ALBERT

Notes: The purpose of the study was to investigate consumers’ perception of food packaging and its impact on food choices. The study population comprised 82 people who were ultimately consumers of packaged food products. The sample was drawn from six major supermarkets located in different geographical areas in Trinidad, West Indies. Data collection was carried out by using a questionnaire based on five topics: visual impact or attractiveness of the packaging; type of packaging material; labelling and nutritional information; new products; and fruit preserves. The packaging feature that influenced most of the respondents’ choice of products was information on the label (41.5%); it was followed by quality and type of packaging (24.4%), brand name/popularity (22.0%) and visual impact (12.2%). When asked if they would purchase a product that was most attractively packaged, 85.4% responded in the affirmative. Most respondents (92.7%) believed that packaging material could adversely affect the quality of performance of a food product. Also, 92.7% of respondents agreed that nutrition information should be shown on all food products, although 36.6% admitted that they do not read the label because of its complexity. Influence of gender was not significant (P 〈 0.05) on consumer perception of food packaging and on food choices. Although the sample was small, the data highlighted the need to educate consumers of packaged foods, so that informed decisions could be taken in respect to food quality, safety and nutrition.

Notes: Product placements in entertainment media are increasing, particularly in content targeted to adolescents. This marketing communication tactic is examined in the context of media socialization and individual differences in brand consciousness. The relative influence of commercial media (TV, radio, movies, online) and perceived peer and parent brand consciousness on US adolescent brand consciousness is assessed, as well as differences in how low and high brand-conscious adolescents view product placements. Awareness, liking and perceived effects of product placements on self and others (third-person perception) were measured. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses show that movies and perceived parent and peer brand consciousness were positively related to adolescent brand consciousness. Those adolescents considered to be highly brand-conscious were also those who were most aware of and favourable towards product placements. All adolescents demonstrated third-person perception of media effects in that they considered others to be more influenced by product placements than themselves, with peers influenced more than friends. Highly brand-conscious teens perceived the greatest effects of product placements on their own and others’ buying behaviours, yet low brand-conscious teens revealed the largest gap in perceptions of impact on self vs. peers. The results are discussed in view of media effects; ramifications for marketers and public policy makers are also appraised.

Notes: Consumer education is an integral part of the consumer empowerment mix. Over recent years the importance of consumer education as a vital tool for protecting consumers and making them better informed has been increasingly recognized in the UK. As part of the developing policy debate in the UK, the National Consumer Council (NCC), one of the key consumer champion bodies, has been arguing the case for a national strategy for consumer education. In order  to establish whether a national strategy was needed and, if so, how a strategy could be structured and introduced, the NCC carried out a national consultation. In excess of 100 responses were obtained from a very broad range of organizations. This paper provides a review of the secondary data gathered for the NCC research. It was found that although there are many organizations and networks involved in consumer education in the UK, it lacks focus, is fragmented and is not efficient or coordinated. The research highlighted a need for a strategic approach to place educated and empowered consumers at the heart of the marketplace.

Notes: Because employer-provided health coverage represents the main source of health insurance for Americans and its costs for employees are rising, accurate knowledge about health coverage would seem to be crucial for making sound decisions on choosing the plans that best meet the specific needs of a family. However, previous research suggests that most employees have little understanding of the scope and monetary value, or even the existence of many components of their health benefit package. This paper re-examines employees’ general financial learning efforts and knowledge level, and how they relate to participation in and importance attached to supplemental healthcare plans. We find that, while self-directed financial learning and general financial knowledge significantly predicted plan participation and the importance attached to them, demographic factors, such as gender, age and job classification, dominated the supplemental healthcare decisions.

Notes: The purpose of this study is to explore the factors that influence creative teaching and to find out what effective strategies are used by three award-winning teachers in the learning area of Integrated Activities. As creative thinking is crucial for the knowledge economy, it is essential that education serves its purpose in improving this important aspect. The methods used for data collection include in-depth interview, focus group interview, classroom observation and content analysis. Three teachers with a GreaTeach Creative Instruction Award for creative teaching in the Integrated Activities field were selected as subjects. Results were acquired by analysing the interview content, the teaching plans, teachers’ reflection and the classroom observation videotapes. The study found that: the factors influencing creative teaching in Integrative Activities are (a) personality traits: persistence, willingness to develop, acceptance of new experiences, self-confidence, sense of humour, curiosity, depth of ideas, imagination, etc.; (b) family factors: open and tolerant ways of teaching children, creative performance of parents, etc.; (c) experiences of growth and education: self-created games and stories, brainstorming between classmates, etc.; (d) beliefs in teaching, hard work, motivation and (e) the administrative side of school organization. Among these factors, beliefs in teaching, hard work and motivation are the main aspects. The effective teaching strategies used by the awarded teachers are: student-centred activities, a connection between teaching contents and real life, management of skills in class, open-ended questions, an encouragement of creative thinking and use of technology and multimedia. Integrated Activities are closely connected to life experience and a basis for the development of creative thinking within education.

Notes: Home economics and civics as school subjects in Japan have a common feature, in that both subjects nurture a sense of citizenship at home, in the workplace and in the wider society. In addition, both have the potential to help students recognize the gender bias around them and can empower them to help make a more gender-equal society. Focusing on this, the purpose of this report was to investigate home economics and civics teachers’ views, in order to analyse the features of the two subjects and the relationship between them. Questionnaires were sent to home economics and civics teachers of all the senior high schools in four prefectures around Japan in October 2001, and 357 samples were analysed. The results were as follows: (a) Home economics teachers and female teachers expressed more interest in lessons on gender than civics teachers and male teachers. Concerning lessons on citizenship, no statistical difference in teachers’ interest was found. (b) Topics on citizenship were learned in the fields of consumer, environment and social welfare issues in both subjects. More lessons were reported to take place in home economics than in civics. (c) In home economics, topics on gender were learned as core issues in the areas of family relations, family law and parenting. On the other hand, in family law, civics, topics on gender were taught as marginal issues in the area of basic human rights and labour issues. (d) Home economics teachers thought the goals of gender education were to empower students to overcome narrow gender roles and to strengthen self-respect. In contrast, civics teachers thought it would empower a sense of human rights. Concerning citizenship education, teachers of both home economics and civics thought the goals would enable students to recognize social problems as their own issues and try to solve them.

Notes: This paper reports the results of the estimation of a linear approximate almost ideal demand system for Jordan meat demand using cross-sectional data collected by the Department of Statistics in Jordan as part of the household expenditure survey. A censored regression method for the system of equation is used to analyse the meat consumption patterns. This method allows for inclusion of a large number of zero consumption for some foods. Two-step demand system was estimated. In the first stage, Inverse Mill Ratio is estimated by using probit regression model. In the second stage, the estimated variable is included in the AIDS model to estimate food demand elasticities. The objective of this work is to provide econometric estimates of the different types of demand elasticities for meats in Jordan. To be consistent with the demand theory, the homogeneity, symmetry and adding up restrictions were satisfied in the estimated models. The estimated model was used to obtain estimates of Hicksian, Marshallian and expenditure demand elasticities for meats in Jordan. The results revealed that the demand for mutton and poultry is elastic while the demand for beef and fish is inelastic. The cross-price elasticities indicate that poultry and beef are substitutes to mutton. The expenditure elasticities confirm that beef and mutton are luxury goods while poultry and fish are necessity goods.

Notes: A new programme of general family and consumer science for all high school students that can contribute to career education was proposed. The programme had three sessions: ‘single life’, ‘family life’ and ‘retired life’ from the typical three main life stages. Students were challenged to think about their future with regard to real life issues such as housing, location, budgeting time and finances, and family issues. Students were able to consider their future life concretely and specifically from various viewpoints after taking part in this programme. Students also found value in home economics education in developing life skills and knowledge, in considering their actual life and in considering their future life.

Notes: Despite the growth of the Internet, one area that has not really been discussed is the elderly's use of the Internet. Given the rapid growth of this population as well as the potential the Internet holds for them, it is a subject worth consideration. However, seniors cannot be defined simply by their chronological age, but by their cognitive age. This paper discusses the impact of cognitive age of a national random sample of American elderly consumers on their Internet use. The results suggest that those seniors with a younger cognitive age use the Internet more than those seniors with an older cognitive age. Additionally, seniors with a younger cognitive age have more social contact off-line (but not online) than those seniors with an older cognitive age. Finally, in terms of demographic variables, chronological age is positively associated with cognitive age and women report a younger cognitive age than men. These results suggest that for policy makers interested in increasing the participation of seniors, they can utilize the Internet to reach those who are younger in terms of cognitive age; however, they will not be able to reach all seniors in this manner and they need to utilize the Internet as a complementing media to their traditional communication sources.

