ALBERT

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: This volume of Reviews in Mineralogy attempts to synthesize our present understanding of certain aspects of the mineralogy and chemistry of the rock-forming carbonates. Hopefully, it reflects the presently more active areas of research. This review follows, by ten years, a major assessment of (sedimentary) carbonate minerals by Lippmann (1973). There is only minor overlap of subject material, and I hope that this difference reflects fairly how this field has developed. In some respects carbonates are unique, for they are one of the few mineral groups providing an abundant record of biological, physical, and chemical processes throughout much of geologic time. Because of their relative importance in sedimentary rocks, lowtemperature examples are given more emphasis here. Moreover, the obvious correlation with energy resources has been a significant factor contributing to the current resurgence of interest in this area. However, the broader interest in carbonates is also a reflection of their widespread occurrence in vastly different geologic environments, including metamorphic and igneous settings, as well as an appreciation of their role in both atmospheric and oceanic chemistry, both past and present. In this volume, some of the papers are general (i.e., those addressing crystal chemistry and phase relations), and they provide overviews of a fundamental nature and are of interest to many. Others are more specialized in coverage and generally reflect the different approaches used in carbonate geochemistry. The final chapter introduces transmission electron microscopy, a relatively new and powerful technique for mineralogical research that has great potential in carbonate research. Owing to the short time interval between the completion of manuscripts and publication, much of the newer material in this volume is still "fresh." The various reviewers, all gratefully acknowledged, were expeditious in their efforts. A hurried schedule, however, allows for unnoticed errors to persist; these should be brought to my attention.

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Geochemistry is a science that is based on an understanding of chemical processes in the earth. One of the principal tools available to the chemist for understanding systems at equilibrium is thermodynamics. The awareness and application of thermodynamic techniques has increased at a very fast pace in geosciences; in fact, one may be so bold as to say that thermodynamics in geology has reached the "mature" stage, although much future thermodynamic research is certainly needed. However, the natural processes in the earth are often sluggish enough that a particular system may not reach equilibrium. This observation is being supported constantly by new experimental and field data available to the geochemist e.g. the non-applicability of the phase rule in some assemblages, the compositional inhomogeneities of mineral grains, the partial reaction rims surrounding original minerals, the lack of isotopic equilibration or the absence of minerals (e.g. dolomite), which should be present according to thermodynamics. The need to apply kinetics has produced a large number of papers dealing with kinetics in geochemistry. As an initial response to this growing field, a conference on geochemical transport and kinetics was conducted at Airlie House, VA, in 1973, sponsored by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The papers there dealt with several kinetic topics including diffusion, exsolution, metasomatism and metamorphic layering. Since 1973 the number of kinetic papers has continued to increase greatly. Therefore, the time is ripe for a Short Course in Kinetics, which brings together the fundamentals needed to explain field observations using kinetic data. It is hoped that this book may serve, not only as a reference for researchers dealing with the rates of geochemical processes, but also as a text in courses on geochemical kinetics. One of us has found this need of a text in teaching a graduate course on geochemical kinetics at Harvard and at Penn State during the past several years. Finally, it is our hope that the book may itself further even more research into the rates of geochemical processes and into the quantification of geochemical observations. The book is organized with a rough temperature gradient in mind, i.e. low temperature kinetics at the beginning and igneous kinetics at the end (no prejudices are intended with this scheme!). However, the topics in each chapter are general enough that they can be applied often to any geochemical domain: sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous. The theory of kinetics operates at two complementary levels: the phenomenological and the atomistic. The former relies on macroscopic variables (e.g. temperature or concentrations) to describe the rates of reactions or the rates of transport; the latter relates the rates to the basic forces operating between the particular atomic or molecular species of any system. This book deals with both descriptions of the kinetics of geochemical processes. Chapter one sets the framework for the phenomenological theory of reaction rates. If any geochemical reaction is to be described quantitatively, the rate law must be experimentally obtained in a kinetically sound manner and the reaction mechanism must be understood. This applies to heterogeneous fluid-rock reactions such as those occurring during metamorphism, hydrothermal alteration or weathering as well as to homogeneous reactions. Chapter 2 extends the theory to the global kinetics of geochemical cycles. This enables the kinetic concepts of stability and feedback to be applied to the cycling of elements in the many reservoirs of the earth. Chapter 3 applies the phenomenological treatment of chapter 1 to diagenesis and weathering. The rate of dissolution of minerals as well as the chemical evolution of pore waters are discussed. The atomistic basis of rates of reaction, transition state theory, is introduced in Chapter 4. Transition state theory can be applied to relate the rate constants of geochemical reactions to the atomic processes taking place. This includes not only homogeneous reactions but also reactions that occur at the surface of minerals. Chapter 5 discusses the theory of irreversible thermodynamics and its application to petrology. The use of the second law of thermodynamics along with the expressions for the rate of entropy production in a system have been used successfully since 1935 to describe kinetic phenomena. The chapter applies the concepts to the growth of minerals during metamorphism as well as to the formation of differentiated layers (banding) in petrology. Chapter 6 describes the phenomenological theory of diffusion both in aqueous solutions and in minerals. In particular, the multicomponent nature of diffusion and its consequence in natural systems is elaborated. Chapter 7 provides the atomistic basis for the rates of reactions in minerals. Understanding of the rates of diffusion, conduction, order-disorder reactions or exsolution in minerals depends on proper description of the defects in the various mineral structures. Chapter 8 provides the kinetic theory of crystal nucleation and growth. While many of the concepts in the chapter can be applied to aqueous systems, the emphasis is on igneous processes occurring during crystallization of a melt. To fully understand both the mineral composition as well as the texture of igneous rocks, the processes whereby new crystals form and grow must be quantified by using kinetic theory. Due to space and time limitations (kinetics!) some topics have not been covered in detail. In particular, the mathematical solution of diffusion or conduction equations is discussed very well by Crank in his book, Mathematics of Diffusion, and so is not covered to a great extent here. The treatment of fluid flow (e.g. convection) is also not covered in the text.

