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  • Springer  (165,830)
  • Oxford University Press  (14,198)
  • 1995-1999  (141,000)
  • 1970-1974  (39,028)
  • 1999  (73,502)
  • 1997  (67,498)
  • 1973  (39,028)
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  • 1995-1999  (141,000)
  • 1970-1974  (39,028)
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  • 1
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Gathering radiosity ; Scaled conjugate-gradient method ; Parallel algorithms ; Hypercube multicomputer ; Data redistribution
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 2
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    The visual computer 15 (1999), S. 90-99 
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Cloth deformation ; Geometric constraint ; Geometric physical method ; Constrained finite element method
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 3
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    The visual computer 13 (1997), S. 218-227 
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Image compositing ; Antialiasing ; Discrete regions ; Discrete contours ; Euclidean paths
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 4
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: α-Hull ; Fitting ; Simplex spline
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 5
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    The visual computer 13 (1997), S. 342-344 
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Volume visualization ; Marching cubes ; Topology consistency ; Saddle value
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 6
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    The visual computer 15 (1999), S. 509-518 
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Smoothing – Diffusion systems – Bias and tension controls
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
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  • 7
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    The visual computer 15 (1999), S. 483-493 
    ISSN: 1432-2315
    Keywords: Key words: Interpolation – Parametric curves – Convexity preservation – Control point form
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Computer Science
    Notes: C 2 continuous convexity-preserving parametric curves in ℝ2 is presented. The control point form method, which was developed in the field of numerical grid generation, is used here to construct interpolating curves. Good control over the shape of the curves is obtained thanks to the capability of the proposed approach to interpolate not only the data points, but also some directions suitably associated with them.
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  • 8
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 1-11 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Nephridial diversity is high in Phyllodocida (Annelida) and ranges from protonephridia to metanephridia. The nephridia of Tomopteris helgolandica (Tomopteridae) can be characterized as metanephridia which bear a multiciliated solenocyte. This cell is medially apposed to the proximal part of the nephridial duct and bears several cilia, each of which is surrounded by a ring of 13 microvilli. An extracellular matrix connects the microvilli and thus leads to the impression of a tube surrounding the central cilium. Each tube separately enters a subjacent duct cell and the cilia extend into a cup-shaped compartment within the duct cell. This compartment is not connected to the duct. The funnel consists of eight multiciliated cells and is connected to the nephridial duct, which initially runs intercellularly and later percellularly. The last duct cell bears a neck-like process which pierces the subepidermal basal membrane and is connected to epidermal cells forming a small invagination, the nephropore. The nephridia of T. helgolandica develop from a band of cells and all structural components are differentiated at an early developmental stage. Further development is characterized by enlargment of the funnel, ciliogenesis in the solenocyte, merging of different sections of the duct and, finally, the formation of the nephropore. An evaluation of the nephridia of T. helgolandica leads to the hypothesis that the nephridial diversity in Phyllodocida can be explained by the retainment of different stages in the transition of protonephridia into metanephridia; this is caused by the formation of a ciliated funnel at different ontogenetic stages. Although the protonephridia in Phyllodocida are regarded as primary nephridial organs, protonephridia are also presumed to have evolved secondarily in progenetic interstitial species of the Annelida by an incomplete differentiation of the nephridial anlage.
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  • 9
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The reproductive organs of the simultaneous hermaphrodite Sphaerosyllis hermaphrodita (Syllidae, Exogoninae) were examined by TEM and reconstructed from ultrathin serial sections. Oocytes are produced in the 11–13th chaetigerous segments and then attached to the outer body surface. The male organs comprise a seminal vesicle, testes, sperm ducts and copulatory chaetae. The unpaired seminal vesicle is an uncompartmented cavity above the gut and within the chaetigerous segments 8–10. Its interior is lined with a layer of gland cells that degenerate as spermatogenesis in the vesicle proceeds. The testes are situated ventrolaterally, close to the seminal vesicle in the 9th chaetigerous segment. They contain cells at early stages of spermatogenesis, which are connected to one another by zonulae collares. The testes and seminal vesicle are enclosed in epithelia. Paired sperm ducts run ventrally from about the midline of the body under the seminal vesicle and into the parapodia of the 9th chaetigerous segment. There they open, together with the protonephridia of this segment, to the outside next to the stout copulatory chaeta. Each sperm duct consists of six cells, the luminal surface of which bears microvilli but no cilia. Only in animals with fully differentiated sperm does the small opening of the proximal duct cell in each duct give access to the seminal vesicle. The mode of sperm transfer is discussed.
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  • 10
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The ultrastructure of the nuchal organ and cerebral organ is described for the first time in a species of the Sipuncula, Onchnesoma squamatum. The nuchal organ is an unpaired structure lying outside and dorsal to the tentacular crown; furrows give the organ a paired appearance. The cerebral organ is an unciliated pad anterior to the nuchal organ. The nuchal organ consists of ciliated supporting cells, non-ciliated supporting cells and bipolar primary sensory cells. The cerebral organ is composed of unciliated supporting cells and numerous bipolar sensory cells. This clearly favours the hypothesis that this structure has a sensory function in adults rather than being a vestige of a larval organ. The sensory cells are similar in both organs and exhibit features indicative of chemoreception. Since the density of the sensory cells is low in the nuchal organ, an exclusively sensory function is questioned. There is some evidence that the two organs represent a functional unit. The present findings do not support the view that the nuchal organs of Sipuncula and ”Polychaeta” are homologous, but instead suggest that they are convergent structures.
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  • 11
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The ultrastructure of the paired cephalic sensory organs of adult Pycnophyes dentatus and of the first juvenile stage of P. kielensis (Kinorhyncha, Homalorhagida) was investigated by TEM. In both species, each sensory organ is composed of one receptor cell and one enveloping cell which border a common intercellular lumen. A single receptor cilium extends from the receptor cell into this lumen. The cilium expands behind the basal body and branches into numerous processes. A pair of cephalic sensory organs with these characteristics belongs to the ground pattern of, at least, the Pycnophyidae. The sensory organs of these Kinorhyncha correspond closely with the anterior cephalic organs of the Gastrotricha, but differ from the known cephalic receptors of other Nemathelminthes. Currently, it cannot be evaluated conclusively whether the last common ancestor of the Nemathelminthes possessed cephalic sensory organs and, if it did, what these organs looked like.
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  • 12
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The epidermis of both species of Seison is syncytial and has a characteristic internal layer divided into two distinct sublayers. Sublayer I is very thin (0.03 μm) and bounded to the outer cell membrane of the epidermis. Sublayer II is 0.5 μm thick and separated from sublayer I by a thin layer of cytoplasm. Intrusions of the outer cell membrane of the epidermis perforate the internal layer, before terminating within the cytoplasm. The intrusions of the cell membrane of S. annulatus are coated by an electron-dense material, the annulus, when passing through the internal layer. Bundles of filaments are present in the epidermis of S. nebaliae. A comparison of epidermal structures within the Gnathifera Ahlrichs, 1995, confirms phylogenetic relationships earlier proposed by the author.
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  • 13
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  In Craterostigmus tasmanianus, first results of the cellular organization of anal organs within the ’ano-genital’ capsule are presented. Each valve of the ’ano-genital’ capsule bears four pore fields ventrally, each of them consisting of several pore openings of the anal organs. The pores lead into a cuticle-lined pore channel, the base of which is surrounded by a single-layered epithelium that is composed of three different cell types. The main epithelium consists of radially arranged transport-active cells surrounded by exocrine cells, and the cells of the pore channel. The cells of the transporting epithelium show deep invaginations of the apical and basal cell surfaces and plasmalemma-mitochondrial complexes. These cells are covered by a specialized cuticle with a prominent subcuticle. Exocrine glands secrete a mucous layer on the cuticle of the main epithelium. The type of anal organ present in Craterostigmus tasmanianus shows similarities to coxal and anal organs found in other Pleurostigmophora in the chilopods. The possible function of the anal organs in uptaking water vapour is discussed. It is appropriate to call the organs within the ’ano-genital’ capsule of Craterostigmus tasmanianus ”anal organs”, as components of the genital segments are not involved.
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  • 14
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The adult freshwater branchiopod, Caenestheriella gifuensis, has, as respiratory organs, fifteen pairs of slender cone-shaped gills composed of a thick epithelium. The silver nitrate/nitric acid technique revealed that the gill epithelium consisted of two kinds of cell, types I and II, which were alternately arranged with irregular interdigitations to form a unique, daisy pattern. Only type I cells were darkly stained by this technique, indicating high permeability of these cells to chloride ions and appearing to be responsible for the ion transport and osmoregulation. Further, electron microscopy disclosed fine structural characteristics of the two distinct types of epithelial cell covered by an extremely thin and soft cuticle layer, suggesting high permeability to gases and ions. The type I epithelial cell was characterized by an abundance of mitochondria, well-developed infoldings of the basal cell membrane exceeding two-thirds of the epithelial thickness, (which produce a magnification of the basolateral surface area of the cell), sparse microvillous projections of the apical border, and complicated interdigitations with the other type of epithelial cell. In the type II epithelial cell, on the other hand, these characteristics were less developed. These results suggest that in addition to their respiratory function, type I epithelial cells are of the ion-transporting type and play an important role in the active absorption of electrolytes to maintain a constant osmotic pressure of the hemolymph in extremely salt-deficient, freshwater environments. The type II epithelial cells may function mostly as respiratory epithelial cells.
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  • 15
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 63-69 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The distribution of different injected markers between blood vessels and the coelomic cavity of Lumbricus terrestris was investigated by light and electron microscopy in order to show the direction of filtration and the permeability of the basement membrane of podocytes. The present results revealed that ultrafiltration takes place across the ventral vessel as well as through the peri-intestinal blood sinus of the typhlosolis. Furthermore, the filtration processes seem to be restricted to the front part of the body. Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) [molecular weight (MW) 389.4 Da], Procion yellow (MW 873 Da), FITC-labelled dextrans (MW 39 kDa) and gold particles up to a diameter of 10–12 nm passed the podocytes. Evans blue (MW 960.8 Da) could not permeate through the podocytes. The injected gold particles were found inside the extracellular channels of the podocyte, between the microvilli-like processes of the podocyte and on the coelomic side of the peritoneal epithelium. The appearance of gold particles in the previously described structures indicated that filtration takes place from the lumen of the ventral vessel to the coelomic cavity.
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  • 16
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 71-79 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Xenoturbella bocki is the only species of the high-ranked taxon Xenoturbellida. The species lives on marine mud bottoms at a depth of 20–120 m and moves extremely slowly by ciliary gliding. Nevertheless it possesses a well-developed body wall musculature with outer circular muscles, a prominent layer of inner longitudinal muscles and radial muscles that extend from the outer circular myocytes to the musculature surrounding the gastrodermis. The longitudinal myocytes are not compact cells, but form fascicles of fibrils running parallel to each other. Fine cytoplasmic cords connect the fibres of a cell to each other and with its nuclear region. The muscles are embedded within a sometimes expansive extracellular matrix (ECM) that lacks any fibrillar components. All muscle cells display conspicuous and numerous cytoplasmic extensions that are intermingled with each other. Tight coupling between adjacent cell membranes is not found, but zonula adhaerens-like junctions exist. Fibrils belonging to different myocytes, but also fibrils of the same cell, are coupled by such cytoplasmic extensions. Circular, radial and at least the peripheral longitudinal myocytes display cell-matrix connections with the internal lamina, a component of the subepidermal ECM. This internal lamina projects down into the centres of the fascicles with longitudinal muscle fibrils and forms extensive attachment zones with the muscle cells, reminiscent of focal contacts. For the ingestion of food, X. bocki opens the simple mouth pore and protrudes the aciliated gastrodermis. The body wall musculature is responsible for this protrusion and also for the withdrawal of the gastrodermis. In the past, possible phylogenetic kinships with the Acoelomorpha (Plathelminthes) or the Enteropneusta and Holothuroidea were discussed, but, on the basis of all information available, X. bocki is hypothesized to be the sister taxon of the Bilateria.
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  • 17
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Testis organization and spermatogenesis, with the emphasis on spermiogenesis, in Opistognathus whitehurstii are described by ultrastructural and histochemical methods. The germinal epithelium is extremely reduced and restricted to the periphery of the testis, while most of the organ is occupied by a highly developed system of testicular efferent ducts. A semicystic type of spermatogenesis is observed and in the germinal epithelium spermatogenesis occurs only until the spermatidal stage. Young spermatids are released into the lumen of the testicular lobules and mature to sperm within the efferent duct system. The epithelial cells of these ducts are involved in protein and glycogen secretion and in phagocytosis of degenerating germ cells and residual bodies cast off by developing spermatids. On the basis of these functions, the testicular efferent duct system cells are considered to be homologous to the Sertoli cells. A correlation between a highly developed testicular efferent duct system and semicystic spermatogenesis is examined and a possible functional meaning of this apparently unusual mode of sperm production is proposed.
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  • 18
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The fine morphology of epidermal ciliary structures in four species of the Nemertodermatida and four species of the Acoela was studied, with emphasis on Meara stichopi (Nemertodermatida). The cilium of M. stichopi has a distal shelf and is proximally separated from the basal body by a cup-shaped structure. The bottom of the cup consists of a bilayered dense plate, or basal plate. The basal body consists of peripheral microtubule doublets continuous with those of the cilium. In the upper part of the basal body, the doublets are set at an angle and are anchored to the enclosing cell membrane by Y-shaped structures. The lower part of the basal body tapers eventually. The striated main rootlet arises on the anterior face of the basal body, initially like a flattened strap, and continues along the basal body shaped as a tube which further down becomes solid. The hour-glass-shaped posterior rootlet arises on the posterior face of the basal body. Contrary to the main rootlet, the striations in the proximal part of the posterior rootlet run parallel to the microtubule doublets of the basal body. A pair of microtubule bundles lead from the posterior rootlet to the two main rootlets in the hind ciliary row, and follow these to their lower tip. In the other species of the Nemertodermatida studied, the structure of the ciliary basal body and the ciliary rootlets is similar to that of M. stichopi. Structural differences in the species of the Acoela are that the lowermost end of the basal body is narrow and bent forwards, the proximal part of the main rootlet is trough-shaped, the main rootlet is accompanied by a pair of lateral rootlets and the posterior rootlet with associated microtubule bundles is thin. The epidermal ciliary structures in species of the Nemertodermatida and Acoela have a number of shared characters which are unique within the Plathelminthes. However, almost all of these characters are found in Xenoturbella bocki (Xenoturbellida), and some even in species of other ”phyla” of the ”lower” Metazoa. Hence, these characters cannot be considered apomorphic for the Acoelomorpha. A character seemingly present only in species of the Nemertodermatida and Acoela is the bilayered dense plate. This feature might represent an autapomorphic character state for the Acoelomorpha.