Notes: Biotechnology stands out as a clear-cut example of an industry where legislation on new technologies has been shown to be linked with public attitudes. Indeed, consumer consultation has played a leading role in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) food as well as in government policy and legislation. This paper examines the issue of consumer consultation by analysing how public opinion has conditioned the acceptance of GM food in the European Union in general and specifically in Spain and the UK. We draw upon the evidence of two Eurobarometer surveys (46.1 and 52.1) to argue that consumer decision making on new technologies is an information-dependent factor explaining consumer rejection to non-transparent introduction of GM food. Individuals feel ill-prepared to make decisions and rely on trusted information advisors such as consumer organizations. Findings suggest significant information dependency as well as widespread heterogeneity in attitudes towards the applications of biotechnology. Finally, the role played by information channels indicates that consumer participation should precede the adoption of communication policies, as they might need to adapt to the specific cultural characteristics of each country.

Notes: In the fashion industry, one of the most important things is to accurately analyse the consumers’ emotional response to current fashion trends and to forecast trends for the forthcoming season based on the analysed results. In this study, it  was  assumed  that  a  more  accurate  trend-forecasting  for a market would be possible, if the fluctuation of consumer emotion could be represented on a kind of macroscopic model of recent fashion trends. For an exploratory attempt to acquire such macroscopic information on trends, this research aimed to (1) propose a systematic method to derive a macroscopic model on trends on the basis of consumer emotion; and (2) develop a macroscopic model on recent fashion trends, applying the method. This research was based on three assumptions: (1) Fashion trend is a representation of change in consumers’ emotions; (2) A linguistic representation can be a useful medium to access consumers’ emotions; and (3) Consumers’ emotions can be represented as a concrete model. As a method of developing the macroscopic model, a five-step procedure was proposed and executed in this research. According to the five-step procedure, a total of four surveys were serially conducted and the data sets were analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. As a result, a two-dimensional macroscopic model on recent fashion trend was developed, in which 79 major emotion descriptors were positioned and categorized into 14 subgroups. ‘artificial-natural’ (for the first dimension) and ‘simple-complicated’ (for the second dimension) appeared as the two-dimensional axes passing through the macroscopic model on recent fashion trends. The 14 subgroups in the model corresponded to the main themes of recent fashion trends reported in the literature on fashion.

Notes: Nutrition is important for both healthy and sick people. Unfortunately for sick people, especially those living with HIV/AIDS, the emphasis has mostly been on drugs at the expense of nutritional aspects. People living with HIV/AIDS and related diseases need a lot of protein and energy-rich foods together with vitamins and minerals. Fish are particularly rich in these nutrients. In Malawi, fish are harvested in large numbers and to avoid deterioration, some are smoked, sun dried or partially boiled and then sun dried. Since the nutrient contents of the fresh and processed fish may differ, a study was carried out on four different fresh and processed fish species (Copadichromis inornatus, Rhamphochromis ferox, Engraulicypris sardella and Oreochromis lidole) in order to determine which species was the more nutritive. The results showed that E. sardella and C. inornatus species, fresh or processed, had relatively higher (P 〈 0.001) protein content (58.22 ± 0.6% and 57.78 ± 0.7% respectively), fat (25.2 ± 1.2 and 22.08 ± 0.4% respectively), energy (24086.7 ± 151.7 J/g and 22204.9 ± 84.7 J/g respectively) than either R. ferox or O. lidole. Although the R. ferox species had lower protein, fat and energy than E. sardella or C. inornatus, this species had higher available lysine content. Calcium and magnesium contents of E. sardella and C. inornatus were however, slightly lower (P 〈 0.001) than those of the other two species. There were variations between and within the species for all parameters analysed. The results obtained in this work suggest that people living with HIV/AIDS in Malawi can best build their muscle and get more energy and minerals from the E. sardella and C. inornatus fish species. It would therefore be recommended that appropriate technologies for improving the availability and productivity of such fish should be developed and tested for people living with HIV/AIDS or affected households. However, it is suggested that a larger group of the commonly available fish species should be analysed so as to offer a wider choice to consumers.

Notes: 1 We have investigated the actions of the α1D-adrenoceptor selective antagonist BMY 7378 in comparison with yohimbine at α1- and α2-adrenoceptors. 2 In rat aorta (α1D-adrenoceptor), BMY 7378 (pA2 of 8.67) was about 100 times more potent than yohimbine (pA2 of 6.62) at antagonizing the contractile response to noradrenaline. 3 In human saphenous vein (α2C-adrenoceptor), BMY 7378 (pA2 of 6.48) was approximately 10 times less potent than yohimbine (pA2 of 7.56) at antagonizing the contractile response to noradrenaline. 4 In prostatic portions of rat vas deferens, BMY 7378 (10 μm) did not significantly affect the concentration-dependent inhibition of single pulse nerve stimulation-evoked contractions by xylazine (an action at prejunctional α2D-adrenoceptors). 5 In ligand-binding studies, BMY 7378 showed 10-fold selectivity for α2C-adrenoceptors (pKi of 6.54) over other α2-adrenoceptors. 6 It is concluded that BMY 7378, in addition to α1D-adrenoceptor selectivity in terms of α1-adrenoceptors, shows selectivity for α2C-adrenoceptors in terms of α2-adrenoceptors.

Notes: 1 To investigate anti-inflammatory activity of organic germanium, we measured the effect of germanium-concentrated yeast on arachidonic acid release, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production, histamine release, and intracellular H2O2 or hydroperoxide generation in RBL 2H3 cells, and carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats. 2 Germanium-concentrated yeast dose-dependently inhibited carrageenan-induced paw oedema, suggesting that germanium-concentrated yeast has anti-inflammatory activity in acute inflammation. 3 Germanium-concentrated yeast significantly inhibited melittin-induced arachidonic acid release and PGE2 production in RBL 2H3 cells. 4 Germanium-concentrated yeast did not affect melittin-induced histamine release and silica-induced intracellular H2O2 or hydroperoxide generation in RBL 2H3 cells. 5 These results suggest that anti-inflammatory activity of germanium-concentrated yeast appears partly to be related to the inhibition of arachidonic acid release and PGE2 production in RBL 2H3 cells.

Notes: 1 The pressor action of noradrenaline and its blockade by selective α1-adrenoceptor antagonists in the pithed mouse were evaluated. 2 Chloroethylclonidine (α1B/D-adrenoceptor alkylating agent) or BMY 7378 (α1D-adrenoceptor antagonist), both at 1 mg kg−1, did not block the increase in blood pressure induced by noradrenaline. 3 5-Methylurapidil (α1A-adrenoceptor antagonist), at 0.1 mg kg−1, displaced the dose–response curve approximately six-fold to the right. 4 The results support the idea that the pithed mouse vasculature express α1A-adrenoceptors and suggest that it is a good model to study the roles of α1-adrenoceptors in gene knockout or overexpression.

Notes: 1 The aim of this paper was to determine the different signalling cascades involved in contraction of the rat urinary bladder detrusor muscle mediated via muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (muscarinic AChR). Contractile responses, phosphoinositides (IPs) accumulation, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and cyclic GMP (cGMP) production were measured to determine the reactions associated with the effect of cholinergic agonist carbachol. The specific muscarinic AChR subtype antagonists and different inhibitors of the enzymatic pathways involved in muscarinic receptor-dependent activation of NOS and cGMP were tested. 2 Carbachol stimulation of M3 and M4 muscarinic AChR increased contractility, IPs accumulation, NOS activity and cGMP production. All of these effects were selectively blunted by 4-DAMP and tropicamide, M3 and M4 antagonists respectively. 3 The inhibitors of phospholipase C (PLC), calcium/calmodulin (CaM), neuronal NOS (nNOS) and soluble guanylate cyclase, but not of protein kinase C and endothelial NOS (eNOS), inhibited the carbachol action on detrusor contractility. These inhibitors also attenuated the muscarinic receptor-dependent increase in cGMP and activation of NOS. 4 In addition, sodium nitroprusside and 8-bromo-cGMP, induced negative relaxant effect. 5 The results obtained suggest that carbachol activation of M3 and M4 muscarinic AChRs, exerts a contractile effect on rat detrusor that is accompanied by an increased production of cGMP and nNOS activity. The mechanism appears to occur secondarily to stimulation of IPs turnover via PLC activation. This in turn, triggers cascade reactions involving CaM, leading to activation of nNOS and soluble guanylate cyclase. They, in turn, exert a modulator inhibitory cGMP-mediated mechanism limiting the effect of muscarinic AChR stimulation of the bladder.