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Although phyllosilicates are common in almost all types of rocks, their detailed study has not advanced in proportion to their importance. Books and reviews on this subject have been restricted primarily to the areas of clay mineralogy and soils. Such treatments understandably restrict coverage of the occurrences of the macroscopic-size species as well as much of their mineralogical and petrological nature. It was decided at the outset that not all phyllosilicates could be covered in a single book, and the size of this volume addressed only to the micas justifies the original decision. Kaolins, serpentines, chlorites, etc. will have to wait until some later date. This volume attempts to gather together much of our knowledge of micas, the most abundant phyllosilicate, and to indicate promising areas of future research. Chapters 1-3 lay the foundations of the classification, structures, and crystal chemistry of micas. Chapter 4 treats bonding and electrostatic modeling of micas. Chapters 5 and 6 cover spectroscopic and optical properties. Chapters 7-13, the bulk of the volume, are devoted to geochemistry and petrology. These include phase equilibria and the occurrences, chemistry, and petrology of micas in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, pegmatites, and certain ore deposits. Some treatments are exhaustive. All are at the forefront of our present knowledge, and indicate clearly the practical applications'of the study of micas to ascertaining various parameters of origin and crystallization history, as well as the many problems that still exist. The aim of this type of treatment is twofold -- to provide a handy reference volume for teachers and students and to enable researchers to pick more easily those directions and problems for which future research is most needed or is apt to be most productive or most challenging. X-ray powder patterns of micas in the literature are of surprisingly poor quality. The best are collated and supplemented with additional new patterns in the Appendix as an aid to identification.

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Contents: 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Key aspects of the climate of Antarctica. - 1.1.1 Temperature. - 1.1.2 Atmospheric circulation. - 1.1.3 Precipitation. - 1.1.4 The ice sheet as an climate archive. - 1.1.5 Regional climate models. - 1.2 Antarctica in a changing global climate. - 1.3 Ice sheet mass balance. - 1.3.1 Mass balance estimates from satellite altimetry. - 1.3.2 Mass balance estimates from gravity. - 1.3.3 Mass budget using inSAR. - 1.3.4 Current level of understanding. - 1.4 Surface mass balance. - 1.5 Contents of this thesis. - 2 Characteristics of the Antarctic surface mass balance. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Model description. - 2.2.1 Snow albedo. - 2.2.2 Surface roughness lengths. - 2.2.3 Snow model. - 2.2.4 Correction of the liquid and solid precipitation. - 2.3 Results. - 2.3.1 Solid precipitation. - 2.3.2 Sublimation. - 2.3.3 Melt. - 2.3.4 Surface mass balance (SMB). - 2.3.5 Seasonality of the mass balance. - 2.3.6 Interannual variability and trends. - 2.4 Discussion. - 2.4.1 Spatial distribution of measured and modeled SMB. - 2.4.2 The integrated SMB. - 2.4.3 Interannual variability and trends. - 2.5 Conclusions. - 3 Reassessment of the Antarctic surface mass balance. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.2 Model description. - 3.3 Observations and data handling. - 3.3.1 Excluded areas. - 3.3.2 Model interpolation. - 3.3.3 Observationally dense areas. - 3.4 Results. - 3.4.1 RACMO2/ANT compared to V99. - 3.4.2 RACMO2/ANT compared to observations. - 3.4.3 Impact of temporal mismatch. - 3.4.4 Elevation and SMB. - 3.5 Discussion. - 3.5.1 Statistical robustness of the results. - 3.5.2 An evaluation of model performance. - 3.5.3 Towards a better understanding of Antarctic SMB. - 3.6 Conclusions. - 4 Error evaluation of a surface mass balance estimate. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Method. - 4.2.1 Definition of error margins. - 4.2.2 Verifying error margins. - 4.2.3 Spatial error autocorrelation. - 4.2.4 Error for basin mean SMB. - 4.3 Application. - 4.4 Discussion. - 5 Heat budget of the lower East Antarctic atmosphere. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Model description. - 5.3 The heat budget. - 5.3.1 Derivation of temperature tendency equation. - 5.3.2 Calculation of individual terms. - 5.4 Model evaluation. - 5.4.1 Temperature and wind. - 5.4.2 Surface energy budget. - 5.5 Results. - 5.5.1 Binning procedure. - 5.5.2 Climatological setting. - 5.5.3 Winter heat budgets. - 5.5.4 Summer heat budgets. - 5.6 Conclusions. - 6 Factors Controlling the Near Surface Temperature in Antarctica. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Model description and evaluation. - 6.3 Methods. - 6.3.1 Definition of the heat budget. - 6.3.2 Definition of free atmosphere parameters. - 6.3.3 Definition of ABL depth. - 6.3.4 Example of vertical profiles. - 6.4 Results: Winter. - 6.4.1 External heating and surface interactions. - 6.4.2 Heat advection in East Antarctica. - 6.4.3 Spatial distribution of AdvH and AdvV. - 6.4.4 Synoptic and persistent large-scale and ABL contributions to AdvH. - 6.5 Results: Summer. - 6.5.1 External heating and surface interactions. - 6.5.2 Heat advection. - 6.6 Summary and conclusions. - 7 Suggestions for future work. - 7.1 Applications for heat budget analyses. - 7.2 SMB of the Antarctic ice sheet. - 7.3 A pilot study with decreased ice crystal fall speed. - Bibliography. - Samenvatting. - Dankwoord. - Curriculum Vitae. - Publications.