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  • 19
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  In three species of the Enterogona (Clavelina lepadiformis, Ciona intestinalis and Ascidiella aspersa) and three species of the Pleurogona (Dendrodoa grossularia, Styela clava and Molgula manhattensis) the testis was found to be invested by an epithelium separating the germ cells from the surrounding connective tissue or haemal sinuses. Each epithelial cell probably bears a single cilium, which in C. lepadiformis has a rootlet. Cilia are absent in S. clava. Lipid droplets are common and glycogen-rosettes occur in C. lepadiformis and D. grossularia. The basal plasmalemma varies from smooth to very irregular and in A. aspersa is anchored with hemidesmosomes. Except in S. clava, desmosome-like junctions occur between adjacent cells. Elimination of waste sperm following the reproductive season was observed to be undertaken by the epithelial wall cells in all species except C. lepadiformis. In C. intestinalis, D. grossularia, S. clava and M. manhattensis many of these cells detach and migrate to the interior of the testis where they continue and complete the phagocytosis of sperm. In C. lepadiformis, the non-germinal epithelium plays no role in the elimination of superfluous sperm which is probably phagocytosed, together with the rest of the body, by wandering trophocytes. Within the Urochordata the effectiveness of the testis epithelium as a blood-testis barrier varies, but is not correlated to modes of reproduction as postulated for other taxa.
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  • 20
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 115-120 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The inverse cerebral ocelli of the pelagosphera larva of Golfingia misakiana and of another unidentified larva are composed of two or three sensory cells and one supportive pigmented cell. The sensory cells bear an array of microvilli as well as a single cilium with poor undulation of its membrane; the photoreceptive organelles are regarded as the rhabdomeric type. A striking feature of these cells is the cores, which extend within the microvilli from the tip into the midregion of the cell. It is suggested that these structures are identical with the submicrovillar cisternae found in the cerebral inverse eyes of larvae of Polychaeta. The findings allow the conclusion that in the pelagosphera of the Sipuncula, contrary to the teleplanic veliger larvae of Gastropoda, a lengthy pelagic cycle is not correlated with the development of a ciliary photoreceptor. Additionally, it is assumed that the pigment cup ocelli in larvae of Sipuncula are homologous with the cerebral inverted pigment cup ocelli of larvae of Polychaeta.
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  • 21
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 135-145 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The pharynx of Gnathostomula paradoxa consists of the partly syncytial pharyngeal musculature, a pharyngeal epithelium, myoepitheliocytes, receptors, nerves, and three solid parts, called the jugum, the basal plate, and the jaw. Extended non-contractile regions of both pharyngeal and body wall musculature form the so-called parenchymatous tissue between the digestive tract and the body wall. The pharyngeal epithelium mediates the force from the pharyngeal musculature to the solid parts. The basal plate and jaw contain longitudinal cuticular rods which are elastic antagonists of the musculature. There is no buccal ganglion in G. paradoxa. The study supports the monophyly of the Gnathostomulida and Gnathifera.
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  • 22
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Light and electron microscopical investigations using externally applied fluorescent and gold-labeled markers have revealed the existence of distinct endocytotic and phagocytotic activities in basal epithelial cells (pinacocytes) of the freshwater sponges Spongilla lacustris and Ephydatia es) of the f. The total rate of endocytotic membrane uptake, ascertained by the application of the cationic lipid probe TMA-DPH, was found to be 3.2% of the cell surface area/h. A typical fluid-phase endocytosis, demonstrated by the use of the water-soluble membrane-impermeable tracers BCECF-dextran and LY-CH, participates in endocytotic activity at a rate of 0.7% of the cell surface area/h and results in the formation of endosomes measuring 0.8–1 μm in diameter. Moreover, the application of labeled BSA succeeded in the detection of a receptor-mediated endocytosis amounting to a concentration-dependent uptake of 2.3–2.8% of the cell surface area/h. Coated pits and coated vesicles conveying the adsorbed BSA measure 0.3 μm in diameter and are covered on the cytoplasmic face with a clathrin-like protein (HC, 180 kDa; LC, 30 kDa). To facilitate phagocytotic activities, a series of fluorescent–labeled and chemically treated particles such as bacteria or latex beads have been successfully employed. Accordingly, the measured values of phagocytic membrane uptake between 1 and 8% of the cell surface area/h depend on the variety of size as well as the chemical nature of the different bioparticles and clearly point to phagocytosis as a key mechanism for providing freshwater sponges with nourishment.
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  • 23
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The epidermis, rhabditic glands and receptors of the commensal flatworm Temnocephala minor are described using electron microscopic techniques. The epidermis is syncytial and non-ciliated at the anterior body end; it bears folds, microvilli and other structures which differ according to the body side. The nuclei are located intraepithelially and distally from the basal membrane. Long cilia occur at the posterior end anteriorly from the sucker. All receptor structures described belong to a single morphological type and stand in groups arising from epidermal pits. On the tentacles these groups are regularly distributed. Each receptor has a single cilium and a long rootlet. More than 15 000 receptors of this type have been estimated to occur on the surface of a single medium-sized specimen of T. minor. Although the total number of receptor structures appears very high, the number of different receptor types is extremely low in comparison to other taxa of flatworms.
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  • 24
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 155-164 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The patterns of scolopal organs and their innervation were studied by the methylene blue method in larvae, pupae and adults of an Yponomeuta species (Yponomeutidae) and of tympanate adult representatives of the Noctuoidea, Geometridae, Drepanidae and Pyraloidea. The studies were focused mainly on the mesothorax, the metathorax and some anterior abdominal segments. In the abdominal tympanal organs of Geometridae, Drepanidae and Pyraloidea, the auditory scolopidia are homologous with the lateral scolopal organs of the first abdominal segment; however, the hearing organs as such evolved independently in the three taxa. The studies confirm that the tympanal organ in the Noctuoidea is derived from the caudal dorsolateral region of the metathorax including its dorsal scolopal organ and the B-cell. The adult scolopal organs are present already in the larvae and are maintained nearly unchanged during metamorphosis to the adult. Only in the Noctuoidea are the three sensory cells of the larval scolopal organs, which become part of the tympanal organs, reduced to one (in Notodontidae) or two (in other Noctuoidea) during metamorphosis. A hypothetical scenario of the evolution of the tympanal organs is outlined.
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  • 25
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The tentacular apparatus of Coeloplana bannworthi consists of a pair of tentacles which bear, on their ventral side, numerous tentilla. Each tentacle extends from and retracts into a tentacular sheath. Tentacles and tentilla are made up of an axial core covered by an epidermis. The epidermis includes six cell types: covering cells, two types of gland cells (mucous cells and granular gland cells), two types of sensory cells (ciliated cells and hoplocytes), and collocytes, this last cell type being exclusively found in the tentilla. The core is made up of a fibrillar matrix, the mesoglea, which is crossed by nerve processes and two kinds of smooth muscle cells. Regular muscle cells are present in both the tentacles and tentilla while giant muscle cells occur exclusively in the tentilla. The retraction of the tentacular apparatus is an active phenomenon due to the contraction of both types of muscle cells. The extension is a passive phenomenon that occurs when the muscle cells relax. Tentacles and tentilla first extend slightly due to the rebound elasticity of the mesogleal fibers and then drag forces exerted by the water column enable the tentacular apparatus to lengthen totally. Once the tentacles and tentilla are extended, gland cells, sensory cells, and collocytes are exposed to the water column. Any swimming planktonic organism may stimulate the sensory cilia which initiates tentillum movements. Pegs of hoplocytes can then more easily contact the prey which results in a slight elevation of the nearby collocytes, the last being responsible for gluing the prey to the tentilla.
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  • 26
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    Zoomorphology 117 (1997), S. 181-187 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The ultrastructure of the sternal CaCO3 deposits of 3 species of the Diplochaeta and 15 of the Crinochaeta was investigated by means of scanning electron microscopy of fractured surfaces. In the Diplochaeta Li-gia italica and L. oceanica, the deposits consist exclusively of individual spherules with diameters between 0.2 and 1.4 μm. No material was observed within the spaces between the spherules. In Ligidium hypnorum, two structurally distinct regions exist. A proximal layer resembling the deposit of Ligia italica and L. oceanica and a distal layer in which the spherules appear to be fused with each other. In the species of the Crinochaeta, the CaCO3 deposits comprise a spherular region which resembles the deposits of Ligidium hypnorum, and a homogeneous layer located between the spherular part of the deposit and the hypodermal cell layer. In some species the diameters of the spherules may be up to 3.1 μm. In the homogeneous layer and the distal spherular layer more calcium per volume can be stored than in the proximal spherular layer in which the spaces between the spherules are devoid of CaCO3. This suggests that the multiple layered deposits are an adaptation to terrestrial life, as a consequence of the need for increased resorption of cuticular calcium.
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  • 27
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The gonads of female and male Triops cancriformis specimens from populations of the northern part of the species distribution area were examined by conventional transmission electron microscopy in order to gain insight into the complicated reproductive mode of the species. Ovarian follicles consisted of an oocyte and three nurse cells and were surrounded by a thin layer of follicular cells. Oocytes are initially smaller than nurse cells and contained mitochondria of the cristae type as well as many free ribosomes. The prominent nucleus contained a nucleolus. The cytoplasm of oocytes was filled with yolk globules that were surrounded by membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. Nurse cells also contained yolk globules. The follicle duct walls consisted of closely packed elongated cells covered by a lamellar basal lamina. No distinct Golgi apparatus was found in the follicle duct cells. The passage of oocytes through the duct was accompanied by a marked flattening of the follicle duct cells. Simultaneously, the oocytes were wrapped in eggshell material before entering the longitudinal oviduct. Testicular lobes were not found in any of the investigated female specimens. In male animals, the epithelial wall of the testicular tubules consisted of both germinal and vegetative cells. Maturing spermatids formed multicellular nests located in clearly delimited cysts in the intercellular space of the testicular epithelium. The lumen of the testicular tubules contained, exclusively, free mature spermatozoa. These characteristics point to the cystic type of spermiogenesis. Mature spermatozoa were non-flagellate, had a regular ovoid shape of 4–5 μm diameter, and an acrosome was not found. Only a negligible amount of spermatozoa (〈 5%) showed signs of degeneration. In conclusion, the results provide evidence for a parthenogenetic and/or bisexual reproduction mode rather than a hermaphroditic one in the populations examined.
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  • 28
    ISSN: 1432-234X
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Anaphes victus and A. listronoti are two closely related species, respectively solitary and gregarious parasitoids of eggs of the carrot weevil Listronotus oregonensis (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Both species are sympatric, and the regulation of super- and multiparasitism that occurs regularly in this host is done by larval fights between the mymariform first instar larvae. The morphology of both male and female first instar larvae of A. victus and A. listronoti is described using scanning electron microscopy. Both species have first instar larvae of the mymariform type and present sexual dimorphism. The main difference between the two species is that larvae of A. victus are clearly segmented while larvae of A. listronoti show no visible segmentation. Male larvae of both species have two types of perioral hooks, longer and less dense dorsal setae than females and developed undertail spines. Female larvae of both species have short abdominal setae. These morphological differences are discussed in the context of intra- and interspecific larval competition.
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  • 29
    ISSN: 1432-234X
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Antennal sensilla were compared in females and males of two sympatric mymarid Hymenoptera, Anaphes victus and A. listronoti which are, respectively, solitary and gregarious parasitoids of eggs of the carrot weevil Listronotus oregonensis (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Both species are morphologically very similar in the area where they are sympatric. The external morphology of the sensilla was studied using scanning electron microscopy. Female antennae have seven different types of sensilla, morphologically similar in the two species: trichoid sensilla, which are putative mechanosensilla, sensilla chaetica types 1, 3 and 4, which are presumably contact chemosensilla, and sensilla chaetica type 2 and basiconic and placoid sensilla, which are presumed to be olfactory sensilla. The major difference between the two species is the number of sensilla chaetica type 4, of which 6–9 are found on the antennal club in A. victus, while 10–12 are present in A. listronoti. The antennae of the males of both species are similar in morphology and in the number and distribution of their four types of sensilla, i.e. trichoid sensilla, sensilla chaetica type 1 and basiconic and placoid sensilla.
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  • 30
    ISSN: 1432-234X
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  In this study a ground-dwelling (Eublepharis macularius) and a highly specialised climbing (Gekko gecko) lizard were chosen as study objects. The fore- and hindlimbs of two individuals of each species were dissected, and muscle masses, mean fibre lengths, cross-sectional areas and moment arms were determined. Special attention was paid to general muscle architecture (origin, insertion, fibre orientation, etc.) and pennation angles. Using these variables (cross sectional areas and moment arms), maximal moments exertable across the shoulder/hip, elbow/knee and wrist/ankle were calculated for both species. In accordance with the biomechanical predictions related to the preferred locomotor substrate of each species (i.e. level running for E. macularius and climbing for G. gecko), the results of this study indicate that climbers such as G. gecko generally possess powerful retractor muscles crossing the shoulder and hip joints. Additionally, the specialised climber is able to exert higher flexion moments across the elbow, which prevents the animals from falling backwards. However, G. gecko appears to be constrained in its ankle extension capabilities by the presence of the adhesive toe pads. The level-running species, on the other hand, shows a relatively stronger development of the extensor muscles in the lower limbs, allowing these lizards to run in an erect posture. In general, both species show large similarities on a gross morphological level as expected when considering their phylogenetic relatedness. Adaptations to their preferred locomotor substrate only become apparent when considering the functional properties (i.e. joint moments) of the appendicular musculature.
