watershed, where anthropogenic activities have caused stoichiometric changes that have propagated through the watershed into the northern Gulf of Mexico. Coupled with altered stoichiometric nutrient inputs are the inherent differences in variation and sensitivity of different ecosystems to anthropogenic disturbance. Furthermore, the connections among the components of a watershed may result in downstream cascades of disrupted functioning. Applying a multiple element perspective to understanding and addressing societal needs is a new direction for both ecological stoichiometry and sustainability.

Description: The deep-sea smelt Bathylagus euryops, caught in July 2004 at the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone (CGFZ) of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (North Atlantic), was studied for metazoan parasites and diet composition. A total of 86 specimens with standard lengths between 6.4 and 22.1 cm (mean 13.6 cm) were examined. The parasite fauna consisted of five species: three Digenea, one Cestoda and one Nematoda. The predominant parasites were Lecithaster sp. (Digenea) and an unidentified bothriocephalidean cestode. The only nematode, Anisakis sp., occurred with a low prevalence. Bathylagus euryops at CGFZ serves as final host for the three digeneans, and as intermediate host for the cestodes and Anisakis sp. Stomach content analysis revealed a mesozooplankton crustacean diet, while 95.3% of the stomachs contained unidentified tissue.

Description: A new method of generating two-dimensional and three-dimensional cloud fields is presented, which share several important statistical properties with real measured cloud fields.Well-known algorithms such as the Fourier method and the Bounded Cascade method generate fields with a specified Fourier spectrum. The new iterative method allows for the specification of both the power spectrum and the amplitude distribution of the parameter of interest, e.g. the liquid water content or liquid water path. As such, the method is well suited to generate cloud fields based on measured data, and it is able to generate broken cloud fields. Important applications of such cloud fields are e.g. closure studies. The algorithm can be supplied with additional spatial constraints which can reduce the number of measured cases needed for such studies. In this study the suitability of the algorithm for radiative questions is evaluated by comparing the radiative properties of cloud fields from cloud resolving models of cumulus and stratocumulus with their surrogate fields at nadir, and for a solar zenith angle of 0◦ and 60◦. The cumulus surrogate clouds ended up to be identical to the large eddy simulation (LES) clouds on which they are based, except for translations and reflections. The root mean square differences of the stratocumulus transmittance and reflectance fields are less than 0.03% of the radiative budget. The radiances and mean actinic fluxes fit better than 2%. These results demonstrate that these LES clouds are well described from a radiative point of view, using only a power spectrum together with an amplitude distribution.

Description: The Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) is the most studied basin in the Indian Ocean because of the Indian Manganese Nodules program. During the last two and half decades (and also on going), immense efforts have been made to investigate the nodule domain so as to locate the first generation nodule mine field. Over 4 million sq.km of the sea floor in the CIOB was surveyed using different samplers and echo sounders (single and multibeam). The basic requirement to identify the mine site was the abundance of the nodules (weight in kg/m2), grade of the nodule (i.e., combined percentage of Ni + Cu + Co) and the topography of the area. Various aspects related with nodules have been inspected resulting in a number of research publications, and a model derived for the growth and location of mineable ferromanganese deposits in the CIOB. Besides the ferromanganese deposits, this paper also deals with the physiographic features (seamounts, fracture zones), sediment types and on a variety of volcanics and hydrothermal materials recovered from the CIOB. It is inferred that the volcanics constitute an important part of the basin and have influenced the growth of the ferromanganese deposits. We observe that in the CIOB the presence of seamounts, types of volcanics, episodes of volcanism and altered products vis-à-vis the distribution of ferromanganese deposits are intrinsically woven and complement one another.