Notes: 1 The objective was to investigate a possible contribution of a nerve-derived hyperpolarizing factor to the differences between non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) nerve-mediated relaxations in different states of active tone in the rat gastric fundus. 2 NANC relaxations induced by electrical field stimulation (ES: 0.1, 0.5 and 1 Hz; 25 V; 1 ms; 10 s) in 40% contracted strips (S40) were greater when compared with those in 80% contracted strips (S80). 3 ES-induced relaxations were effectively attenuated by Nω-nitro-l-arginine (l-NNA; 100 μm) in S40 and S80. Percentage reduction of the responses obtained in the presence of l-NNA in S40 group was less than that of S80. 4 In S40 group, nifedipine (0.5–1 μm) and verapamil (0.5–1 μm) inhibited the responses to 0.1 and 0.5 Hz. Nifedipine (1 μm) and verapamil (0.5 μm) caused no change in the responses to ES in S80. 5 In S40, when l-NNA (100 μm) and nifedipine or verapamil, either in 1 μm concentration, were administered together, the inhibition on the electrical relaxations were more than that of each drug alone. 6 In conclusion, NANC nerve-mediated relaxations are increased when studied in an active state of 40%, and a factor, sensitive to nifedipine seems to be responsible for this distinction.

Notes: 1 Experiments were carried out to characterize the possible adrenergic properties of the 5-HT1A antagonists WAY 100635 and MM-77 using the mouse isolated vasa deferentia preparation. 2 When vasa deferentia were preincubated for 10 min in the presence of MM-77 (10−8–10−6 m) or WAY100635 (10−8–7 × 10−7 m), a concentration-dependent inhibition of the contractile response to submaximal electrical field stimulation (10 Hz, 50 V, 50 ms) was observed with pIC50 values of 7.05 ± 0.01 and 6.85 ± 0.1 respectively. 3 MM-77 (10−8–10−6 m) antagonized the contractile responses of the vasa deferentia to phenylephrine (PE) (10−6–10−3 m) in a concentration-dependent manner. Schild plots of these data were linear and yielded a mean ρA2 value of 6.81 ± 0.084. The mean slope was 1.42 ± 0.22. 4 WAY100635 (10−8–10−6 m) antagonized the contractile responses of the vasa deferentia to PE (10−6–10−3 m) in a concentration-dependent manner. Schild plots of these data were linear and yielded a mean ρA2 value of 7.05 ± 0.08. The mean slope was 0.97 ± 0.1. 5 The results suggest that while WAY100635 acts as a competitive antagonist at α1-adrenoceptors, MM-77 displays non-competitive antagonist characteristics at this receptor subtype. 6 These results may have important implications for the use of these compounds as 5-HT1A receptor antagonists in in vivo studies.

Notes: 1 The aim of the present study was to examine the modulator influence of muscarinic M2 receptors on responses of rat urinary bladder detrusor muscle evoked by endogenous stimuli, i.e. by stimulation of the bladder innervation. 2 Responses were evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS; 2–20 Hz, 0.8 ms, 60 V) of isolated strip preparations mounted in organ baths. The tension of the muscle strips was recorded digitally. EFS was performed by applying stimulation with either a short duration (5 s) or a longer duration (to reach peak response; approximately 20 s). 3 Effects of muscarinic receptor antagonists (muscarinic M1/M3 receptor selective: 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methobromide (4-DAMP); muscarinic M2 receptor selective: methoctramine), a β-adrenergic antagonist (propranolol) and an adenosine receptor antagonist (8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline) were assessed on contractile activity and on poststimulatory relaxations. 4 Low concentrations of methoctramine (10−8 m) reduced or tended to reduce the EFS-induced contraction, e.g. at 2 Hz by 12% while methoctramine at 10−7 m had no significant effect. In addition, in the presence of 4-DAMP (10−9 m), which tended to inhibit contractions at all frequencies (2–20 Hz; −17 to −25%), methoctramine at 10−8 and 10−7 m induced a further reduction of the contractile responses (−5 to −10%; 2–20 Hz). 5 The β-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol (10−6 m) and the adenosine receptor antagonist 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline (10−6 m) both increased contractile responses by 9–21% (2–10 Hz, long duration; P 〈 0.05–0.001) as a consequence of antagonizing relaxatory stimuli. Neither antagonist affected the contractile responses to EFS with the short duration stimulation. Poststimulatory relaxations were reduced by 30–60% (P 〈 0.05) by propranolol and by 40–60% (P 〈 0.001) by 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline, but for 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline only after stimulation with the short duration. 6 In the presence of methoctramine (10−7 m), the 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline-induced increases of the contractile response to long duration EFS were significantly enhanced at 10 Hz (+12 ± 4%; P 〈 0.05), whereas no such enhancement of the propranolol inhibitory effect occurred in the presence of methoctramine. However, poststimulatory β-adrenoceptor-evoked relaxations after short duration EFS were increased by about 35% in the presence of methoctramine, but not those after long duration. 7 Thus, muscarinic M2 receptor activation inhibits adenosine receptor- and β-adrenoceptor-evoked relaxations of the rat detrusor muscle. The inhibition occurs via a transient postjunctional mechanism that mainly affects responses with a short latency.

Notes: 1 To clarify the effects of doxapram on the baroreflex, we recorded carotid sinus nerve (CSN) activity in isolated and perfused carotid artery bifurcations of rabbits. 2 The CSN activity due to chemoreceptor stimulation was blocked by resection of the nerve branches from the carotid body. After the resection, the CSN activity was correlated to increase of carotid sinus (CS) pressure. 3 Administration of doxapram reduced the CSN activity originating from baroreceptors. The effect of doxapram on baroreceptors was dose dependent and reversible. 4 It is unlikely that doxapram altered CS wall mechanics because CS pressure did not change in the presence of the drug. 5 We conclude that doxapram acts on the cardiovascular system in part by inhibiting the negative feedback loop that originates in CS baroreceptors.

Notes: 1 Cardiac glycosides have been used for centuries as therapeutic agents for the treatment of heart diaseases. In patients with heart failure, digoxin and the other glycosides exert their positive inotropic effect by inhibiting Na+–K+-ATPase, thereby increasing intracellular sodium, which, in turn, inhibits the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and increases intracellular calcium levels. As the therapeutic index of digitalis is narrow, arrhythmias are common problems in clinical practice. The mechanisms and mediators of these arrhythmias, however, are not completely understood. 2 The involvement of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system in digitalis cardiac toxicity is reviewed. 3 Receptors, channels, exchange systems or other cellular components involved in digitalis-induced cardiotoxicity are also reviewed. 4 Possible mediators of digitalis-induced cardiac toxicity are discussed. 5 Management of digitalis toxicity in patients is summarized. 6 The determination of the possible mediators of digitalis-induced cardiac toxicity will enhance our knowledge and lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies to treat these lethal arrhythmias.

Notes: 1 Microinjection of peptide YY (PYY) (0.23–2.3 nmol) into the posterior hypothalamic nucleus (PHN) of conscious rats evokes a dose-dependent pressor response and a bradycardia. 2 The increase in mean arterial pressure evoked by 2.3 nmol of PYY was not blocked by intravenous pretreatment with: (i) the nicotinic ganglionic receptor antagonist pentolinium (PENT, 10 mg kg−1) alone, or in combination with the muscarinic receptor antagonist methylatropine (MeATR, 1 mg kg−1); (ii) the α1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (PRAZ, 0.2 mg kg−1); (iii) the V1-vasopressin receptor antagonist [d(CH2)5Tyr(Me)]AVP (AVPX, 20 μg kg−1); (iv) the combination of AVPX, PENT and MeATR; (v) the combination of PRAZ, AVPX, PENT, MeATR, and the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine (0.3 mg kg−1); or (vi) the angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist ZD 7155 (1 mg kg−1). 3 Adrenal demedullation inhibited the PYY-evoked responses of drug-naïve rats, and rats pretreated with the combination of PENT, MeATR and AVPX. 4 Transection of the splanchnic nerve innervating the adrenal medullae attenuated the bradycardia, as did ZD 7155, but not the PYY-evoked pressor response. 5 Systemic pretreatment of rats with the neuropeptide Y1 receptor antagonist BIBP 3226 (1 mg kg−1) blocked the PYY-evoked cardiovascular changes, but not those evoked by microinjection of carbachol (5.5 nmol) into the PHN. 6 These results suggest that the cardiovascular changes evoked from the PHN by PYY requires the presence of the adrenal medullae, which are stimulated by: (i) a hormone to release an NPY-like substance that evokes the pressor response, and (ii) the splanchnic nerve to evoke the release of a substance that results in the bradycardia.