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  • 31
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    Zoomorphology 119 (1999), S. 23-35 
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Pyxicephalus adspersus , is exceptional among living frogs. Embryonic development, larval phase, and metamorphosis can be completed in 17 days at a temperature of 29°C. The metamorphosis only takes 5 days. The present study shows that, despite the unusually short larval phase in P. adspersus, the state of skeletal differentiation reached at the end of metamorphosis is similar to that of other frog species. There is no shift of cranial bone formation postmetamorphosis as could have been expected and is known from other species. The majority of compared species are particularly similar in the sequence of bone formation in the postcranial skeleton. However, there are clear differences among species in the timing of these events relative to the larval growth trajectory, absolute time, and certain developmental markers, such as external limb differentiation. For example, skeletogenesis and externally visible limb differentiation are only loosely integrated. Interspecific comparisons show that, in P. adspersus, the early onset of skeletal ossification is an unusual feature among frogs. Freshly metamorphosed froglets of P. adspersus are already distinct from comparable stages of other species in having strong jaws, fang-like teeth, and a squamosal-maxilla contact. The latter stabilizes the maxillary arcade and the suspensorium and might relate to the ability to catch and swallow very large vigorous prey, such as siblings, shortly after metamorphosis. The presence of a complete set of dermatocranial elements and postmetamorphic ossification of only the sphenethmoid and operculum are considered plesiomorphic features, whereas the much less completely ossified skulls of metamorphosed froglets, particularly in Bufo and Hamptophryne, are likely apo- morphic developmental traits within the Anura.
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  • 32
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The phylogenetic position of the Clitellata within the Annelida is still in debate. It is unresolved whether they are a basal group, resembling the stem species of the Annelida, or a highly derived subtaxon, which evolved from a polychaete-like ancestor. A factor often ignored in this discussion is the site of the supraoesophageal ganglion (brain). Its position in the Clitellata, far behind the prostomium, can be regarded as a secondary structural adaptation to a life spent burrowing through relatively firm terrestrial substrates. Such a habit probably led to the complete elimination of prostomial appendages and a marked reduction in size of the prostomium, resulting in a displacement of the brain into following segments. This interpretation of the sequence of events corroborates the view that the Clitellata are a highly derived subtaxon of the primarily marine Annelida. The development of the central nervous system of Enchytraeus crypticus (”Oligochaeta”) was analysed by immunohistochemical methods in combination with confocal laser scanning microscopy. A detailed description of neural structures, including the formation and arrangement of segmental nerves, is given for significant developmental stages. Labelling of neural structures using antibodies against acetylated α-tubulin and serotonin clearly shows that the cerebral ganglion initially develops within the prostomium. In the course of embryonic development it is shifted backwards into segment III. Thus the posterior relocation of the brain, which is inferred as having occurred in the phylogeny of the Clitel- lata, can be demonstrated in the ontogeny of E. crypticus.
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  • 33
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Recent reports indicate that neuronal elements develop in early larval stages of some Gastropoda from the Pulmonata and Opisthobranchia prior to the appearance of any ganglia of the future adult central nervous system (CNS). The present study describes similar early neuronal elements in Crepidula fornicata. A posterior FMRFamide-like immunoreactive (LIR) cell with anteriorly projected fibers was observed in the trochophore stage. Additional FMRFamide-LIR and serotonin-LIR cells and fibers were found in the apical organ in the trochophore and early veliger stages. FMRFamide-LIR and serotonin-LIR projections to the velum and foot were also detected at this time. As the veliger developed, peripheral FMRFamide-LIR and later catecholaminergic cells were located in the foot region. Also during this stage, catecholaminergic cells and processes were observed near the mouth. In addition, this study tentatively identified the first serotonin- and FMRFamide-LIR cells and fibers within the developing ganglia of the adult CNS, which appeared in close proximity to the earlier developing elements. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that, in addition to its presumed role in the control of larval behaviors, the larval nervous system guides the development of the adult CNS. Larvae from the class Bivalvia and other invertebrate phyla also have neuronal elements marked by the presence of FMRFamide, serotonin, and catecholamines, and, therefore, this study may provide additional insights into phylogenetic relationships of the Gastropoda with other representatives of the Mollusca and different invertebrate phyla.
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  • 34
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    Zoomorphology 119 (1999), S. 81-91 
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The eyes of different larval stages and juveniles of Atlanta peroni are generally composed of a cornea, a lens and a retina. In juveniles a distinct pigmented shield is visible and an enormous humour is located behind the lens. Larvae have only two sensory cells and the photoreceptors are of the ciliary type. In juveniles a striking feature is the shape of the retina. It is ribbon-shaped and new sensory cells are present which are arranged in three rows. The photoreceptors are of the ciliary type as well. Contrary to the arrangement in larvae, the ciliary plasmalemma in juveniles forms numerous lamellar stacks. In accordance with the sensory cells the stacks are organized in three parallel rows. The lamellae of adjacent stacks within a row overlap each other. The latter unique feature has not yet been found in any other representative of the Heteropoda. These findings demonstrate that (a) the eyes are altered during the development from larvae into juveniles, (b) the larval sensory cells are reduced and replaced by new sensory cells in juveniles and (c) the eyes of juvenile and adult A. peroni are well adapted for their life as visual predators.
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  • 35
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Two independent methods of comparison, serial homology and phylogenetic character mapping, are employed to investigate the evolutionary origin of the noctuoid moth (Noctuoidea) ear sensory organ. First, neurobiotin and Janus green B staining techniques are used to describe a novel mesothoracic chordotonal organ in the hawkmoth, Manduca sexta, which is shown to be serially homologous to the noctuoid metathoracic tympanal organ. This chordotonal organ comprises a proximal scolopidial region with three bipolar sensory cells, and a long flexible strand (composed of attachment cells) that connects peripherally to an unspecialized membrane ventral to the axillary cord of the fore-wing. Homology to the tympanal chordotonal organ in the Noctuoidea is proposed from anatomical comparisons of the meso- and metathoracic nerve branches and their corresponding peripheral attachment sites. Second, the general structure (noting sensory cell numbers, gross anatomy, and location of peripheral attachment sites) of both meso- and metathoracic organs is surveyed in 23 species representing seven superfamilies of the Lepidoptera. The structure of the wing-hinge chordotonal organ in both thoracic segments was found to be remarkably conserved in all superfamilies of the Macrolepidoptera examined except the Noctuoidea, where fewer than three cells occur in the metathoracic ear (one cell in representatives of the Notodontidae and two cells in those of other families examined), and at the mesothoracic wing-hinge (two cells) in the Notodontidae only. By mapping cell numbers onto current phylogenies of the Macrolepidoptera, we demonstrate that the three-celled wing-hinge chordotonal organ, believed to be a wing proprioceptor, represents the plesiomorphic state from which the tympanal organ in the Noctuoidea evolved. This ’trend toward simplicity’ in the noctuoid ear contrasts an apparent ’trend toward complexity’ in several other insect hearing organs where atympanate homologues have been studied. The advantages to having fewer rather than more cells in the moth ear, which functions primarily to detect the echolocation calls of bats, is discussed.
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  • 36
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  To investigate structural differences between propulsory and antigravity muscles, the spatial distribution of slow (type I) and fast (type II) muscle fibres in forelimb muscles of two species of small mammals was studied, Galea musteloides and Tupaia belangeri. Serial sections through complete forelimbs were prepared. Following histochemical fibre typing, the forelimbs were reconstructed three-dimensionally using product design software. Most forelimb muscles of both species showed a homogenous distribution of type I fibres. In the supraspinatus and triceps brachii (capita longum et laterale) muscles, however, a segregation of fibre types into ”fast” superficial areas and ”slow” deep regions was observed. Slow regions contained at least 60% type I fibres and were positioned along intramuscular extensions of the tendons of insertion. The functional implications of fibre type regionalization are discussed. An analysis of intramuscular fibre type distribution during postnatal myogenesis revealed no significant differences in muscle fibre differentiation between altricial and precocial juveniles. Differences in locomotor ability probably arise from heterochronic development of connective tissue components (endo- and perimysium).
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  • 37
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  The fine structure of spermiogenesis and spermatozoa in three species of the Macrostomorpha was studied, with emphasis on Bradynectes sterreri. Two centrioles appear during the development of sperm cells, at least in B. sterreri and Paromalostomum fusculum. Initially these organelles have a perpendicular position, but later they come to lie in line with each other. In P. fusculum, the differentiation of rootlet structures inserting on both centrioles was found. However, ciliary axonemes do not grow out, either in B. sterreri or in P. fusculum. These two species, and also Haplopharynx rostratus, have aciliated spermatozoa. The mature male gametes of B. sterreri are characterized by a filiform nucleus, numerous mitochondria, dense bodies irregular in shape, membranous lacunae, a pair of electron-dense lateral ledges and two sets of cortical microtubules in addition to a closed ring of microtubules in the posterior segment of the cell. Both lateral ledges do not originate from the centrioles. ’Lateral ledges’ or ’lateral bristles’ were not observed in spermatozoa of H. rostratus and P. fusculum. Such structures cannot be considered autapomorphic for the Macrostomorpha. The known spermatological characteristics contribute to elucidating the interrelationships of the Macrostomorpha. Haplopharynx and Macrostomida are sister groups. Spermatozoa with cortical microtubules separated into two sets are hypothesized as an autapomorphy of the Macrostomida. The two lateral ledges found in spermatozoa of B. sterreri are discussed to correspond to the pair of ’lateral bristles’ known from Macrostomum species, indicating a sister-group relationship of these two taxa. Apparently, the aciliated spermatozoa of Macrostomorpha species originated from biciliated male gametes. Hence, biciliated spermatozoa are not an evolutionary novelty of the Trepaxonemata, but of the Rhabditophora.
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  • 38
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    Zoomorphology 119 (1999), S. 127-142 
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Convoluta pulchra is a small worm living in the surface sediment of mud flats where it feeds on diatoms. It is roughly teardrop in shape with a ventral groove in which the mouth sits, and it can move in a variety of ways, readily distorting its body in bending, twisting, and turning motions. Fluorescently labeled probes for filamentous actin revealed the musculature in whole mounts of the worm. In the body wall, the musculature consisted of a grid of circular, longitudinal crossover (that is, with a longitudinal orientation in the anterior half of the body but arcing medially to cross over to the contralateral side of the body behind the level of the mouth), and a few diagonal fibers. Inside the body was a strong, irregular brush of muscles originating at the rostral tip of the body and anchoring laterally and posteriorly along the body wall, and strong dorsoventral muscles flanked the ventral groove. Two fans of muscles in the ventral and dorsal body wall reached posteriorly and laterally; that on the dorsal side originated at junctures of the dorsoventral muscles with the body wall and that on the ventral body wall originated from the mouth. By their positions, certain groups of muscles could be correlated with given movements: the crossover muscles with some turning motions and feeding, and the inner muscles with probing and retraction motions of the rostrum and with a tuck-and-turn motion the worm used to turn itself around. Electron microscopy showed numerous maculae adherentes junctions linking all muscle types and special junctions linking the musculature with the epidermis. The latter myoepidermal junctions were of dimensions larger than those of maculae adherentes and contained an interlaminar material which we believe represents islands of basal matrix comparable to basement membrane.
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  • 39
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    Zoomorphology 119 (1999), S. 143-162 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Keywords: Abbreviations L1, L2, L3: instars of larvae ; Lm: mature larva(e)
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Adhesion to smooth surfaces by means of thin fluid lipid film was studied on living larvae of 71 species of Lepidoptera by a simple ”light reflection method”. The method made it possible to localize exactly the sites of adhesion and to estimate roughly the film thickness, within a certain range. Furthermore, it revealed the general presence of mobile lipid on the entire insect surface. The observations on living larvae were complemented by comparative structural studies of the adhesive parts with light and scanning electron microscopes on preserved specimens of 161 species. Specialized adhesive devices were found in great diversity on larval legs and prolegs, especially in larvae living in the open air on their food plants. Two main surface types of adhesive cuticle were found: (1) cuticle with a flexible smooth surface and (2) cuticle with very numerous small projections (microtrichia) with spatulate and recurved apices. Both the functional implications of the adhesive cuticular structure and the role of the adhesive fluid as well as the evolution of the adhesive devices are discussed. The adhesive effect is due to ”capillary” or meniscus forces.
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  • 40
    ISSN: 1432-234X
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  A comparative SEM investigation of the transphragma representing the medioanterior margin of the first abdominal tergum in ditrysian Lepidoptera resulted in the establishment of a directed transformation series of gradual modifications. Most remarkably, an additional phragma, for which the term euphragma is proposed, must be assigned to the ground pattern of the Obtectomera. However, this assumption implies that a subsequent loss of the euphragma must be attributed to the ground patterns of the Axiidae, Copromorphoidea, Doidae, Papilionidae and the Hedylidae. On the other hand, a typical euphragma is also observed in the non-obtectomeran superfamily Sesioidea. Similarly, the phylogenetic significance of the presence of a much smaller circular phragma in the Choreutidae is not yet understood. Either the three taxa (Obtectomera, Sesioidea and Choreutidae) constitute a clade, and secondary modifications have obliterated the euphragma on a number of occasions, or the euphragma has been developed independently on more than one occasion. Potential autapomorphies of various subordinate taxa are also discussed.
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  • 41
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    Zoomorphology 74 (1973), S. 323-348 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Topographie und Histologie der Speicheldrüsen vonPolyxenus lagurus, Craspedosoma rawlinsii undSchizophyllum sabulosum werden lichtund elektronenmikroskopisch untersucht und beschrieben. 2. P. lagurus besitzt nur eine paarige Glandula salivalis in den ersten beiden Rumpfsegmenten und im Hinterkopf lateral vom Darm. Ihr Ausführkanal mündet auf dem Gnathochilarium in den Präoralraum. Die Drüse ist in eine Haupt- und eine Nebendrüse untergliedert. Beide Abschnitte unterscheiden sich elektronenmikroskopisch. 3. C. rawlinsii besitzt im Vorderkopf zwei Paar Glandulae salivales anteriores und eine paarige Glandula salivalis lateralis, die auf dem Epipharynx in den Präoralraum münden. Die Ausführkanale von zwei paarigen Glandulae salivales maxillares münden dagegen in die Ausführgänge der Maxillarnephridien. Ihre Speicheldrüsenfunktion wird nicht zuletzt deshalb angezweifelt. Ein Paar langer Glandulae salivales posteriores erstreckt sich vom Mitteldarm durch den gesamten Vorderrumpf und mündet auf dem Gnathochilarium beiderseits vom Hypopharynx in den Präoralraum. 4. Sch. sabulosum besitzt eine paarige Glandula salivalis anterior in Vorderkopf und eine paarige Glandula salivalis posterior im Vorderrumpf. Ihre Ausführkanäle münden auf dem Epipharynx bzw. auf dem Gnathochilarium in den Präoralraum.
    Notes: Summary 1. Topography and histology of the salivary glands ofPolyxenus lagurus, Craspedosoma rawlinsii andSchizophyllum sabulosum were studied by light and electron microscopy and are described. 2. InP. lagurus there is only one paired glandula salivalis in the first two metameres of the trunc and the back of the head laterally to the gut. Its exretory duct opens into the preoral cavity on the gnathochilarium. The gland is divided in a main gland and a secondary gland. Electron microscopy reveals an obvious difference between the two segments. 3. C. rawlinsii possess two pairs of glandulae salivales anteriores and a paired glandula salivalis lateralis in the front of the head, which open into the preoral cavity at the epipharynx. The exretory ducts of the two paired glandulae salivales maxillares, however, open into the ducts of the maxillary nephridia. Therefore their salivary function is called in question. A pair of long glandulae salivales posteriores extend from mid-gut throughout the anterior part of the trune and opens into the preoral cavity on both sides of the hypopharynx at the gnathochilarium. 4. Sch. sabulosum possess a paired glandula salivalis anterioris at the front of the head and a paired glandula salivalis posterioris in the anterior part of the trunc. Their exretory ducts open into the preoral cavity at the epipharynx and the gnathochilarium respectively.
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  • 42
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Die männliche Clunio-Imago ist für etwa 2 Std aktiv. Während dieser Zeit wird ihr Postabdomen bis zur permanenten Inversion des Hypopygiums tordiert. Das Gesamtabdomen verkürzt sich infolge der Torsion des Postabdomens und der Retraktion der Präabdomensegmente um ein Drittel. In der ersten Minute nach der Imaginalhäutung wird das Hypopygium bereits um 90° gedreht. Die gleichzeitige Verkurzung macht 2/3 des endgültigen Betrags aus. Die Männchen Bind in dieser Situation bereits kopulationsfähig. Torsion und Verkürzung werden durch die Kopulation verstärkt. 2. Anatomische Untersuchungen deckten ein kompliziertes System schräg und überkrenz verlaufender Dorsal-, Lateral- und Ventralmuskeln auf. Eine Spezialisierung der Muskulatur des Postabdomens auf Rotationsbewegungen ist festzustellen. 3. Die in Verhaltensstudien beobachteten feinkoordinierten Torsiousbewegungen sowie die Ergebnisse aus Schnürungsexperimenten führen zu der Auffassung, daß die Inversion des Hypopygiums nicht als eine Summe von drei isoliert ablaufenden Segmentrotationen zu verstehen ist. Das Postabdomen wird vielmehr als ein Funktionsgefüge angesehen, in dem homologe und heterologe Muskeln einem über die Segmentgrenzen hinweggreifenden synergistischen Prinzip unterworfen sind. Es lassen sich für jede Torsionsrichtung fünf Muskelschlingen nachweisen, die das Postabdomen jeweils um etwa 200° in spiraligem Verlauf umfassen. 4. Modellberechnungen ergaben, daß sich die dorsalen and ventralen Rotationsmuskeln um mehr als 50% ihrer Ausgangslänge in situ verkürzen müssen, wean sie ihr jeweiliges Insertionssegment um 60° drehen. Die schräge Lateralmuskulatur kann dagegen nur an einer Initialrotation beteiligt sein, weil ihr Abstand zur Körperlängsachse zu groß ist. Die Leistungen der Rotationsmuskeln werden unter Heranziehung der aus der Literatur bekannten Tatsaehen über die Kontraktionsfähigkeit von Skelettmuskeln diskutiert. 5. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Abdomentorsion und Paarungsverhalten bei Clunio marinas wird unter vergleichend ethologischen Gesichtspunkten erörtert. Die Konstruktionsmerkmale der äußeren weiblichen und männlichen Geschlechtsorgane bei allen Nematoceren scheinen darin übereinzustimmen, daß sie eine Kopulation nur ermöglichen, wenn sich die Abdomenspitzen der Partner in Oppositionsstellung befinden und das männliche Hypopygium invertiert ist. Arten, die wie Clunio die Kopulation in der „face-to-face”-Stellung beginnen, and solche, die aus der „face-to-back”-Stellung in die „end-to-end”-Stellung übergehen, erreichen these Inversion über eine Rotation des Hypopygiums und weiterer Abdominalsegmente. Dies führt zu einer permanenten oder temporären Torsion des Postabdomens. 6. Torsion und Verkürzung des Abdomens. ergeben eine Erhöhung der Röhrenfestigkeit des Abdomens und eine Vorverlagerung des Körperschwerpunkts. Dies bringt dem Clunio-M ännchen mechanische Vorteile beim Tragen des apteren Weibchens während des Paarungsflugs. 7. Der Sexualdimorphismus bei Clunio marinas geht mit einhm „ethologischen Sexualdimorphismus” einher. Die Immobilität des Weibchens sowie die besonderen Verhaltensweisen des Männchens (Aufsuchen der weiblichen Puppe; Befreiung des Weibchens aus der Puppenhülle; Transport zum Eiablageplatz) wirken ebenso wie die Synchronisation der Schlüpfzeiten gegen die Dispersion der Partner innerhalb ihres Lebensraums in der unteren Gezeitenzone.
    Notes: Summary 1. The male imago of Clunio marinas is active for about two hours In this time its postabdomen undergoes a torsion as a result of which the hypopygium is permanently inverted. The whole abdomen is shortened by one third by the torsion of the postabdomen and the retraction of the preabdominal segments. One minute after the shedding of the imago the hypopygium is already turned through 90°. The simultaneous shortening accounts for two thirds of the final amount. 2. Anatomical investigations revealed a complex system of oblique and crossed dorsal, lateral, and ventral muscles. A specialization of the muscular system of the postabdomen for rotary motions can be recognized. 3. The well coordinated torsion motions watched in ethological studies as well as the results from ligation experiments lead to the opinion that the inversion of the hypopygium is not the sum of three isolated segmental rotations. The postabdomen must rather be seen as a functional unit in which homologous and heterologous muscles are ruled by a synergic principle, which extends over several segments. It can be demonstrated that there are five muscular loops for each direction of torsion, which run about 200° helically around the postabdomen. 4. From calculations on models it follows that the dorsal and the ventral rotary muscles must shorten by more than 50% of their original length in situ when they turn their segments of insertion about 60° around the rotary axis. The oblique lateral muscles, in contrast, can only take part in an initial rotation, because their distances to the longitudinal axis of the body are too great. The effects of the rotary muscles are discussed with reference to the facts about the contractility of skeletal muscles known from the relevant literature. 5. The correlations between the abdominal torsion and the mating behaviour in Clunio marinas are discussed from the point of view of comparative ethology. The constructional attributes of the female and male external genital organs in all nematocerous insects seem to be similar as they allow copulation only when the ends of the abdomens of the sexual partners are facing each other and when the male hypopygium is inverted. Species which begin their copulation like Clunio in the face-to-face position, and those which change from an initial face-to-back position into an end-to-end position get to this inversion by rotation of the hypopygium and some other abdominal segments. The results of this are permanent or temporary torsions of the postabdomen. 6. Torsion and shortening of the abdomen increases the tubular stability of the abdominal exoskeleton and the centre of gravity of the insect's body is shifted forward. This brings mechanical advantages to the Clunio male while carrying the wingless female during the mating flight. 7. The sexual dimorphism in Clunio marinus includes an “ethological sexual dimorphism”. The immobility of the female and the particular behaviour of the male (catching the female pupa; stripping off the pupal skin of the female; transport to the place where the eggs can be deposited) as well as the synchronization of the times of emergence work against the dispersion of the sexual partners in their habitat in the inferior tidal zone.
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    Zoomorphology 75 (1973), S. 51-58 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Hypoblepharina böhmigi sp. n. ist eine kommensalistische Art aus dem Marsupium der AmphipodeCheirimedon femoratus. Sie ist leicht erkennbar durch ihr bogenförmiges Kutikularsteilett mit triangulärem Mundstück. Drei Vertreter derselben Gattung wurden von Böhmig im Jahre 1914 aus 385 m Tiefe in antarktischen Gewässern beschreiben. Vielleicht sind auch diese Arten Kommensalem in Amphipoden. — Die Diagnose der GattungHypoblepharina wird revidiert.
    Notes: Summary This is the first find of aHypoblepharina species since Böhmig's description of this genus in 1914 based on three species from a depth of 385 m in Antarctic waters.H. böhmigi sp. n. lives as commensal in the brood pouch of an amphipod. It is easily recognized by its arched cuticular stylet provided with a triangular mouth-piece and has the same principal anatomical features as the species described by Böhmig. The chance that these species too may be commensal in amphipods, cannot be ignored as it was impossible to establish their true habitat on the basis of the available expedition material. The family Hypoblepharinidae Böhmig is retained but its taxonomic diagnosis is revised.
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    Notes: Summary The femoro-tibial joint of the middle leg of Gerris najas is a single-axis hinge with an effective angle of 180°. Morphology and kinematics of this joint are described. Short sclerites are inserted between the tibia and the tendon-like apodemes of its flexor and extensor muscles. Flexible at both ends, the sclerites extend the angle of leverage by 120° in the case of the extensor tibiae and by 60° in the case of the flexor tibiae. The effective lever length was determined quantitatively for the entire 180° (see Fig. 6).
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    Zoomorphology 75 (1973), S. 255-258 
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    Notes: Summary In the Bryozoa neither an extreme accentuation nor an extreme denial of the individuality of the zooids in the colonies is in accordance with the observed facts. The brooding organs of the Gymnolaemata have developed independently from the brooding organs of the Phylactolaemata.
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Die tibialen Tympanalorgane von neun einheimischen Laubheuschrecken-Amen wurden genauer untersucht. 2. Besonderes Interesse galt dem Verlauf der Beintrachee and der beiden in die Vorderextremität eintretenden Nerven (Abb. 4). 3. Die Tibien- and “Cristalängen” sowie die Anzahl der Scolopidien der Crista acustica and deren durchschnittliche Länge wurden im Vergleich dargestellt. 4. Bemerkenswert vor allem ist die Artspezifität der “Cristalänge” und der Anzahl der Scolopidien der Hörleiste. 5. Dies läßt vermuten, daß die Perzeption der artspezifischen Stridulation mit Hilfe der Tympanalorgane eng mit der unter 4. dargestellten Erkenntnis korreliert ist.
    Notes: Summary 1. The tibial tympana] organs of nine native bush cricket species have been investigated more closely. 2. Special interest was devoted to the course of the trachea of the front leg and to both nerves which enter the front extremity (Fig. 4). 3. The lengths of the front tibia and “crista”, the number of the scolopidia of the crista acustica and their average length have been illustrated comparatively. 4. The most remarkable feature is the species-specificity of the “crista-length” and of the number of scolopidia of the crista acustica. 5. This implies that the perception of the species-specific stridulation with ted aid of the tympanal organs is closely correlated with the features described in point 4.
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    Zoomorphology 75 (1973), S. 297-314 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die elektronenmikroskopischen Untersuchungen an den sekretbildenden Zellen der Speicheldrüsen von Diplopoden ergaben: 1. Die sezernierenden Zellen der Speicheldrüsen von Diplopoden sind typische Drüsenparenchymzellen. Sie Bind von hoch-prismatischer Form. Zwischen den Cytoplasmamembranen benachbarter Zellen ist ein unterschiedlich weites Interzellularsystem entwickelt, in das hinein die Sekretextrusion erfolgt. Zellhafte zwischen den Zellen sind selten; immer sind sie als Zonulae occludentes ausgebildet. 2. Das endoplasmatische Reticulum ist stark entwickelt und immer granulär. Neben engen Zisternen sind häufig vesikuläre Auftreibungen zu sehen, die mit flockigem Material gefüllt sind. In der Nähe von Golgifeldern werden ribosomenfreie Zisternenpartien abgeschnürt, die als Begleitvesikel den Golgikomplex umgeben. Häufig enden ER-Zisternen direkt an Sekretvakuolen. 3. Überall im Cytoplasma treten auch freie Ribosomen auf. Gehäuft findet man sie in der Nähe von Vakuolenballen und zwischen den Membranen des vesikulären ER. Auch den Sekretgrana und der äußeren Kernmembran sitzen regelmäßig Ribosomen an. 4. Die Zellkerne sind gelappt. Ihre Form wird häufig durch die um sie herum dicht gelagerten Sekretvakuolen bestimmt. Das Chromatin ist aufgelockert und gleichmäßig in ilmen verteilt. Der kugelige Nucleolus ist sehr groß und immer deutlich. 5. Golgikomplexe sind zahlreich und polar differenziert. An ihren Zisternenenden werden Prosekretvesikel abgeschnürt; oftmals sind die gesamten Zisternen perlschnurartig untergliedert. Noch in der Nähe der Golgifelder vereinigen sich kleine Prosekretgrana zu größeren Vakuolen. 6. Der Inhalt der Sekretvakuolen ist mit größer werdendem Abstand vom Golgi-komplex elektronenmikroskopisch erkennbaren Veränderungen unterworfen. Diese drücken sich in der Kondensation zu Fibrillen oder Schollen und zunehmender Transparenz der dazwischen gelegenen Bezirke aus. In den Sekretvakuolen einiger Speicheldrüsen lagern sich feine Fibrillen zu tubulären Strukturen zusammen. Diese Tubuli sind oft gebandelt und werden auch in den Interzellularspalten nach der Sekretextrusion oder im Cytoplasma zwischen den Sekretvakuolen gefunden. 7. Mitochondrien kommen bevorzugt zwischen den Membranen des vesikulären ER und Sekretvakuolen angelagert vor. Sie sind von durchschnittlicher Größe und gehören stets dem Crista-Typ an; ihre Matrix ist recht dicht. 8. Die Befunde werden mit den aus der Literatur bekannten Ergebnissen, die an exokrinen Drüsen gewonnen werden, verglichen und hinsichtlich ihrer mutmaßlichen Bedeutung und Funktion diskutiert.