Notes: 1 We examined whether extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) affect the basal level of cardiovascular parameters and influence of drugs acting on the sympathetic nervous system. 2 Male rats were exposed to sham control and EMF (60 Hz, 20 G) for 1 (MF-1) or 5 days (MF-5). We evaluated the alterations of blood pressure (BP), pulse pressure (PP), heart rate (HR), and the PR interval, QRS interval and QT interval on the electrocardiogram and dysrhythmic ratio in basal level and dysrhythmia induced by β-adrenoceptor agonists. 3 In terms of the basal levels, there were no statistically significant differences among control, MF-1 and MF-5 in PR interval, QRS interval, mean BP, HR and PP. However, the QT interval, representing ventricular repolarization, was significantly reduced by MF-1 (P 〈 0.05). 4 (−)-Dobutamine (β1-adrenoceptor-selective agonist)-induced tachycardia was significantly suppressed by ELF-EMF exposure in MF-1 for the increase in HR (ΔHR), the decrease in QRS interval (ΔQRS) and the decrease in QT (ΔQT) interval. Adrenaline (nonselective β-receptor agonist)-induced dysrhythmia was also significantly suppressed by ELF-EMF in MF-1 for the number of missing beats, the dysrhythmic ratio, and the increase in BP and PP. 5 These results indicated that 1-day exposure to ELF-EMF (60 Hz, 20 G) could suppress the increase in HR by affecting ventricular repolarization and may have a down-regulatory effect on responses of the cardiovascular system induced by sympathetic agonists.

Notes: 1 Cyclic AMP formation has consistently been reported to be desensitized in various tissues including heart of animal models of end-stage renal failure (ESRF). In contrast, reports on desensitization of cAMP formation in ESRF patients remain contradictory. Whether this discrepancy results from a difference between human ESRF and its animal models or from the use of circulating blood cells in the human and various solid tissues in the animal studies, remains unclear. Therefore, we performed three studies with heart and platelets of ESRF patients undergoing haemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and age- and gender-matched controls with normal renal function (n = 11–13 each). 2 In platelets from haemodialysis patients adenylyl cyclase activity in response to receptor-dependent and -independent agonists was reduced by ≈30%, and this could be explained by an alteration at the level of adenylyl cyclase itself. However, no such desensitization was seen in platelets from peritoneal dialysis patients. 3 In hearts from ESRF patients undergoing haemodialysis, β-adrenoceptor density and subtype distribution, cAMP formation in response to the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoprenaline or various receptor-independent stimuli, were very similar to those in control patients but activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase was increased by ≈20%. 4 We conclude that conflicting reports on the desensitization of cAMP formation between ESRF patients and ESRF animal models are not explained by the use of solid tissues in animal studies vs. circulating blood cells in patient studies. Rather desensitization of cAMP formation seems to be a less consistent feature of human ESRF than of its animal models.

Notes: This paper contributes to the established literature on fiscal consolidations by investigating the distinct behaviour of central and sub-central tiers of government during general government consolidation attempts. In the light of different degrees of decentralisation across OECD countries, and the different responsibilities devolved to sub-central tiers, we believe that this approach offers an illuminating insight into the analysis of fiscal consolidations and their success.We show that the involvement of the sub-central tiers of government is crucial to achieving cuts in expenditure, particularly in relation to the overall size of the government wage bill. In addition, central governments appear to exert a strong influence on the expenditure of sub-central tiers through their grant allocations, and control of these allocations appears to have a considerable impact upon the overall success of consolidation attempts. Finally, we demonstrate that there is a skewness in cuts towards sub-central capital expenditure both when central governments cut grant allocations and when sub-central governments engage in lone consolidation attempts.

Notes: Regional grants have recently come under scrutiny and are controversial. Some estimates put the employment effect of these grants at no more than 6,000 jobs in the first half of the 1990s, against expenditure of £500 million. Other aspects of the grants are questioned, such as their ability to attract foreign direct investment and their effect on productivity. This paper reviews these issues, focusing on the recent evidence for the Regional Selective Assistance scheme. It describes the nature and difficulties involved in policy evaluation, and finds that differences over the employment effect of the grants result from possible biases induced by the evaluation methodology and from differences in the job measure used. Overall, the paper argues that the regional grants are cost-effective in employment terms, but that expenditure is small relative to the scale of the problem, so that an expansion of the grants may be desirable.

Notes: One of the main problems in pension policy is to develop an institutional framework that guarantees that public and private pensions promises are kept. This paper discusses how the governance of public and private pensions is key to making such promises credible. It argues that credibility concerns undermine the case for earnings-related pensions run by the state and private defined benefit plans.

Notes: We develop a simulation model of household behaviour in which both the consumption/saving and labour/leisure choices are endogenous. This model is used to explore the effects of the UK and Danish state tax and benefit systems on the labour supply of workers aged 50 or over. We find that, in broad terms, differences in labour force participation can be accounted for by differences in benefit structures. Furthermore, our simulations suggest that the UK system is preferred by young people while the Danish arrangement – which imposes a larger tax burden and provides larger welfare benefits – is chosen by people of 50 or older. Notably, people older than 60 are in the majority in the simulated population. The Danish system does not promote notably greater equality over the lifetime, but it does underpin a higher level of consumption for people of 50 or older.

Notes: 1 Our aim was to study the role of nitric oxide (NO) and arachidonic acid pathways in the α1-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction in mesenteric resistance arteries from 3–4 and 22 to 23-month-old Sprague-Dawley rats. 2 The expression of NO synthase (NOS), cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms, soluble guanylate cyclase, superoxide dismutase and the NAD(P)H oxidase subunits p22phox and p47phox were determined. 3 The NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, a non-selective NOS inhibitor, shifted to the left but indomethacin and NS 398, non-selective and selective COX-2 inhibitors, shifted to the right the concentration-response curve for the vasoconstriction by phenylephrine in both age groups. 4 Ageing up-regulated endothelial NOS and p22phox expression but did not modify COX, soluble guanylate cyclase, superoxide dismutase and p47phox expression. 5 These data suggest that the observed enhancement of eNOS protein expression could constitute a compensatory mechanism to counter-regulate a chronic loss of NO possibly through increased superoxide anion production from NAD(P)H oxidase induced by age.

Notes: 1 The effect of WAY 405 ((R)-N-(2-methyl-(4-indolyl-1-piperazinyl)ethyl)-N-(2-pyridinyl) cyclohexane carboxamide), a putative 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, on cardiovascular function was studied. 2 In anaesthetized rats, the i.v. injection of WAY 405 did not significantly modify basal heart rate nor blood pressure at doses of 1, 3, 10 and 30 μg kg−1; while the antagonist dose dependently antagonized the 5-HT1A receptor agonist, 8-OH-DPAT (8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin)-induced hypotension and bradycardia. 3 WAY 405 antagonized noradrenaline-induced contraction in isolated arteries, with pKB values of 6.6 ± 0.1, 6.5 ± 0.1 and 6.5 ± 0.1, for rat tail artery (α1A-adrenoceptors), rabbit aorta (α1B-adrenoceptors), and rat aorta (α1D-adrenoceptors) respectively. 4 The results show that in the control of blood pressure the new compound, WAY 405, behaves as a silent 5-HT1A receptor antagonist in the anaesthetized rat, also having low affinity for vascular α1-adrenoceptors.

Notes: 1 Chronic cold exposure of rats (7 days in a cold room at 4 °C) attenuated the sympathetic nerve stimulation (NS)-induced overflow of noradrenaline (NE) (measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, coupled to electrochemical detection) appearing in the perfusate/superfusate of the perfused mesenteric arterial bed as well as the increase in the perfusion pressure. 2 The same type of cold exposure resulted in an increase in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene expression measured in the superior cervical ganglion and NE content measured in the mesenteric artery obtained from cold-exposed rats. 3 Addition of sodium nitroprusside, a nitric oxide (NO) donor, to the buffer perfusing the mesenteric arterial bed obtained from rats maintained at room temperature also resulted in an attenuation of the NS-induced overflow of NE and increase in perfusion pressure. 4  N c-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), an NO synthase inhibitor, placed in the drinking water prevented the attenuation of the pre- and post-junctional responses to NS of the mesenteric arterial bed obtained from cold-exposed rats. 5  l-NAME treatment also increased the cold-induced elevation of blood pressure seen in whole animals. 6 The present results are consistent with the idea that cold exposure leads to a concomitant increase in sympathetic nerve activity and production of NO. We hypothesize that the increase in production and release of NO results in a decrease in the biologically active form of NE despite increased synthesis and release of the catecholamine. 7 It is concluded that the above-mentioned interactions serve as a protective mechanism offsetting the increased release and action of NE from sympathetic nerves and thus preventing the development of hypertension.