    Notes: Summary Examination of the ultrastructure of Secretory cells of the salivary gland by electron microscope in Diplopoda showed: 1. Secretory cells of the salivary glands in diplopods are columnar parenchymal cells. An intercellular system of varying width is developed in cytoplasmic membranes, into which Secretory extrusion takes place. Cells haptosomes are rare, but zonulae occludentes can always be found. 2. The endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) is well-developed and its membranes are covered with ribosomes. As well as narrow cisternae, vesicular swellings containing flaky material are present. Close by, Golgi complexes (part of the ribosome-free cisternae) surround the Golgi apparatus. The ER-cisternae frequently terminate directly at Secretory vacuoles. 3. Free ribosomes are ubiquitous in the cytoplasm. They are frequently found in clumps close to vacuoles and between the membranes of the vesicular ER. As a rule, however, ribosomes are attached to Secretory granules and to the outer membrane of the nucleus. 4. The shape of the lobed nucleus is often determined by the surrounding vacuoles. Chromatin substances are dissolved and evenly distributed within it. The spherical nucleolus appears to be very large and is always distinct. 5. Golgi complexes are numerous and can be determined by polar differentiation. Prosecretory vesicles are cut off at the ends of the cisternae. Quite often whole cisternae appear like strings of beads. Small grana combine to form larger vacuoles even near the Golgi fields. 6. The changeable nature of the contents of the vacuoles is discernable with the electron microscope, as distance increases from the Golgi complex. It is apparent that condensation of fibrils or clods occurs, and the intermediate zones show increased transparency. Within the vacuoles of some salivary glands fine fibrils unite to form tubular structures. These tubules are often bundled and can sometimes be found within the intercellular spaces and within cytoplasm between vacuoles. 7. Mitochondria occur between the membranes of the vesicular ER and attached to vacuoles. They are always of the crista type, and their matrix appears very dense. 8. The results are compared with published data on exocrine glands and their significance and possible applications are discussed.
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    Notes: Summary 1. The single auricle of Chaetoderma nitidulum originates as double invaginations of pericardial epithelium; these invaginations lie laterally at the base of an intrapericardial channel and receive blood from a capacious gill sinus into which empty the dorsally situated efferent vessels of the gills. The ventricle and aortal bulb with its strong sphincter change shape markedly during systole and diastole. The auriculo-ventricular valve is a cup-shaped check valve, the blind end facing posteriorly toward the auricle. It is attached medially both dorsally and ventrally to the wall of the auriculo-ventricular opening, thus forming a double passage. The heart of Falcidens remains to be described in detail. The ventricle in neither genus is open to the dorsal sinus. 2. The pericardium in Falcidens caudatus and Chaetoderma nitidulum divides medially around the dorsal gill retractors, forming an intrapericardial channel connecting the gill sinus and dorsal sinus. The pericardium is completely closed off from the dorsal sinus. A pair of lateral V-shaped extensions open ventrally into the coelomoducts. 3. The male coelomoduct openings into the mantle cavity of C. nitidulum and F. caudatus pass through strong sphincters, which may or may not be protruded into papillae. The female openings are slits also surrounded by sphincters. Paired funnel-shaped areas of the mantle wall epithelium of females only are produced into columnar gland cells and surround the openings; their function is not known. 4. The gonad primordium of juvenile C. nitidulum is paired; the anlagen lie in paired coelomic lumina. As in Bivalvia, adults do not distinctly show a paired condition in the ripe gonad. 5. The shape of the heart, the supposed number of auriculo-ventricular openings, and the type of coelomoduct openings into the mantle cavity are not useful taxonomic characters for species differentiation in the family Chaetodermatidae.
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    Zoomorphology 76 (1973), S. 145-171 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Auf Grund lichtmikroskopischer und rasterelektronenmikroskopischer Untersuchungen wird das Skeletmuskelsystem des Ovipositors von Raphidia flavipes Stein und R. ophiopsis L. beschrieben. Die Beobachtung der Eiablage ermöglichte eine funktionelle Deutung der anatomischen Strukturen. Die Untersuchung erbrachte folgende Ergebnisse: 1. Bei den Raphidioptera besteht der Ovipositor aus einem paarigen Anhang des 9. und einem unpaaren des 8. Segmentes. Die Anhänge des 9. Segmentes verschmelzen zu einem rinnenförmigen Grundkörper. In diesen ist der unpaare Anhang des S. Segmentes als ventraler Verschluß eingepaßt. Die membranöse Oberseite des Legerohres senkt sich in der Ruhehaltung zu einer tiefen Membranfalte ein. 2. Der Ovipositor der Raphidioptera dient als bewegliche Legesonde, die dank ihrer Flexibilität auch in unregelmäßig gestaltete Hohlräume des Ablagesubstrates eingeführt werden kann. 3. In Anpassung an these Funktion wurde das primär einheitliche Lateralsklerit des Neuropteroiden-Ovipositors bis auf einen mittleren Streif in zahlreiche vertikal stehende Spangen aufgegliedert (Prinzip des flexiblen Metallschlauches). 4. Für die Bewegung des Legerohres steht eine kompliziert angeordnete Eigenmuskulatur zur Verfügung. Diese läßt sich in fünf das Legerohr durchsetzende Systeme unterteilen. 5. Während des Eitransportes werden die beiden Hälften des Legerohr-Grundkörpers in schneller Folge vor- und zurückgeschoben. Dabei arbeiten die beiden Körperseiten alternierend. 6. Die Führung dieser Bewegung übernimmt ein Gleitgelenk zwischen den Grundkörperhälften und dem unpaaren Anhang des 8. Segmentes. Demnach erfüllt der unpaare Anhang des 8. Segmentes die Aufgabe einer Führungsschiene. 7. Die Mitnahme des Eies besorgen kammförmige Strukturen auf der Innenwand des Legerohres, deren Zinken nach hinten gerichtet sind. 8. Es wird vermutet, daß rich an den Schubbewegungen neben der Binnenmuskulatur des Legerohres auch Muskeln des 9. Segmentes beteiligen. 9. Gegenüber der Ruhehaltung wird der Durchmesser des Legerohres während des Eidurchtrittes mehr als verdoppelt. 10. Die Erweiterung des Legerohres erfolgt durch Aufbiegen und Seitwärtsverlagern seiner Lateralsklerite. Zugleich wird die dorsale Membranfalte völlig ausgeglichen.
    Notes: Summary The skeleto-muscular system of the ovipositor of Raphidia flavipes and R. ophiopsis is described. Observation of egg laying allowed a functional interpretation of the anatomical structures. The following results were achieved: 1. In the Raphidioptera the ovipositor consists of a paired appendix of the 9th and an unpaired appendix of the 8th segment. The appendices of the 9th segment are fused together to form a groovelike structure. The unpaired appendix of the 8th segment fits into this, closing it ventrally. The membranous upper side of this tube is inserted as a deep membrane fold in the resting position. 2. The ovipositor of the Raphidioptera acts as a movable egg-laying probe which, owing to its flexibility, can also be introduced into irregular cavities of the substratum where the eggs are laid. 3. As an adaptation to this function the primarily undivided lateral sclerite of the neuropteroid ovipositor was segmented, except for a central strip, into numerous vertical clasps (according to the principle of a flexible metallic hose). 4. An intricately arranged musculature moves the ovipositor. It can be divided into five systems which permeate the ovipositor. 5. During transport of the egg the two halves of the groove are pushed forwards and backwards in quick sequence. The two sides work alternately. 6. These movements are guided by a gliding link between the groove and the unpaired appendix of the 8th segment. Consequently this unpaired appendix serves as a guiding slat. 7. The transport of the egg is brought about by comb-like structures situated on the interior walls of the ovipositor, the teeth of which are directed backwards. 8. It is supposed that for the pushing movements not only the genuine ovipositor muscles are used but also muscles of the 9th segment. 9. During passage of the egg the diameter of the ovipositor is more than twice the diameter in the resting position. 10. The expansion of the ovipositor results from a curving up and sideward shifting of the lateral sclerites. At the same time the dorsal membrane fold is made completely even by the expansion.
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    Notes: Summary Adult males and females of the pentastomid Reighardia sternae Diesing 1864 from the body cavity and air sacs of Larus argentatus are described. The species resembles other Cephalobaenid pentastomids closely, the main differences being the lack of abdominal annuli and the poorly developed hook-bearing podia. Attention is paid to the secretory systems of this organism and these are compared to those described for other species. Possible functions are discussed.
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    Zoomorphology 76 (1973), S. 227-242 
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    Notes: Summary The first morphological examination of the surface and internal anatomy of the kinorhynch, Echinoderes dujardini was undertaken using the scanning and transmission electron microscopes. The oral styles and at least the first ring of scalids were found to have a basal pectinate fringe that resembles the pectinate fringe found at the posterior margins of the trunk segments. In addition to the fringe, the scalids were subdivisible into at least two distinct classes which are similar in structure to the trichoscalid and type I spinocalid identified by Moritz and Storch in T. giganteus. The trichoscalid of E. dujardini however, was found to possess a unique fluted cuticle structure with spines arising only on the medial surface. Although pores are known to occur in the cuticle of homalorhagid kinorhynchs, such pores were not found in the cyclorhagid, E. dujardini. A structure, provisionally designated “sensory-like structure” is described. Some 60 or more compactly placed spines occur as paired circles or ellipses on all but the terminal trunk segment. An electron dense structure was seen in the subsurface of the placids that may lend mechanical support and may contribute to the “Napoleon hats” seen with light microscopy. Micrographs of the circumentric nerve ring, gut, epidermis and pharynx are presented. Located at the anterior of the pharynx is a peripharyngeal muscle. The muscle, composed of two membrane bounded smooth muscle strands, probably acts as a sphincter to prevent a reverse flow of food material. Finally, scanning micrographs show a single opening located dorsolaterally on the 10th segment. This opening has been interpreted as an excretory pore even though it does not occur ventrolaterally on the 11th segment as reported for other kinorhynchs.
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    Zoomorphology 76 (1973), S. 285-338 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wurden 10 Arten aus allen vier Unterfamilien der Milbenfamilie Bdellidae (Trombidiformes) untersucht. In dem vorliegenden Aufsatz werden die Erndhrungsbiologie, das Spinnvermögen Bowie die Funktionsanatomie des Verdauungstraktes und der „Munddrüsen” dargestellt. Daneben werden einige autökologische Daten gegeben. 1. Lebenszyklus: Aus Freilandfängen konnte füur Bdella longicornis und Neomolgus littoralis ein einjähriger Lebenszyklus bestimmt werden. Während bei der ersten Art ältere Nymphen, Adulti und Eier fäberwintern, fäberdauern bei Neomolgus littoralis nur die Eier. 2. Ernährungsbiologie, Funktionsanatomie des Darmtraktes: Alle beobachteten Arten benutzen zum Fang ihrer Beute, die in der Regel aus weichhäutigen kleinen Arthropoden besteht, ein klebriges, fadenziehendes Sekret, mit dem. das Beutetier an das Substrat gefesselt wind. Cyta latirostris bevorzugt Oribatei als Beute. Das Sekret wird aus dem muskulösen Receptaculum cibi (Michael, 1896)=Supraösophageal-Organ (Ehara, 1960), das als Reservoir dient, ausgestoβen. Eine Kropffunktion kommt diesem die Bdelliden kennzeichnenden Organ nicht zu. Die Bezeichnung Eharas ist deshalb der von Michael vorzuziehen. Nach Aufsaugen des extraintestinal vorverdauten Nahrungsbreies wird dieser im Ventrikel und in den Caecen resorbiert. Hier wurden zwei Zelltypen beobachtet: Verdauungszellen and deutlich weniger Drüsenzellen. Nach Abschluß der Resorptionsvorgänge treten die Abbauprodukte aus dem Ventrikel in das dorsomediane Exkretionsorgan über, wo sic von einem Häutchen umhüllt werden und einen dunklen Kotballen bilden. Neben den dunklen Kotballen treten im Exkretionsorgan die von den Trombidiformes bekannten weißen Exkretstrdnge auf. Das Exkretionsorgan muß als Darmabschnitt gedeutet werden. Es besteht aus einem entodermalen, dem eigentlichen exkretorisch tätigen Darmabschnitt (Colon), und einem ektodermalen (Rectum) Anteil. Auch bei Anystis sp. wurden ähnliche Verhältnisse gefunden. Gleichsinnige Ergebnisse erbrachten die Untersuchungen von Ehrnsberger (1973) an Rhagidiiden und Witte (1972) an Erythraeide. Damit sind zu den schon bekannten Trombidiformes-Gruppen mit durchgehendem Darm, nämlich den Tetrapodili (Nalepa, 1887) and den Tetranychiden (Blauvelt, 1945) vier weitere hinzugekommen. Das bedeutet, daß der „blindgeschlossene Mitteldarm” nur noch sehr bedingt als Charakteristikum der Trombidiformes gelten kann. 3. Spinnvermügen: Neben dem. Fangsekret verwenden die Bdelliden-Arten Bdella longicornis, Spinibdella cronini und Biscirus silvaticus ein ähnliehes Sekret zum Bau von Häutungsnestern. Spinibdella cronini spinnt such das Eigelege ein. Füur die Spinnsekretproduktion sind die „Munddrüsen“ verantwortlich. Von ihnen gehüren vier Paar zum podocephalischen System. Mit eigenen Ausführgängen münden die paarige infracapituläre Drüse und die unpaare Drüse (=Tracheendrüse). Die letzte fehlt bei Bdellodes longirostris. Bei der 4. podocephalischen Drüse, der tubulären Drüse der Autoren, konnte ein proximaler Sacculus nachgewiesen werden, womit die alte Annahme, daβ es sich bei diesem Organ um eine Coxaldrüse handele, bestätigt wurde. Michael (1896) ergänzend wird ein zusätzliches podocephalisches Drüsenpaar beschrieben, das kurz vor der Mündung der podocephalischen Kanäle beider Körperseiten in die Chelicerenrinne in die podocephalischen Kanäle einmündet. Diese Beobachtung, die die Ergebnisse von Ehrnsberger (1973) an Rhagidiiden bestätigt, machen eine neue Zuordnung der von Grandjean (1938) bei Bdelliden dargestellten Kanale nötig. Es wird daher eine neue Terminologie vorgeschlagen: 1., 2., 3., 4. podocephalische Drüse, wobei die letzte der Coxaldrüse entspricht. Während die Bedeutung der 1. und 2. podocephalischen Driise und der Tracheendrüse ungeklärt bleibt, wird aufgrund von vergleichenden und funktionsanatomischen Untersuchungen die Beteiligung der 3. podocephalischen Drüse und der infracapitulären Drüse an der Spinusekretproduktion angenommen.
    Notes: Summary The present study is based on comparative studies of ten species belonging to the four subfamilies of Snout Mites (Bdellidae, Trombidiformes). The main results reported here fall under 3 headings; life cycle, feeding biology and spinning ability. 1. In Bdella longicornis and Neomolgus littoralis an annual life cycle is found. In the first species elder nymphs, adults, and eggs, hibernate and only eggs in the latter. 2. All observed species make use of a stringy exudate in capturing prey. Soft skinned arthropods generally serve as prey. Cyta latirostris prefers Oribatei. The exudate is extruded from the “receptaculum cibi” (Michael, 1896) or “supraoesophageal organ” (Ehara, 1960), which serves as a reservoir. The function of a crop is not attributable to this organ, so that Eharas term is to be preferred. There is no histological difference between ventriculus and ceca. Two types of cells are observed: digestive cells, and rather fewer secretory cells. Feces gather in the ventriculus and then pass into the so called excretory organ where they are coverd with a thin membrane. An open communication between ventriculus and excretory organ has been proved. The excretory organ is considered part of the alimentary canal. It consists of an endodermal colon and an endodermal rectum. Similar results have been found in a first study on Anystis sp. Following the work of Nalepa (1887) on Tetrapodili and Blauvelt (1945) on Tetranychidae, an open communication between ventriculus and excretory organ has thus been demonstrated in two further groups of trombidiform mites. Similar (unpublished) results has been obtained by Ehrnsberger (1972) and Witte (1972) in Rhagidiidae and Erythraeidae. 3. In addition to the exudate used for capturing prey the species Bdella longicornis, Spinibdella cronini and Biscirus silvaticus use similar exudates for building moulting nests. Spinibdella cronini also cocoons its eggs. The “mouth glands” are responsible for the production of silk. Four pairs of mouth glands belong to the podocephalic system. The paired infracapitular gland and the azygous gland (=tracheal gland) discharge with separate ducts. The azygous gland is missing in Bdellidas longirostris. The fourth podocephalic gland, the tubular gland of the authors, shows a proximal sacculus, confirming that this organ is a true coxal gland. Supplementing Michael (1896) another pair of podocephalic glands is described. Their ducts discharge into the podocephalic canals near their outlets into the cheliceral groove. These observations, which confirming the results of Ehrnsberger (1973) in Rhagidiidae, require a new interpretation of the ducts described by Grandjean (1938) in his work on bdellids. Therefore a new terminology is proposed: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th podocephalic gland, by which the latter corresponding to the coxal gland. Whereas the function of the 1st and 2nd podocephalic gland and of the tracheal gland remains unexplained, the infracapitular gland and the 3rd podocephalic gland are postulated to take part in the production of silk.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 1-1 
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 3-16 
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    Notes: Summary The author gives numerical data resulting from detailed measurements on a common softwood,Picea abies; which can form the basis for the verification of new structural models of wood cell walls. Some suggestions are made for the interpretation of the data, including the development of internal stresses followed by relaxation, molecular destabilisation followed by physical aging during moisture changes, and differing forms of moisture bonding.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 45-50 
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    Notes: Abstract The rates of acetylation of Deal, Larch, Southern Yellow Pine and Sitka Spruce using acetic anhydride in xylene have been measured and compared with the composition of the woods. Although these woods have similar macroscopic characteristics, the correlation between rate of acetylation and composition remains unclear, although the holocellulose may play a role in converting the hydrophilic hydroxyl groups to hydrophobic acetyl groups. The rate of acetylation of Larch at 373 K was insignificant but the other wood samples showed significant acetylation at this temperature. The activation energies for the acetylation process suggest that several routes may be involved.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 35-44 
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    Notes: Summary In a previous study, the deformation field measurement method on wood during drying was described. This paper discusses the deformation field measurement results during drying to 8.2% moisture content on the radial and tangential surfaces. It also attempts to explain the observations by an approximate expression based onearlywood-latewood interaction theory. The deformation on the radial surface varied between −0.7% and 7.5%. The actual measurements on the radial surfaces support previous work. Deformation measurements on the tangential surfaces were between −0.5% and 9.0%. Although the investigations were carried out on gross wood specimens, the results provide an insight into the extent to which local density variation within the early- and latewood layers may influence the magnitude of surface deformation.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 73-76 
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    Notes: Summary When predicting the performance of wood drying processes, film coefficients for heat and mass transfer are among the parameters that need to be estimated. Customary methods such as the use of the Lewis relation were originally derived for vapour pressures which were small compared with atmospheric pressure. For high temperature drying of wood it is necessary to extend the associated psychrometric equation to one of more general applicability. Such extension is the subject of this paper. Essential to the analysis is the determination of the rate of change of vapour pressure with temperature adjacent to the wood surface. It is found that when the vapour pressure is not assumed small compared with atmospheric pressure, the above gradient contains a factor P - po where P is the atmospheric pressure and po is the free stream vapour pressure. At high temperatures and humidities, this factor becomes important and the film coefficient for mass transfer increases without limit.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 63-72 
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    Notes: Summary Variations and correlations of various ring width and ring density features were analyzed in 18 European oak (Quercus petraea andQuercus robur) trees from northeastern France. In light of these analyses, the goodness of various tree-ring features as a climatic parameter was discussed. In general, ring density features (viz. earlywood density, latewood density, average ring density, minimum density and maximum density) show a stronger response to calendar year, a comprehensive climatic variable, than ring width features (viz. earlywood width, latewood width, total ring width and latewood percent). The response of latewood features (viz. latewood width, latewood density and maximum latewood density) is stronger than that of earlywood features (viz. earlywood width, earlywood density and minimum earlywood density). Average ring density seems to be the most sensible tree-ring feature in European oak in terms of the response to calendar year. Moreover, total ring width as a climatic parameter is not as good as latewood width, and maximum (latewood) density and minimum (earlywood) density appears not to contain as much climatic information as (average) latewood density and (average) earlywood density, respectively.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 87-95 
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    Notes: Summary The wettability of four wood species was determined by the Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis-contact diameter (ADSA-CD) technique. The ADSACD technique calculates the contact angle by solving the Laplace equation of capillary given the following variables: contact diameter, volume of the liquid drop, liquid surface tension, density difference between the two fluid phases and the gravity constant. The liquid surface tension, density, and gravity are known. The volume of the liquid sessile drop is obtained by means of a micrometer screw syringe. The contact diameter, the only main experimentally determinable variable is obtained by manually selecting an arbitrary set of coordinates characterizing the perimeter of the sessile drop. The ADSA-CD technique was used on four wood species (pine, cedar, ash and elm) and it was found to be a simple, adaptable, and excellent tool for measuring the contact angles on wood surfaces.
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    Notes: Summary Using a mechanical properties microprobe, measurements of hardness and elastic modulus of tracheid walls in the longitudinal direction of spruce wood were obtained by continuously measuring force and displacement as a diamond indenter impressed a cell wall. Maximum mechanical properties were found at the edges of the walls of angular shaped tracheids. Both the hardness and elastic modulus of latewood cell walls were higher than cell walls in the earlywood. The high spatial resolution of this new concept of mechanical testing allows a direct comparison with ultrastructural and microchemical parameters of lignified cells which opens a wider area of applications for the understanding of intrinsic wood properties.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 119-130 
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    Notes: Summary Willow cuttings from two-year-old twigs were grown in nutrient solution alone, nutrient solution with 0.1 mM abscisic acid or with the spermine. Roots and leaves emerged within three weeks and the cambium was activated in the shoot. In most cases earlywood was generated, even when the seedlings were made in late summer. In contrast to plantlets grown in regular nutrient solution, those treated with hormones either inhibited (ABA) or advanced (spermine) the formation of roots, leaves and wood. In addition, SEM observations of wood were combined with autoradiographic studies and metabolite analysis.14C-labeled photoassimilates from the leaves were unloaded from the phloem of the shoots and transported via the rays into the cambial zone and the xylem. In spermine treated plants labeled assimilates were highly concentrated in all cells of the newly built xylem. However, cells from plants treated with abscisic acid appeared only weakly labeled. Quantitative analysis of the assimilates after two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography showed that wood from spermine-treated plants accumulated 19% more assimilates than the control, while xylem from ABA-treated plants imported 81% less labeled compounds from the phloem. Thus, the results strongly support the view that hormones play a key role in wood formation.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 171-179 
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    Notes: Summary When surface checks form in karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F. Muell), they almost invariably do so in the bottoms of vessels exposed on the surfaces of the boards. It is postulated that the vessels act as stress raisers, and thus surface checks form at lower values of average surface stress and strain than they would otherwise. Surface checks were seen to form at acoustic emission levels approximately one-third of those corresponding to surface check formation in other eucalypts. Analytical and finite element stress analysis techniques suggested a stress concentration factor at the bottoms of the vessels of approximately three. A trial drying of karri showed a close correlation between predicted surface instantaneous strain using the stress concentration factor found from the stress analysis in a model of drying timber, and measured acoustic emissions.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 181-191 
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    Notes: Summary Based on the data set of specimen tests on 16 timber species belonging to four distinct wood categories, the specific gravity-mechanical property relationship at species level was examined, and differences in the relationship between species from distinct wood categories were discussed. The linear equation (S =a +bG) was compared with the curvilinear one (S = αGβ) in terms of the goodness at predicting mechanical properties through specific gravity at species level. The specific gravity-mechanical property relationship, to a differing extent, varies with mechanical properties and wood categories. Among three mechanical properties studied, MOR is most closely and almost linearly related to specific gravity, followed by Cmax, whereas MOE is poorly and least linearly related to specific gravity. In general, the relationship between MOE and specific gravity in a species from the ring-porous category is stronger than in a species from the diffuse-porous category. It appears that Cmax in a species from the second softwood category and the ring-porous category is more closely related to specific gravity than in a species from the first softwood category and the diffuse-porous category, respectively. In addition, MOE in a softwood species is generally less related to specific gravity as compared to a hardwood species. Yet, Cmax in a softwood species appears more closely related to specific gravity. Overall, the curvilinear equation is better than the linear one at predicting mechanical properties (especially MOE) in a species.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 217-223 
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    Notes: Summary The effect of organic solvents on the selectivity and brightness of high consistency ozone bleaching of radiata pine Kraft-oxygen pulp was investigated. Among several organic compounds, formic acid is the most attractive one, as this solvent improves ozone delignification and, efficiency and also prevents cellulose degradation. The selectivity at different ozone concentrations (1.1–1.7%) shows that formic acid increases the amount of ozone transferred and its accessibility to lignin. A peroxide stage (P) was carried out after ozonation (Z). The ZP sequence was used to reach high brightness (83.1%) pulp.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 205-216 
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    Notes: Summary Relationship between various extracted basic densities and wood chemical components were investigated by their within-tree variations inEucalyptus camaldulensis for assistance in the prediction of the properties of wood or wood derived products. Within-tree variation was not observed for basic density because extraneous compounds masked it. However, extractives-free basic density, total extractives-free basic density and extraneous compounds-free basic density were high on the bark side and top parts in the trunk. These extracted basic densities were expected to have significant relationships to the fiber morphology causing the within-tree variations, and to be very important factors for wood industries. These relationships were sought by correlations between extracted basic densities and wood chemical components based on their within-tree variations. Furthermore, fair relationships between extracted basic densities and hemicellulose composition were observed and speculation made as to the relationship to the constituent ratio of cell wall layers.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 317-330 
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    Notes: Abstract The effect of temperature on the capillary isotherm is accounted for in a modified derivation. Some new equilibrium moisture content data for E. regnans are presented and fitted by the capillary isotherm. Some earlier data for Klinki pine are also fitted. It is shown precisely how reductions in the shear modulus of the cell wall material with increasing temperature give rise to reductions in equilibrium moisture content for a given relative humidity.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 339-353 
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    Notes: Summary Thermodynamic work of adhesion, contact angle, wettability and acid-base contributions of the wetting of four North American wood species were determined using the Wilhelmy technique. The wetting angles with water varied from 60° for Sitka spruce to 74° for Douglas-fir. The wood surfaces had a strong acidic character since the greatest interactions for all the wood species occurred with formamide (basic probe) while lesser interactions were obtained with ethylene glycol (acidic probe). In addition, dispersive and polar surface free energies of wood, γ d s and γ p s respectively, were determined using Wu's simultaneous equations. In general, 75 to 80% of the total surface free energy of wood was due to dispersion forces. Specific wettabilities of wood and advancing contact angles in thirty various organic liquids were also evaluated.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 367-380 
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    Notes: Abstract RIP-X is software which was developed to simulate the rough mill cutup of lumber. It determines the yields of the current and least-cost grade mixes for both the crosscut-first system and the rip-first system. A statistical comparison of the crosscut-first and rip-first current yields is made. The least-cost grade mix is determined by a linear programming model incorporated into the software. Validation of the RIP-X linear programming model was performed by comparing its results to results from an existing model. When the parts' lengths were restricted to the existing model's constraints, the RIP-X results did not differ significantly from the existing model's results. Comparison of current available model results with the unrestricted RIP-X model, indicated that previous models have provided sub-optimal solutions because of maximum parts' length restrictions in some lumber grades. Field tests were conducted to determine the accuracy of the crosscut-first and rip-first simulations in rough mills. The yield estimates from the crosscut-first and rip-first simulations did not differ significantly from the actual rough mill yields.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 265-277 
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    Notes: Summary Thick specimens of two softwoods were dried in a laboratory radio frequency/vacuum (RF/V) kiln in order to investigate the internal moisture flow patterns. The spatial moisture distributions in the longitudinal arid transverse directions were monitored as a function of time in a number of runs. The results indicated that both longitudinal and transverse moisture transfer modes contribute on the overall moisture flow occurring within wood, but there was no distinction as to the percentage contribution of each to the overall flux. There were no abrupt drying front changes and no moisture discontinuities observed during drying. A second group of runs was also carried out using end-matched specimens to study its length effects on drying characteristics, such as drying rate, and internal vapor pressure and temperature profiles. The results demonstrated that short specimens dried faster than long ones at moisture contents above the fiber saturation point.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 291-301 
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    Notes: Abstract In Sweden, forest research has been emphasised on mainly two species of wood, i.e. pine and spruce. However, we have also a number of hardwoods which could be utilised for furniture manufacturing, cabinets etc. Nowadays, these hardwoods are a slumbering resource in our country. Most of our broad leafed species are found as small stands inside our soft wood forests and hence not utilised in the most profitable way. For example, much of our birch wood is ground to paper fibres even if it would be perfect for high valued veneer. Instead, most of our birch. veneer is imported from Finland. In order to increase the interest for Swedish hardwoods we therefore have started research in this field and have now designed a chair made of ash wood,Fraxinus excelsior. Most chairs are made up of structural elements called indetermined frames which makes it a rather tedious task to analyse the internal forces in the frame. However, by using the Finite Element Method, FEM, it has been possible to reduce this drawback. This paper shows how a chair could be analysed, and designed, by use of methods common in other disciplines than furniture manufacturing. We also present results, in the form of stress-strain diagrams, from tests made on Swedish ash.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 331-335 
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    Notes: Summary Fick's law of predicting the moisture content of beams, combined with a simple mechano-sorptive model is applied to the analysis of creep resulting from moisture variations due to changing environmental conditions. The natural climatic conditions are modelled with the daily and annual cyclic variations represented by sine waves. As the moisture change responding to varying climatic conditions is always greater near the boundaries of a timber section, the creep rate close to the surface layer is higher than that in the middle of the cross-section. Therefore with time, an increased portion of the load will be carried by the inner part of the material.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 355-365 
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    Notes: Summary This study presents the results of a set of tests for the determination of the thermal conductivity coefficient of samples extracted from boards of Insulation Corkboard (ICB) withdrawn from the usual production of the seven portuguese factories. These tests were carried out as a part of an interlaboratorial study integrated in the standardization program for cork of the sub-comission 4 of The National Technical Committee of Standardization (CT 16), in which participated the Cork Technological Centre (CTCOR), the National Laboratory of Civil Enginneering (LNEC) and the National Institute of Engineering and Industrial Technology (INETI). The purpose of this study aimed to contribute to the definition of the “declared value” of this thermal property to be included in the future European Standard (EN) specifying the characteristics of ICB for thermal insulating of buildings which is in preparation in the 88Th Technical Committee of The European Committee of Standardization CEN/TC-88 (CEN 1995). In view of the results, the declared value of thermal conductivity proposed was 0.045 W/m. °C.