Notes: 1 G-protein-coupled receptor signalling, including transactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), has been implicated in vascular pathology. However, the role of specific RTKs in the development of diabetes-induced cardiovascular complications is not known. 2 We investigated the ability of a chronic administration of genistein, a broad-spectrum inhibitor of tyrosine kinases (TKs), AG1478, a specific inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) TK activity, and AG825, a specific inhibitor of Erb2, to modulate the altered vasoreactivity of isolated carotid artery ring segments to common vasoconstrictors and vasodilators in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. 3 In diabetic carotid artery, the vasoconstrictor responses induced by noradrenaline (NE), endothelin-1 (ET-1), and angiotensin II (Ang II), were significantly increased whereas vasodilator responses to carbachol and histamine were significantly reduced. Inhibition of TKs, EGFR or Erb2 pathway did not affect the body weight or agonist-induced vasoconstrictor and vasodilator responses in the non-diabetic control animals. However, inhibition of TKs by genistein, EGFR TK by AG1478 or Erb2 by AG825 treatment produced a significant normalization of the altered agonist-induced vasoconstrictor responses without affecting blood glucose levels. Treatment with diadzein, an inactive analogue of genistein, did not affect the vasoconstrictor and vasodilator responses in the diabetic animals. 4 Treatment with genistein, AG1478 or AG825 resulted in a significant improvement in diabetes-induced impairment in endothelium-dependent relaxation to carbachol and histamine. 5 These data suggest that activation of TK-mediated pathways, including EGFR TK signalling and Erb2 pathway, are involved in the development of diabetic vascular dysfunction in the carotid artery.

Notes: The UK Pension Protection Fund (PPF), established by the 2004 Pensions Act to protect beneficiaries of defined benefit pension schemes when the sponsor becomes insolvent and the scheme is underfunded, is required to finance itself through a levy on participating schemes. In July 2005, the PPF issued a consultative document setting out its proposal for the structure of the levy. In this paper, we provide a critique of the proposal and, in particular, its heavy reliance on securing levy income from the weakest schemes. We propose an alternative structure for the levy that recognises the limits on capacity to pay and also mitigates some other undesirable features of the proposal.

Notes: There are two overriding problems faced by ageing societies. One is the financing of public pension (social security in US terms) programmes. The other is paying for healthcare. This paper considers the healthcare issue briefly, emphasising that the issue arises primarily because of advances in medical technology. Better medical technology will improve healthcare in the future, but more advanced technologies also cost more. The focus of the rest of the paper is on the public pension problem. The emphasis is on the early retirement incentives inherent in the provisions of most public pension programmes around the world, the reduction in the labour force participation of older people caused by these incentives, and the large fiscal implication of the inducement of older people to leave the labour force. These results are based on the Gruber–Wise ongoing international social security comparison project.

Notes: Unlike many tax and benefit changes, reforms to public pension programmes take many years to have their full effect. This paper examines the effect of reforms to the public pension programme in the United Kingdom on the state retirement incomes of current generations of pensioners and on the prospective state incomes of future generations of pensioners. We show that, for an individual with lifetime earnings close to male average earnings, the UK pension system is at its most generous to those reaching the state pension age around the year 2000, but that the introduction of the state second pension and the pension credit postpones this peak for individuals on lower incomes and for those with substantial periods out of paid employment spent with caring responsibilities. We also consider how the ‘mix’ of benefits, particularly between the contributory and income-tested sectors, could change over time, and the impact that this would have on incentives to save for retirement.

Notes: 1  The aim of the current study was to investigate the existence of P2Y4 purinergic receptors in the HT-29 human colon cancer cell line. 2  We utilized Western blots and immunocytochemistry for the analysis. 3  Western blotting demonstrated two bands that could not be found after the antibody had been preabsorbed with the control peptide, suggesting that both bands are related to the P2Y4 purinergic receptor. 4  Immunocytochemistry showed immunoreactivity for the P2Y4 purinergic receptor localized in the cytoplasm of the HT-29 cells. 5  This is the first demonstration of the protein expression of P2Y4 purinergic receptors in a human colon cancer cell line.

Notes: 1 The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of inhibition of the formation of cytochrome P450 metabolites of arachidonic acid with 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) on the development of hypertension and end-organ damage in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) chronically treated with nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor l-NAME (SHR-l-NAME). 2 Administration of l-NAME in drinking water (80 mg l−1) to SHR for 3 weeks significantly elevated mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) (223 ± 4 mmHg) as compared to SHR controls drinking regular water (165 ± 3 mmHg). The administration of ABT (50 mg kg−1 i.p. alt diem) for 6 days significantly attenuated elevation of blood pressure in SHR-l-NAME (204 ± 4 mmHg). 3 l-NAME-induced increase in urine volume and protein was significantly lower in ABT-treated animals. 4 The impaired vascular responsiveness to noradrenaline and isoprenaline in the perfused mesenteric vascular bed of SHR-l-NAME-treated animals was significantly improved by ABT treatment. 5 Morphological studies of the kidneys and hearts showed that treatment with ABT minimized the extensive arterial fibrinoid necrosis, arterial thrombosis, significant narrowing of arterial lumen with marked arterial hyperplastic arterial changes that were observed in vehicle treated SHR-l-NAME. 6 In isolated perfused hearts, recovery of left ventricular function from 40 min of global ischaemia was significantly better in ABT-treated SHR-l-NAME. 7 These results suggest that in hypertensive individuals with endothelial dysfunction and chronic NO deficiency, inhibitors of 20-HETE synthesis may be able to attenuate development of high blood pressure and end-organ damage.

Notes: 1 The airways of patients with asthma are hyperresponsive to adenosine. The phenomenon can be mimicked in the actively sensitized Brown Norway rat by exposure to allergen or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We wondered whether combined treatment with allergen and endotoxin would result in additive effects or synergism with respect to increasing the sensitivity of the airways of the Brown Norway rat to adenosine. 2 Animals actively sensitized to ovalbumin and challenged intratracheally with allergen or endotoxin manifested increased bronchoconstrictor responses to adenosine. A combination of ovalbumin and endotoxin also increased the response to adenosine but the effects were at best additive. 3 Changes in the response to adenosine were selective as responses to 5-hydroxytryptamine were unaltered following ovalbumin or LPS either alone or in combination. 4 Thus, endotoxin and allergen acting together could play a role in up-regulating the response of the human asthmatic airway to adenosine. However, our data suggest that the interaction would be additive rather than synergistic.

Notes: 1 We have characterized the α1-adrenoceptor subtypes present in isolated aorta of the α1D-adrenoceptor knockout (KO) mice, by chloroethylclonidine (CEC)-induced alkylation and their protection by selective α1-adrenoceptor antagonists. 2 The α1D-adrenoceptor is involved in the contractile response to noradrenaline in wild type (WT) mouse aorta. 3 In WT mice 5-methylurapidil (5-MU, an α1A-adrenoceptor antagonist) or BMY 7378 (8-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl] ethyl]-8-azaspiro[4.5] decane-7,9 dione, a selective α1D-adrenoceptor antagonist), protected the receptors from CEC-induced (α1B/D-adrenoceptor) alkylation, the combination of both antagonists resulted in complete protection, while AH11110A (1-[biphenyl-2-yloxy]-4-imino-4-piperidin-1-yl-butan-2-ol, an α1B-adrenoceptor antagonist) did not protect. 4 In aorta of KO mice there was a 19-fold rightward shift in noradrenaline effective concentration (EC50) compared with WT; while 5-MU alone or in combination with AH11110A protected α1-adrenoceptors to the same extent. 5 The data indicate that α1A-adrenoceptors mediate contraction and suggest their role in maintaining homeostasis in the α1D-adrenoceptors KO mice.