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  • 73
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 383-389 
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    Notes: Summary X-ray microdensitometric analysis was employed for the detection of fungi attack in wood of pine and beech in comparison with the studies of specimen weight loss tests. Two species of fungi were used:Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.:Fr. Murrill) andTrametes versicolor (L.:Fr. Pilat). We select these species to induce typical decay attack mainly on cellulose in pine (brown rot) and mainly on lignin in beech (white rot). The attack was conducted for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 months in sterile laboratory conditions. After 5 months all the values of density components decreased. In beech the loss was of about 25% for all components. In pine the decreasing of the earlywood density component was of about 10% and in latewood of about 22%. The corresponding mass density losses, determined by gravimetric method, were approximately 18% for beech and 16% for pine.
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  • 74
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    Zoomorphology 74 (1973), S. 1-16 
    ISSN: 1432-234X
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. DasGeruchsorgan von 30 Teleosteerarten aus vier Familien der Zahnkarpfen (Cyprinodontidae, Jenynsiidae, Anablepidae und Poeciliidae) wird untersucht and der am häufigsten vertretene Bautyp beschrieben. 2. Die auf einem flachen Riechhöhlenboden angeordnete Riechschleimhaut besteht aus Sinnesepithel, das durch hervortretende Leisten aus indifferentem Epithel in zahlreiehe Riechepithelfelder aufgeteilt ist. 3. Diese Leisten entstehen nicht wie Riechfalten, sondern wachsen vom Rand der Riechschleimhaut nach innen und zerteilen das anfangs zusammenhängende Sinnesepithel. Sie ähneln Bildungen im Geruchsraum anderer Fishhe, sind aber nicht als Riechfaltenrudimente aufzufassen. 4. Die flache Anordnung dieser Riechschleimhaut wird als eine speziellen morphologischen Verhältnissen (flache Schädelform und flashes Riechhöhlenlumen) angepaßte Auskleidung der Riechhöhle aufgefaßt.
    Notes: Summary 1. The olfactory organs of 30 teleost species of four cyprinodontoid families (Cyprinodontidae, Jenynsiidae, Anablepidae, Poeciliidae) are studied and the type most commonly found is described. 2. The olfactory epithelium was found to be confined to the planar lower surface of the olfactory chamber and to contain sensory and indifferent epithelium. The sensory epithelium is separated into distinct areas by ridges of indifferent cells. 3. These ridges grow in towards the center of the sensory epithelium from the sides of the olfactory chamber in a different way from that in which olfactory lamellae are formed. These ridges are similar to the formations found in the olfactory chamber in some fish species, but are not thought to be rudimentary lamellae. 4. The planar surface of the olfactory epithelium is considered to be an adaptation to special morphological factors (flat head and olfactory chamber).
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  • 75
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    Zoomorphology 75 (1973), S. 1-50 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Arbeit enthält eine detaillierte Beschreibung des Spinnapparates der orthognathen SpinnenNemesia caementaria Latr. (Ctenizidae),Atypus piceus Sulz. undAtypus affinis Eichw. (Atypidae). An jungen und adulten Tieren werden zunächst die Organe in ihrem äußeren Aufba behandelt und aufgrund der zugehörigen Muskulatur homologisiert. Eine genaue lichtmikroskopische Untersuchung beschreibt u.a. Kutikulardifferenzierungen, verschiedene Spulentypen und die ihnen zugehörenden Drüsen. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit wird dem histologischen Aufbau dieser Organe, dem gewidmet. Die Ergehnisse werden mit anderen aus der Literatur bekannten Befunden und der Lengsweise einzelner Arten verligchen. Die Atypidae erweisen rich hierbei in einzelnen Merkmalen als hochspezialisiert. Allerdings treten apomorphe und plesiomorphe Merkmalsausbildungen wechselseitig sowohl bei den Atypidae wie auch bei den Ctenizidae auf. Solange die entsprechuden Merkmale bei anderen Familien der Araneae nicht genau untersucht sind, läßt sich dei Monophylie der Orthognatha nicht mit Sicherheit begründen. Nach dem augenblicklichen Kenntnisstand erscheint jedoch eine Beibehaltung der Aufgliederung der Araneae in die Unterordnungen Orthognatha und Labidognatha gerechfertigt. Ein besonderes Kapitel der Arbeit ist die Untersuchungsmethodik gewidmet, bei der teilweise neue Wege beschritten werden.
    Notes: Summary The paper contains the completed parts of the work of the late Lothar Glatz, a study originally meant to include members of all relevant taxa within the Araneae. Only the Orthognatha are dealt with in detail. All further systematic conclusions are therefore fragmentary. Special methods of preparation and coloration were developed to obtain maximum insight into the structure of the spinning apparatus. For the Orthognath genera Nemesia and Atypus a detailed description of the different types of spools and glands and of the various muscles of the spinning apparratus is given. Special attention was given to the histological and histochemical study of the various types of glands and of their secretions. The spinnerets of the genusNemesia are compared those of other Orthognatha, particulary with respect to the muscular system. The genusAtypus, which in part exhibits strongly apomorphous characteristics, is treated in the same manner. These results and other characteristics (e.g. behaviour) known from the literature are used as the basis of an attempt to demonstrate the plesiomorphous state of the spinning apparatus in the Orthognatha.
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  • 76
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    Notes: Summary The labellar taste hairs of the blow flies, Phormia regina and Calliphora vicina, have an opening mechanism at the tip which consists of two stump cuticular prongs and a funnel-like cuticular pouch. Opening and folding of these structures are regulated by the pressure within the dendrite-free lumen of the hair. The extrusion of viscous substance at the tip of the taste hair is possible through spongy cuticle and one pore in each prong; it seems likewise to depend on the pressure within the dendrite-free lumen and results in regional collapsing of this lumen. Described and discussed are: The cuticle and pores of the structures at the hair tip, pore filaments which extend from the dendrites, and the number and arrangement of the dendrites.
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  • 77
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Der Faden, den die Larve von Rhynchaenus fagi für die Herstellung ihres Puppenkokons erzeugt, besteht im wesentlichen aus Chitin und wird innerhalb des Mitteldarmes hergestellt. 2. Das Chitin wird in Form von typischer peritrophischer Membran (=pM) mit Gitter- bis Wabentextur erzeugt. Eine amorphe Grundsubstanz fehlt. 3. Die pM wird bei fressenden and spinnenden Larven in einem auf den „Magen” folgenden Mitteldarmabschnitt gebildet. Bei spinnenden Larven ist dieser Darmabschnitt verdickt, and die pM entsteht durch extrem synchrone Delamination. 4. Die Mikrofibrillen der pM haben unterschiedliche Durchmesser von etwa 100–500 Å and Längen von mindestens 30 μm. 5. Die Umformung der pM zum soliden Faden erfolgt in einem nur bei spinnenden Larven ausdifferenzierten Mitteldarmabschnitt (Spinndarm), der mit einer höchst aktiven Peristaltik die Umformung des Faddes and gleichzeitig dessen Weitertransport übernimmt. Eine Bewegungsanalyse des Spinndarms wird gegebon. 6. Bereits im Spinndarm setzt ein Sklerotisiorungsprozeß ein, der den Faden verfestigt. 7. In den auf den Spinndarm folgenden Darmabschnitten kann sich bis zu 30 cm gebrauchsfertiger Faden ansammeln. 8. Bei 21°C wird der Faden mit einer Geschwindigkeit von etwa 10 mm/min hergestellt. 9. Eine Larve produziert fur ihren Kokon durchschnittlich 11 ± 2 m Faden.
    Notes: Summary 1. The thread produced by the larva of Rhynchaenus fagi to build cocoon consists mainly of chitin and is produced within the midgut. its 2. The chitin is produced as a typical Peritrophic membrane (=pM) with a. grid texture and honeycomb texture. There is no amorphous ground substance 3. The pM originates in feeding as well as in spinning larvae in a midgut section after the “stomach”. In spinning larvae this midgut section is thickened and the pM there is due to extreme synchronous delamination. 4. The microfibrils of the pM vary in diameter between approximately 100 and 500 A and are of at least 30 μm long. 5. The transformation of the pM to the solid thread occurs only in a special midgut section (thread gut), which is only differentiated in spinning larvae. The thread gut takes over the formation of the thread and simultaneously its transportation, with very active peristalsis. An analysis of the movement of the thread gut is given. 6. Even in the thread gut a sclerotization process takes place which hardens the thread. 7. The gut sections following the thread gut can collect up to 30 em of usable thread. 8. At 21°C the thread is produced at a velocity of approximately 10 mm/min. 9. One larva produces an average of 11 ± 2 m of thread for its cocoon.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 17-34 
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    Notes: Summary A qualitative analysis is presented of failure, perpendicular to the grain, in laminated timber reinforced with a glass fibre composite. The study is focused on beams with holes of different shape. The stress by corners, infinitesimal cracks and finite cracks are investigated. An initial crack model is suggested that brings about some of the phenomena observed in earlier performed experiments. A crack appears to propagate in the wood but is retarded in the reinforced beams. Eventually, the composite will fracture and failure of the beam follows. Finite element computations suggest that the reinforcement decreases the stress intensity at cracks in the wood and acts as a crack stopper. The reinforcing effect increases with the crack length. A point stress criterion is used to predict failure in the fibre composite.
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  • 79
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 51-62 
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    Notes: Summary Various chemicals are used for protecting wood samples against fungi, and some of them are released in water, leading to pollution of the water. The kinetics of pentachlorophenol release in water has here been studied by considering the diffusion through the wood along the three principal axes of diffusion. The experiments and the modelling of the process is successfully coupled. The numerical model takes into account the three principal diffusivities, the partition factor, the volumes of wood and water. The effect of wood sample length along the longitudinal axis of diffusion is studied especially, as longitudinal diffusivity is much higher than the other two principal diffusivities. The effects of the relative volumes of wood and water are also of considerable interest not only for the concentration of the chemical in water but also for the rate of release.
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  • 80
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 77-86 
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    Notes: Summary It is the fibrillar orientation in the S2-layer which to a great extent determines the mechanical properties of the wood fibre, with regard both to strength and stiffness and to swelling properties. Measurements of the average fibril angle of fibres are not however easy and the results differ between the methods used. In order to evaluate in more detail how the fibril angle varies in spruce wood, an X-ray method based on diffraction from the 040-plane was developed. By comparison with microscopic examination it is concluded that reliable results relating to the fibrillar orientation in the S2-layer are obtained with the X-ray technique. It is shown that the fibril angle of mature wood is rather constant with regard to both age of the annual ring and its position in the height of the tree. The fibril angle of the earlywood is found to be only slightly higher than that of latewood fibres. It is also shown that compression wood may be easily identified by virtue of the fact that its fibril angle is much higher than that of normal mature wood.
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  • 81
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    Notes: Summary Strips and blocks ofPinus sylvestris were acetylated for different periods of time. These, along with control samples, were tested for their tensile modulus, hydrophobicity and dimensional stability. The modulus of elasticity (tensile modulus) for each sample was derived using a statistical approach. The observations in this work suggest that the acetylation process significantly reduces the tensile modulus of the wood compared to its untreated state in an irreversible manner, and that the extent of the deterioration in tensile modulus is a function of the acetylation conditions. Acetylation improved significantly the hydro-phobicity and the dimensional stability of the wood as measured by the roll angle and swelling tests respectively. It appears therefore that acetylation using acetic anhydride in xylene has an optimum set of reaction conditions that compromise between the gains in water repellence and dimensional stability with the deterioration in mechanical properties.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 105-117 
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    Notes: Summary The effects of temperature and sulfonation on the deformation of spruce wood at conditions comparable to those during screw press impregnation prior to mechanical pulping were studied using a dynamic testing method. In addition to the physical properties of wood, shear fracture surfaces obtained at different deformation temperatures and at different sulfonation levels were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the failure energy of wood decreased gradually with increased deformation temperature in the tested range of 20–95 °C, due to thermal softening of the material. In addition to thermal treatment, the failure energy could also be reduced by sulfite treatment of the wood before deformation, and decreased with increasing sulfonation degree. The SEM analysis showed that increasing the deformation temperature causes the fracture plane to travel around the fiber walls instead of through them, thus exposing a smoother wood surface with less fiber damage. At a given deformation temperature, particularly at the lower temperatures, sulfonation improves fiber separation.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 143-152 
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    Notes: Summary The property of fibre symmetry as exhibited by wood cellulose can be used to derive an explicit relationship between the orientation of a cellulose microfibril and the orientation of the X-ray beam diffracted by any of its crystallographic planes. The solution applies to a microfibril of any orientation and so is well suited to evaluating the microfibril angle distribution in wood containing cells of any cross-sectional shape. The (002) and (040) reflections of cellulose have complementary properties that could be exploited to enable current problems associated with the use of each individually for evaluating the mean microfibril angle of the S2 layer to be overcome. It is expected that it will be possible to measure the microfibril angle distribution throughout the whole cell wall and also measure the average cell cross-section of a wood sample, by analysing (002) and (040) diffraction profiles in conjunction with each other.
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  • 84
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 153-169 
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    Notes: Summary The cross-sectional view of pitting between various cell types inPinus banksiana Lamb. was studied at the ultrastructural level. Cell types inPinus banksiana include longitudinal tracheids, ray tracheids, ray parenchyma cells, “buffer cells” and epithelial cells. Two common characteristic features of bordered pit-pairs between longitudinal tracheids are an initial pit border and a thickened torus at the center of the pit membrane. The shape and size of the pit border and torus of bordered pit-pairs between two compression wood cells, and between the last-formed latewood longitudinal tracheid and first-formed earlywood longitudinal tracheid were different from those in the earlywood and latewood longitudinal tracheids. The pit border on the ray tracheid side varied in size and shape due to wall dentation. No initial pit border was found on the pit border of the ray tracheid side. The shape of bordered pit-pairs between two ray tracheids varied considerably due to irregularity of the dentate cell wall. The size of bordered pit-pairs in longitudinal tracheids was between 16 μm to 20 μm, which was twice the diameter of bordered pit-pairs in ray tracheids. Bordered pitpairs at the end wall of two ray tracheids appeared to be the smallest at 5 μm, Pit aspiration occurred in the bordered pit-pairs with or without a torus. In the heartwood zone, some half-borders pit-pairs between tracheary and ray parenchyma cells showed an additional secondary wall on the ray parenchyma cell side. Plasmodesmata were found in the half-bordered pit-pairs as well in the simple pit-pairs. Blind pits were observed between a ray tracheid and a longitudinal tracheid. Bordered pit-pairs between two “buffer cells” were also observed. The possible functions of buffer cells were discussed.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 193-204 
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    Notes: Summary The objective of this research is to study the moisture deformation of densified in technological pressing wooden composite materials. By generalizing Cosserat's couple-stress theory a structural model for determination of mid-surface strains and curvatures of composite board taking into account asymmetric structure and nonuniform distribution of moisture as well as nonlinear swelling functions of the wooden stuff and dependence of strain characteristics on moisture content is developed. On the basis of a laminate analogy the optimum flake or veneer alignment in board has been estimated for the real composite production process. According to analysis performed, the optimum alignment for hygromechanical properties may not coincide with that for mechanical properties, and for every type of loading, material with a definite structure should be used.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 311-315 
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    Notes: Summary The occurrence of layers of wood material beneath the soil of the fossil forest of Dunarobba (Italy) has provided the opportunity to study a differently degraded wood formed in the same environment of the fossil forest. The samples of subsoil have almost completely lost their polyose and cellulose fractions and, moreover, were deprived of most of their low and medium MW terpenes so that some phenolic diterpenes were revealed. The identified ones were ferruginol, podocarpodiol, traces of sugiol and a compound whose mass spectrum shows some similarities with that of sugiol. A family of compounds with ketonic structure was also detected: in particular tridecanone, pentadecanone and heptadecanone.
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  • 87
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    Notes: Summary A modified solute exclusion technique was used to pressure impregnate a polystyrene molecular weight (MW) series dissolved in styrene into red maple samples at approximately the fiber saturation point (FSP) and oven dry (OD). Radial penetration was less than tangential and FSP less than OD. There was a marked change in radial OD penetration at 900,000 MW. There was no marked penetration change with MW in the tangential direction, although there appeared to be a slight decrease in FSP penetration at the higher MW tested.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 251-264 
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    Notes: Summary This paper reports experimental results concerning the transverse shrinkage variability within and between trees of two samples composed of 17 eleven-year-old and 20 twenty-year-old maritime pine trees harvested in two stands at the Forest Research Centre of INRA Pierroton in Aquitaine. The within tree variations are divided into a height effect and a radial effect, both related to the occurrence of juvenile wood. It is shown that the tangential shrinkage and the anisotropic ratio between radial and tangential dimensional variations are increasing from the top to the base of the stems (+14.9% and +16.9%, respectively), and that this effect is independent of the tree. The variations from the pith outward are also significant for these parameters (+25.0% for at and −9.5% for the ratio) and for the radial shrinkage (+37.2% ), but in this case, the amplitude of the effect is depending on a tree effect. The relationship between shrinkage and density is also studied, showing poorly significant correlation when considering each sampling positions independently.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 303-309 
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    Notes: Summary The bonding characteristics of adhesive/substrate was investigated using IR spectroscopic technique. Delignified saw-dust was employed as wood substrate. A bond linkage of $$C - O - C$$ type with significant absorption at 1150 cm−1 wave number was observed. The absence of absorption at 1420 cm−1 showed the consumption of phenolic hydroxyl group in the $$C - O - C$$ bond formation. Chemisorption constant of $$log k = - 2.42$$ was observed and a chemisorption isotherm of $$y = 0.0038x + 0.38$$ with a weak positive correlation coefficient was established.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 279-290 
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    Notes: Summary The dissolution and dispersion of components from Norway spruce (Picea abies) wood were examined in laboratory experiments to determine the factors influencing variations in dissolved and colloidal substances in mechanical pulp suspensions. Finely ground, fresh spruce wood was suspended in water at 90 °C and was agitated intensively for up to 12 h, after which the concentrations of dissolved and dispersed lipophilic extractives, lignans, carbohydrates and lignins were determined. Sapwood and heartwood were studied separately. Effects of pH and added electrolytes on the dissolution and dispersion of wood components were also investigated. Higher amounts of lipophilic extractives, and especially of triglycerides, were dispersed from sapwood than from heartwood. The release of lipophilic extractives continued for up to 3 h, after which the concentrations in the suspensions leveled off. At this stage the composition of the dissolved and dispersed lipophilic extractives equaled that of the wood. The amount of lipophilic extractives in the suspensions increased with increased pH, in the range of 4.5–6.7, but was lower in the presence of electrolytes. The dissolution of carbohydrates continued even beyond 3 h of agitation. The high water temperature induced hydrolytic reactions, thereby releasing especially arabinose. The release of arabinose through the hydrolytic cleavage from polysaccharides was more extensive at pH 4.5 than at pH 5.5 and 6.7. More polysaccharides containing galacturonic acid units (pectins) were dissolved at a higher pH. Much more polysaccharides containing glucose, most probably starch, were present in the sapwood suspensions. The dissolution of lignins also continued throughout the 12 h experiment. The measured UV-absorption, after extraction of lignans, was roughly the same for sapwood and heartwood suspensions. Slightly less lignins were released in the presence of electrolytes. Lignans were released only from heartwood.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 225-234 
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    Notes: Summary A diffraction intensity function for material bodies composed of arrays of crystalline fibres such as occurs with the cellulose of wood has been derived. It is implied in the analysis that the crystalline fibres making up the body have fibre symmetry- that there is a tendency for groups of fibres to have one set of crystal axes parallel while in the orthogonal direction the axes assume a low degree of order. It is further assumed that the patterns of the angular arrangement of the fibre groups relative to one axis of the body is independent of the direction about that axis. These conditions are believed to be compatible with the cellulosic structure found in wood. Thus it becomes possible to calculate the expected diffraction intensity profiles of realistic (and therefore complex) models of wood. This has aided the interpretation of the reflections from the (040) crystal planes of cellulose which are contaminated by low level reflections from other crystal planes, and it has been found that it might be possible by conjoint analysis of the paratropic (002) reflections and the diatropic (040) reflections to measure the complete cell wall planar microfibril angle distribution and the shape of the cell wall cross-section.
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 241-250 
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    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The effect of radial increment core diameter (comparing the effects of 12, 8 and 4 mm diameters, with sampling from chips used as a control) on the measurement of tracheid mean length and the percentage of broken tracheids was examined for mature wood of Norway spruce. Two methods of measuring tracheid length were used: image analysis, in which arithmetic mean length (AML) was calculated for unbroken tracheids, and the Kajaani FS-200, in which AML was calculated for all tracheids, regardless of damage. In addition to AML, length weighted mean length (LWML) was calculated for the Kajaani. Almost 70 % of all tracheids remained undamaged when the 12 mm increment core was used. This was 18 % units less than for chips. Proportion of broken tracheids increased as core diameter decreased, and for the 4 mm increment core 30 per cent of all tracheids remained undamaged. All increment core diameters tested gave LWML values that were significantly lower than the control. For AML by Kajaani, all mean values were about 50 percent lower than corresponding LWML or image analysis values, thus showing the direct influence of broken tracheids. However, only the 4 and 8 mm increment cores differed significantly from the control. For unbroken tracheids measured by image analysis, the 4 mm increment core gave a significantly lower value than the control, thus showing the indirect influence of broken tracheids. Values obtained from the 8 and 12 :mm increment cores did not differ significantly from the control.
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  • 93
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 399-413 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary The effect of size on bending strength has been experimentally determined for laminated veneer lumber. Width was found to have no effect on bending strength. The effect of depth times length on bending strength obtained by the slope method was about 0.075, which is in good agreement with the results obtained by the shape parameter method. The effect of length is somewhat more severe than the effect of depth. Size was found to have no effect on modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity. In addition, the relationships between bending strength, modulus of elasticity and density of laminated veneer lumber were experimentally modelled.
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  • 94
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 415-422 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary An investigation has been carried out into whether the internal moisture movement inside Australian hardwood timber is best described by a diffusion model with driving forces based on gradients in moisture content or in partial pressure of water vapour. Experimental data from two sets of drying schedules applied to timber from three species of Australian hardwoods (yellow stringybark, spotted gum and ironbark) reported in Langrish et al. (1997) have been used to assess the use of the two driving forces, and the standard error has been used as the criterion for goodness of fit. Moisture-content driving forces have fitted the data better than a model based on vapour-pressure driving forces alone. The use of moisture-content driving forces with diffusion parameters obtained from data from one drying schedule is also better in predicting the drying behaviour with another schedule than vapour-pressure driving forces for yellow stringybark and ironbark. These results may be due to the complexity of the moisture-movement process through timber, with more than one moisture-transport mechanism being active, so that the use of only one driving force for moisture movement is at best only an approximation to the true behaviour.
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  • 95
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 433-440 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary Periodate oxidation, because of its high selectivity in degrading phenolic nuclei, has been combined with nitrobenzene oxidation and phenyl nucleus exchange techniques to investigate the nature of wood lignin in situ. For both softwood and hardwood, the phenolic and etherified components of wood lignin have been shown to differ significantly in chemical composition, and the etherified lignin structure appears to be substantially more condensed.
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  • 96
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 449-455 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary A study of the wood-inorganic composites prepared by the sol-gel process with a metal alkoxide indicated that an inorganic modification of wood with TiO2 gels from tetraisopropoxytitanium (TPT) can not improve its properties due to the formation of the gels in the cell lumina by high hydrolysis rate of TPT. In this study, therefore, titanium alkoxides or titanium chelates which have the lower rate of hydrolysis and subsequent polycondensation than TPT were used for preparing TiO2 wood-inorganic composites to study the topochemical effects of the TiO2 gels for the property enhancement of wood. As a result, it was found by SEM-EDXA analysis that the TiO2 gels deposited within the cell walls could improve the properties of wood in dimensional stability and fire-resistance, whereas for the gels in the cell lumina, property enhancement could not be achieved, as observed in SiO2 wood-inorganic composites.
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  • 97
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 457-466 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary In a study on the SiO2 wood-inorganic composites prepared by the sol-gel process with tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), it is more appropriate to use safer agents than TEOS, considering the operational and processing environments. In this study, therefore, methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMOS) was used to prepare the SiO2 wood-inorganic composites, and comparative studies were made with TEOS. Resultingly, SiO2 wood-inorganic composites could be successfully prepared from MTMOS reaction system, as in TEOS system, with its lower concentration, and both composites had SiO2 gels specifically formed within the cell walls from moisture-conditioned wood specimens. On this SiO2 composites, the water-repellent properties were added most effectively with a molar ratio of 2-heptadecafluorooctylethyltrimethoxysilane (HFOETMOS) to alcohol being 1/250 and 1/180 for TEOS and MTMOS reaction systems, respectively. On the other hand, fire-resisting properties were tried to add to SiO2 composites with several fire-resisting agents. The fire-resisting agents in the obtained composites are not, however, stable and leached out readily. Therefore, a small addition of HFOETMOS was tested to the MTMOS and TEOS reaction systems with fire-resisting agents. The obtained results clearly indicated that HFOETMOS could restrain the fire-resisting agents to be leached from the composites, and that composites from MTMOS system were superior to TEOS system on the antileachability. Therefore, MTMOS can be appropriate for displacement of TEOS as a chemical agent to prepare SiO2 wood-inorganic composites.
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  • 98
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 391-397 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary Some fossil woods, differing in botanical species, age, degree of degradation and chemical composition, were analysed with respect to their acid structure. A comparison was carried out with corresponding modern species which, in the case of softwoods, contain carboxylic groups as well as ester groups in almost equal amounts. Moreover the former are subdivided into protonated (∼20%) and salified forms (≈80%). The determination of the acid structures in woods was made by means of cation exchange measurements. In all examined fossils the initially protonated form is changed into the salified one because of the leaching carried out by water containing soluble salts. Despite the loss of polyoses, an increase in the content of carboxylic groups was achieved due to hydrolysis of the ester groups. In more degraded samples the amount of carboxylic groups was larger than in the other fossils even if the former possessed only traces of polyoses due to an attack on lignin assessed by acidity of the trifluoroacetic (TFA) derivatives. Proof of these changes and further information on fossils were obtained by I.R. spectroscopy.
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  • 99
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 423-431 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary 13C NMR spectroscopic studies of spruce oxygen-organosoly lignins indicated the presence of muconic acid type structures. This confirms previous chemical analysis which reached the same conclusion. Resonances of the muconic acid structures in the NMR spectra of oxidized lignins were assigned using a model compound.
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  • 100
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    Wood science and technology 31 (1997), S. 441-447 
    ISSN: 1432-5225
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Summary The abilities of 15 coniferous barks for removing toxic heavy metal ions were investigated. The barks considerably varied in the adsorption ability to each metal ion. Of the barks tested, high adsorption ability for heavy metal ions was found inPicea abies (Norway spruce). Equilibrium experiments usingP. jezoensis (Yezo spruce) bark showed that the adsorption of Cd2+ was greatly affected by the pH of solution and the initial Cd2+ concentration in solution. The adsorption of Cd2+ byP. jezoensis bark followed Freundlich isotherm in the concentration range 10–330 mg Cd2+/L. The continuous column experiments usingP. jezoensis bark indicated that the packing had retained 10.1–14.2 mg Cd2+/g adsorbent until the column broke through.
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