Notes: 1 This study evaluated the inhibitory action of apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucuronopyranoside (AGC), apigenin, and omeprazole on reflux oesophagitis and gastritis in rats. AGC was isolated from Clerodendron trichotomum leaves. 2 Oesophagitis and gastritis were induced by surgical procedure and the administration of indomethacin, respectively. The intraduodenal (i.d.) administration of AGC decreased the volume of gastric juice and increased the gastric pH compared with apigenin and omeprazole. The acid output was more inhibited by AGC in a dose-dependent manner than by apigenin and omeprazole. Compared with apigenin and omeprazole, AGC significantly decreased the size of gastric lesions, which were induced by exposure of the gastric mucosa to indomethacin. 3 Malondialdehyde (MDA) content, which is the end product of lipid peroxidation, was increased significantly after the induction of reflux oesophagitis. The MDA content was decreased by AGC (i.d. 3 mg kg−1), but not by either apigenin or omeprazole. This suggests that AGC has an antioxidative effect. In the oesophagitis group, the mucosal levels of glutathione (GSH) were significantly lower than that in the normal group. However, the GSH levels were preserved after administering the AGC, suggesting that AGC possesses scavenging activity. 4 In summary, AGC is more potent than apigenin and omeprazole at inhibiting reflux oesophagitis and gastritis and may therefore be a promising drug for their treatment.

Notes: The New Deal for Young People is the major welfare-to-work programme in the UK. It is a mandatory multistage policy targeted at 18- to 24-year-old unemployed people. This paper investigates the long-term effectiveness of the programme in terms of enhancing the (re-)employment probability of participating men. It exploits the eligibility rule to identify a suitable counterfactual relying upon a simple regression discontinuity design. The combination of job-search assistance, training, wage subsidies and job experience enhances employability by about 4.6 per cent and this effect lasts over different cohorts.

Notes: The relationship between the interest rate and the maturity of newly issued bonds provides information on the debt dynamics of an economy as well as on the sustainability of its debt. Such information is crucial especially for countries that have debt-rollover concerns due to financial stress and/or macroeconomic instability. This study investigates the relationship between treasury auction maturity, which also dictates the debt maturity, and auction interest rates. When the Turkish treasury auction data from 1988 to 2004 are analysed, a reciprocal linkage between auction interest rates and maturities can be observed, especially for the 1995–2000 period, when there were chronic high inflation, high political uncertainty, high public deficits and unsuccessful attempts at stabilisation. This suggests that under an adverse shock, the Treasury decreases the auction maturity in order not to increase interest rates too much. A change in this reciprocal relationship is also reported for the post-2001 era, which is characterised by decreasing inflation, higher political stability, lower public deficits and successful stabilisation attempts.

Notes: This paper looks at the policy debate surrounding private pensions and retirement patterns in the UK. Recent increases in longevity have led not only to increased pressures in public pensions but also to corresponding increases in the importance of private pensions in the UK and changes in the way in which they are structured. We consider the economic implications of these changes, and in particular the increased importance of defined contribution plans. In addition, we discuss the prospects for future trends in retirement ages.

Notes: A widespread objection to the introduction of consumption tax systems claims that this would lead to high tax revenue losses. This paper investigates the revenue effects of a consumption tax reform in Germany. Our results suggest that the revenue losses would be surprisingly low. We find a maximum revenue loss of 1.6 per cent of annual GDP. In some years, we even find tax revenue gains. This implies that the current tax system collects little revenue from taxing the normal return to capital. Based on these results, we calculate a macroeconomic measure of the effective tax rate on capital income.

Notes: Proposals for tax cuts on cultural goods represent an ongoing debate in cultural policy. The main aim of this paper is to shed some light on this debate using microsimulation tools. First, we have estimated an Almost Ideal Demand System for 19 different groups of goods, including cultural goods. Expenditure and price elasticities have been obtained from this model. Using this information, three alternative cuts in the VAT rate on cultural goods have been microsimulated and evaluated in terms of revenue and welfare. These types of fiscal reforms will lead to welfare and efficiency gains that can be described as regressive.

Notes: This paper attempts to uncover the effects of a UK welfare-to-work programme on individual wage growth by exploiting an expansion to this welfare programme. The conventional wisdom is that such programmes trap recipients into low-wage, low-quality work – this comes from the simple argument that the ‘poverty trap’, which a wage subsidy for low-income workers induces, reduces the benefits to investments, such as on-the-job training, and so reduces wage growth. In fact, a wage subsidy will also reduce the costs of, at least, general training because we would normally expect workers to pay for their own general training in the form of lower gross wages. So a wage subsidy is a way of sharing these costs with the taxpayer. Thus, the net effect on wage progression depends on whether it reduces costs by more or less than it reduces the benefits.

Notes: The main objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive description of the economic outcomes and performance of Britain's immigrant communities today and over the last two decades. We distinguish between males and females and, where possible and meaningful, between immigrants of different origins. Our comparison group is white British-born individuals. Our data source is the British Labour Force Survey. We first provide descriptive information on the composition of immigrants in Britain, and how this has changed over time, their socio-economic characteristics, their industry allocation and their labour market outcomes. We then investigate various labour market performance indicators (labour force participation, employment, wages and self-employment) for immigrants of different origins, and compare them with British-born whites of the same age, region and other background characteristics. We find that over the last 20 years, Britain's immigrant population has changed in origin composition and has dramatically improved in skill composition — not dissimilar from the trend in the British-born population. We find substantial differences in economic outcomes between white and ethnic minority immigrants. Within these groups, immigrants of different origins differ considerably with respect to their education and age structure, their regional distribution and their sector choice. In general, white immigrants are more successful in Britain, although there are differences between groups of different origins. The investigation shows that immigrants from some ethnic minority groups, and in particular females, are particularly disadvantaged, with Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at the lower end of this scale.

Notes: This paper deals with the problems encountered in defining and measuring the degree of fiscal decentralisation. Drawing on a recent analytical framework of the OECD, different measures of tax autonomy and revenue decentralisation are presented which consider the tax-raising powers of sub-central governments. Taking account of changes in the assignment of decision-making competencies over the course of time, new time series of annual data on the degree of fiscal decentralisation are provided for 23 OECD countries over the period between 1965 and 2001. It is shown that common measures usually employed tend to overestimate the extent of fiscal decentralisation considerably. Evidence is also provided of increasing fiscal decentralisation in a majority of OECD countries during the last three decades.

Notes: In social project appraisal, the policy profile of both distributional welfare weights and the social discount rate has risen considerably in recent years. This fact has important implications for the allocation of funds to social projects and policies in countries, and in unions of countries such as the EU. A key component in the formulae for both welfare weights and the social discount rate is the elasticity of marginal utility of consumption, e. A critical review of existing evidence on e suggests that the UK Treasury's preferred value of unity is too low. New evidence presented in this paper, based on the structure of personal income tax rates, suggests that, on average, for developed countries e is close to 1.4. This particular approach to the estimation of e has previously been under-utilised by researchers.

Notes: 1 The fish somatostatin receptor 3 (fsst3) is one of the few somatostatin (SRIF) receptors cloned from a non-mammalian species so far. Here we extended our earlier characterization of this receptor by investigating the guanine nucleotide sensitivity of agonist radioligand binding at the fsst3 receptor recombinantly expressed in CCL39 (Chinese hamster lung fibroblast) cells. Further, we measured somatostatin (SRIF) and cortistatin (CST) analogues stimulated GTPγS binding, inhibition of forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase (FSAC) and stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) activities. The present transductional data were then compared with previous radioligand binding and/or second messenger features determined for fsst3 and/or human SRIF receptors (hsst2, hsst3 and hsst5). 2 The GTP analogue guanylylimidodiphosphate (GppNHp) inhibited binding of [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3octreotide by 72 and 83% suggesting preferential labelling of G-protein-coupled fsst3 receptors. By contrast, [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 binding was rather GppNHp insensitive (42 and 35% inhibition) suggesting labelling of both coupled and non-coupled receptor states. These results might explain the apparent higher receptor densities determined in saturation experiments with [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 (4470 and 4030 fmol mg−1) compared with [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (3420 and 1520 fmol mg−1). 3 SRIF14 (10 μm)-stimulated specific [35S]GTPγS binding by three-fold; SRIF28 and octreotide displayed full agonism, whereas most other ligands displayed 60–80% intrinsic activity compared with SRIF14. SRIF14 and SRIF28 inhibited forskolin-stimulated AC (FSAC) activity by 60%; all tested ligands except BIM 23056 inhibited FSAC with comparable high intrinsic activities. SRIF14 stimulated PLC activity five- to six-fold, as determined by measuring total [3H] IPx accumulation; it was rather insensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX, 100 ng ml−1, 21% inhibition), which suggests the Gq-family proteins couple to PLC activity. SRIF14, SRIF28 and [Tyr10]CST14 showed full agonism at PLC, whereas all other ligands behaved as partial agonists (20–70% intrinsic activity). BIM 23056, which showed weak partial or no agonism, antagonized SRIF14-induced total [3H]-IPx production (pKB = 6.83), but failed to block competitively agonist-stimulated [35S]GTPγS binding or agonist-induced inhibition of FSAC activity. 4 Comparison of the pharmacological profiles of fsst3 receptors established in GTPγS binding, FSAC inhibition and PLC stimulation resulted in low correlations (r = 0.410–0.594). Both rank orders of potency and rank orders of relative efficacy varied in the three second messenger experiments. Significant, although variable correlations were obtained comparing GTPγS binding and inhibition of FSAC activity with previously reported affinity profiles of [125I]LTT-SRIF28, [125I][Tyr10]CST14, [125I]CGP 23996, [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (r = 0.75–0.83; 0.68–0.89). By contrast, the PLC stimulation and radioligand-binding profiles did not correlate. 5 Comparison of the functional data (GTPγS binding, FSAC inhibition, PLC stimulation) of fsst3 receptors with those of human sst2, sst3, sst5 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells resulted in highest correlation with the hsst5 receptor (r = 0.94, 0.97, 0.49) 〉 hsst2 (0.80, 0.50, n.d.) 〉 hsst3 (0.25, 0.19, 0.17). 6 In summary, fsst3 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells are involved in signalling cascades similar to those reported for mammalian SRIF receptors, suggesting SRIF receptors to be highly conserved in evolution. Binding and functional data showed highest similarity of fsst3 receptors with the human sst5 receptor subtype. Different affinities, receptor densities and GppNHp-sensitivities determined with the four radioligands (agonists) are assumed to results from ligand-specific states of the fsst3-ligand complex. The differences in the rank orders of potency and relative efficacy in the various signalling cascades may be explained by agonist-induced receptor trafficking.

Notes: This paper analyses the problem of water affordability in Great Britain. The use and meaning of the term ‘affordability’ are discussed in relation to the domestic or household customers of the British water industry. Using microeconomic data from the Family Resources Survey, affordability is calibrated by income group and household composition for Scotland, England and Wales. Whilst measurement or calibration is the primary focus of the paper, the related question of the way in which an affordability threshold or benchmark might be established is considered. A critique of the various financial support mechanisms currently available to households encountering difficulties in paying water and sewerage charges is followed by a discussion of the policy implications of the research and the way in which it relates to the wider social inclusion agenda of central government.

Notes: We develop a model of the Pension Protection Fund (PPF), a defined benefit pension guarantee system for the UK, based on an analogy between pension liabilities and corporate debt obligations. We show that the PPF is likely to face many years of low claims interspersed irregularly with periods of very large claims. There is a significant chance that these claims will be so large that the PPF will default on its liabilities, leaving the government with no option but to bail it out. The cause of this problem is the double impact of a fall in equity prices on the PPF: it makes sponsor firms more likely to default and it makes defaulted plans more likely to be underfunded. We use our model to derive a fair premium for PPF insurance under different circumstances, to estimate the extent of cross-subsidies in the PPF between strong and weak sponsors, and to show that risk-rated premiums are unlikely to have a substantial effect on either the size or the lumpiness of claims. We argue that for the PPF to operate effectively, it should be introduced in tandem with strong minimum funding requirements and a lower level of benefit guarantee than at present.

Notes: This essay discusses the merits of public intervention in the provision of television broadcasting services. I argue that intervention was justified in the past, when there were just a few channels and when advertising was the sole source of commercial funds. However, the advent of subscription television overcomes many of the market failures that once existed. Moreover, asymmetric treatment of broadcasters acts to distort the incentives of commercial broadcasters. Finally, viewers have an increasing ability to avoid unappealing, but perhaps socially desirable, content, which further weakens the case for public intervention in the market.

Notes: We evaluate the effects of undergoing any early education (before the compulsory starting age of 5) and of pre-school on a cohort of British children born in 1958. In contrast to most available studies, we are able to assess whether any effects on cognition and socialisation are long-lasting, as well as to estimate their net impact on subsequent educational attainment and labour market performance.Controlling for a particularly rich set of child, parental, family and neighbourhood characteristics, we find some positive and long-lasting effects from early education. Specifically, pre-compulsory education (preschool or school entry prior to age 5) was found to yield large improvements in cognitive tests at age 7, which, though diminished in size, remained significant throughout the schooling years, up to age 16. By contrast, attendance of pre-school (nursery or playgroup) was found to yield a positive but short-lived impact on test scores. The effects on socialisation appear to be more mixed: we found some positive, though short-lasting, effects of pre-compulsory education on teachers' reports of social adjustment (only at age 7); on the other hand, we found some adverse behavioural effects according to parental reports at age 7 which persisted up to age 11.In adulthood, pre-compulsory education was found to increase the probabilities of obtaining qualifications and of being employed at age 33. For both pre-compulsory education and pre-school per se, we found evidence of a marginally significant 3–4 per cent wage gain at age 33.

Notes: Soil minerals are known to influence the biological stability of soil organic matter (SOM). Our study aimed to relate properties of the mineral matrix to its ability to protect organic C against decomposition in acid soils. We used the amount of hydroxyl ions released after exposure to NaF solution to establish a reactivity gradient spanning 12 subsoil horizons collected from 10 different locations. The subsoil horizons represent six soil orders and diverse geological parent materials. Phyllosilicates were characterized by X-ray diffraction and pedogenic oxides by selective dissolution procedures. The organic carbon (C) remaining after chemical removal of an oxidizable fraction of SOM with NaOCl solution was taken to represent a stable organic carbon pool. Stable organic carbon was confirmed as older than bulk organic carbon by a smaller radiocarbon (14C) content after oxidation in all 12 soils. The amount of stable organic C did not depend on clay content or the content of dithionite–citrate-extractable Fe. The combination of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al explained the greatest amount of variation in stable organic C (R2 = 0.78). Our results suggest that in acid soils, organic matter is preferentially protected by interaction with poorly crystalline minerals represented by the oxalate-soluble Fe and Al fraction. This evidence suggests that ligand exchange between mineral surface hydroxyl groups and negatively charged organic functional groups is a quantitatively important mechanism in the stabilization of SOM in acid soils. The results imply a finite stabilization capacity of soil minerals for organic matter, limited by the area density of reactive surface sites.

Notes: Organo-mineral associations stabilize soil organic matter, though the mechanisms by which they do so are unclear. We used particle-size fractions 〈 6.3 μm of two soils to examine the importance of Fe oxides, short-range order Al silicates and the surface areas of minerals and micropores on the formation of organo-mineral associations. In the subsoil Fe oxides were most strongly statistically correlated with the mineral-bound organic carbon. We therefore assume that they are the most important substrates for the formation of organo-mineral associations. There is no indication that this is caused by physical protection of organic matter in their micropores (〈 2 nm). In the Haplic Podzol, dithionite–citrate–bicarbonate-soluble short-range order Al silicates may also play a role. Fe oxide particles were calculated to offer specific surface areas of ∼ 200 m2 g−1 (goethite) and ∼ 800 m2 g−1 (ferrihydrite), corresponding to crystal diameters of only a few nm. We assume that the resulting large amount of oxide-specific reactive surface sites (conditionally charged hydroxyl groups) is responsible for their dominant role as sorbents. With maximum C loadings of 1.3 mg C per m2 Fe oxide for the Dystric Cambisol and 1.1 mg C per m2 Fe oxide + short-range order Al silicates for the Haplic Podzol the subsoils of both soils seem to have reached saturation with respect to organic matter sorption. In contrast to subsoil horizons, organo-mineral associations from topsoils contain much larger amounts of organic matter. Here a larger C loading on Fe oxides or a greater importance of other sorbents in addition to the oxides must be assumed.

Notes: If biospheric sinks, such as soil organic carbon, are to be used to meet obligations for greenhouse gas emission reduction under the Kyoto Protocol, the permanence of these sinks needs to be considered. Further, since only direct human-induced carbon sinks can be included, and sinks resulting from indirect and natural effects cannot be used, there is a pressing need to separate direct human-induced effects from indirect and natural effects. Since these effects also influence the permanence of soil organic stocks, this paper attempts to synthesize existing knowledge in soil science, and use models to examine the likely influence of direct, indirect and natural effects on the permanence of soil organic carbon stocks.

Notes: The formation of basic aluminium sulphate (BAS) minerals [(K,Na)nAlx(OH)y(SO4)z] has often been invoked to explain sulphate retention in soils. These minerals have not yet, however, been directly observed in the soil. We extracted the clay fractions of Andosols intercepting large inputs of volcanogenic sulphur dioxide and acids (HCl, HF), simply by dispersing clays with Na+-resins in deionized water without any other chemical treatment. Clay fractions concentrate 39–63% of total sulphur content of soil. Transmission electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive analysis revealed the presence of BAS particles, appearing as nodules and spheres. These particles have an equivalent diameter smaller than 0.2 µm. They have an Al:S ratio close to 2.2 and 3.8 and are possibly amorphous aluminite or basaluminite, respectively. They seem to have been formed in microenvironments enriched in sulphate, but also in fluoride anions. Their formation seems to have been enhanced by the combination of large inputs of acids and SO2 and an effective Al supply from weathering of volcanic glass.

Notes: Natural wetlands are a significant source of atmospheric methane, an important greenhouse gas. Compared with numerous papers on measurements of methane emission from natural wetland surfaces, there are few reports on methane configuration and distribution within wetland soil profiles. By using a newly designed gas sampler, we succeeded in collecting free-phase gas from beneath the water table down to 120 cm in a peat. The volumetric percentage of methane in the gas phase increased with depth and was generally more than 50% beneath the zone within which the water table fluctuates. The volume of the gas phase in the peat beneath the water table was estimated to be from 0 to 19% with significant variation with depth, suggesting uneven distribution of gas bubbles. Using the volume ratio of the gas and liquid phases and methane concentration data in the gas phase, as well as assuming that methane was in equilibrium (based on Henry's Law between the two phases), we calculated that ∼60% of the methane accumulates in the form of bubbles. These results suggest the importance of ebullition in methane emission, which might be a major cause for the reportedly large variation of methane emission in both space and time. Most importantly, our results show the need to consider gaseous-phase methane for understanding the production, transport and emission mechanisms of methane in wetlands, which has been overlooked to date.

Notes: Soil microbial biomass and microbial quotient (the ratio of soil microbial biomass to soil organic carbon) are considered to be useful as rapidly responding indicators of perturbations of soil properties. In this paper we will use a well-tested model (the continuous-quality theory) to analyse these variables in a Swedish 35-year-old field experiment with a black fallow, crop with no N addition, crop with calcium nitrate addition, and six treatments with organic amendments: straw, green manure, peat, farmyard manure, sawdust and sewage sludge.The model predicts correctly that the amount of microbial biomass increases for all the treatments with organic amendments compared with the black fallow treatment. The microbial biomass quotient increases also for all the amended treatments, except peat and sewage sludge, and decreases for the other treatments. The microbial biomass and microbial quotient increase with both the amounts of organic matter added (crop residues and amendments) and the quality of the added matter. However, to fully explain the observations it is also necessary to have an increasing microbial mortality with substrate quality. Moreover, short-term observations can be misleading with respect to both the magnitude and direction of long-term changes in biomass and related variables. Special attention must be paid to such amendments as sewage sludge, where contaminants such as heavy metals may determine process rates. We find no relation between microbial biomass or microbial quotient and yields.

Notes: The mobility of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) in soils can be influenced by the presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM). While numerous studies have determined interactions of HOCs with humic and fulvic acids, only few data exist on the partitioning of HOCs to natural, non-fractionated DOM as it occurs in soil solutions. In this study, DOM was extracted from 17 soil samples with a broad range of chemical and physical properties, originating from different land uses. The partition coefficients of pyrene to DOM were determined in all soil extracts and for two commercial humic acids using the fluorescence quenching method. For the soil extracts, log KDOC values ranged from 3.2 to 4.5 litres kg−1. For the Aldrich and Fluka humic acids, log KDOC was 4.98 and 4.96 litres kg−1, respectively, thus indicating that they are not representative for soil DOM. After excluding these two values, the statistical analysis of the data showed a significant negative correlation between log KDOC and pH. This was also shown for one sample where the pH was adjusted to values ranging from 3 to 9. A multiple regression analysis suggested that ultraviolet absorbance at 280 nm (an indicator for aromaticity) and the E4:E6 ratio (an indicator for molecular weight) had additional effects on log KDOC. The results indicate that the partitioning of pyrene to DOM is reduced at alkaline pH, probably due to the increased polarity of the organic macromolecules resulting from the deprotonation of functional groups. Only within a narrow pH range was the KDOC of pyrene mainly related to the aromaticity of DOM.

Notes: This paper describes the characteristic shrinkage curve of a soil as it dries. It also introduces a new method to measure specific soil moisture states such as permanent wilting point and field capacity using the shrinkage curve. The model considers the soil fabric as a non-rigid, aggregated and unsaturated soil water medium. Its functional parameters (defined as pedohydral parameters) are the independent parameters of the shrinkage curve, which defines two major aspects of the structure of the fabric: (i) the volumetric functional elements of the soil fabric, and (ii) the arrangement of solid, water and air as functions of water content.Two African tropical soils were characterized and analysed according to a structural model with parameters of their shrinkage curve. The parameters of four soil horizons for the two soil types were determined continuously along their shrinkage curves. They were then used as descriptive variables representing the soil's hydrostructural behaviour in a canonical variate analysis, the results of which showed the A horizons to be distinct from the lower horizons, which appear as continua down the profiles. Analysis of the results reveals the importance of the clay and of the iron/clay ratio in the hydrostructural properties of the two soils. Transitional points of the shrinkage curve matched well some particular moisture states of the water potential curve, such as wilting points and field capacities. A more precise method of calculating water-holding characteristics and other structural properties such as air capacity and swelling index can be obtained from the characteristic shrinkage curve.

Notes: The organic matter (OM) of soils with andic properties has long been considered highly stable because of the presence of Al–humus complexes and sorption of organic ligands onto amorphous compounds. In this study, we characterized soils under different land use regimes located within an amphibolitic massif close to Santiago de Compostela (Spain), where soils with andic properties are present. Slash and burn agriculture was a common practice in the area until the second half of the 20th century. Thereafter, modern agriculture was progressively introduced into the area (AGR soils), and the rest of the land was either reforested or abandoned (FOR soils). We found that the mean organic C content of AGR soils (48.7 g kg−1) was ∼ 50% that of FOR soils (94.2 g kg−1). Mean soil pH was significantly greater (P 〈 0.05) in the AGR than in the FOR soils (4.95 compared with 4.63), which is attributed to liming and Ca-phosphate fertilization of the former. Mean concentrations of the Al forms studied (extractable with CuCl2, sodium pyrophosphate, ammonium oxalate, or NaOH) were significantly smaller (P 〈 0.01) in AGR (1.4, 4.9, 9.3, 11.0 g kg−1, respectively) than in FOR soils (3.9, 10.2, 16.5, 17.9 g kg−1, respectively). The results show the vulnerability of the OM and Al–humus complexes in these soils to modern agricultural practices, which has led to the attenuation – and in some cases even the disappearance – of andic soil properties in a relatively short time (〈 30 years) following changes in land use/management. We propose the inclusion of the formative element ‘andic’ in the criteria for the definition of Umbrisol subunits; this would avoid the abrupt discontinuity observed in the current World Reference Base classification.

Notes: Based on an acoustic assumption (that the shear-wave velocity is zero) and a dispersion relationship, we derive an acoustic wave equation for P-waves in tilted transversely isotropic (TTI) media (transversely isotropic media with a tilted symmetry axis). This equation has fewer parameters than an elastic wave equation in TTI media and yields an accurate description of P-wave traveltimes and spreading-related attenuation. Our TTI acoustic wave equation is a fourth-order equation in time and space. We demonstrate that the acoustic approximation allows the presence of shear waves in the solution. The substantial differences in traveltime and amplitude between data created using vertical transversely isotropic (VTI) and TTI assumptions is illustrated in examples.

Notes: A high-resolution P-wave seismic reflection survey was conducted in the area of Lambro Park within the city of Milan (northern Italy). Several high permeability channel sequences were identified and the stratigraphy of the infill was accurately mapped. The seismic signature imaged a previously undefined unit and also established the lateral correlation of some depositional units within the three major aquifer groups along the survey line.The complexity of the acoustic framework and the reduced depth of the source location limited effective elastic-wave generation. The geological setting also caused propagation of strong coherent noise patterns. Further interference, observed in the recorded data, was due to the traffic noise from the nearby highway. The attenuation of the undesired events required the design of specific filters and their multistep implementation.The results of forward modelling based on borehole information and of noise tests were crucial factors in the design of the processing parameters and in the stratigraphic interpretation of the final stacked section.