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Modern seismology has faced new challenges in the study of earthquakes and their physical characteristics. This volume is dedicated to the use of new approaches and presents a state of the art in historical seismology. Selected historical and recent earthquakes are chosen to document and constrain related seismic parameters using updated methodologies in the macroseismic analysis, field observations of damage distribution and tectonic effects, and modelling of seismic waveforms. A critical re-evaluation of historical accounts and early seismograms provides us with the basis for a realistic seismic hazard assessment.- A glimpse into the seismicity of the Ionian Islands between 1658 and 1664.- The earthquake of April 4, 1640 in the Lower Rhine Embayment.- The Value of Descriptive Earthquake Catalogues of the Eastern Mediterranean Region and the Middle East.- Sources of the 1692 and 1907 earthquakes in Jamaica.- Quantitative analysis of early seismograph recordings.- The Late 17th century earthquakes in Northwest Africa: how many (if any)?.- Richter magnitude evaluation: from historical macroseismic data to seismic waveform modelling.- In troubled times, in a divided country: the Upper Tiber Valley earthquake of 1789.- Can we improve the knowledge of historical seismicity of France, and elsewhere?.- The seismicity of Central Alps: seismological and archaeological traces, geological evidence and open problems.- The 1855 Visp (Switzerland) Earthquake: A Milestone in Macroseismic Methodology?.- Large Historical Earthquakes in Eastern/Central North America: Fact and Fiction.- Benson Making Seismograms Accessible from Historical Seismogram Filming to the Online SeismoArchives.- Attenuation of intensity for the Zemmouri earthquake of May 2003 (Mw 6.8): Insights for the seismic hazard assessment in northern Algeria.- Earthquake Fault Ruptures and Historical Seismology : A decisive step for a better constraint of the active deformation.- The case for large (M〉7) earthquakes felt in the UK in historical times.- Earthquake effects on nature and macroseismic intensity scales.- Interpretation of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake based on the historical observations of different physical phenomena.- Review of historical earthquakes in the lower middle age: earthquakes of the XIV and XV centuries in Catalonia (NE Spain).- What is the lowest magnitude threshold at which an earthquake can be felt or heard, or objects thrown into the air?

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: This book is the first synthesis of sedimentary geology and paleoceanography of the South China Sea on the basis of extensive industrial explorations and scientific expeditions culminated with the ODP Leg 184. It provides up-to-date knowledge about the history of this largest marginal sea in the West Pacific, deep-sea records of evolution and variations of the East Asian monsoon, and geological backgrounds of the off-shore petroleum basins. With its focus on paleoceanography and sedimentology, this volume provides a comprehensive all-round view of the marginal sea basin, from modern oceanography to sequence stratigraphy. The South China Sea: Paleoceanography and Sedimentology is essential reading for advanced students and researchers working in marine geology, basin evolution, sedimentology, paleoceanography and related fields.

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Contents: 1. Isotopes and radioactivity; 2. The principles o radioactive dating; 3. Radiometric dating methods; 4. Dating by cosmogenic isotopes; 5. Uncertainties and results of radiometric dating; 6. Radiogenic isotope geochemistry; 7. Stable isotope geochemistry; 8. Isotope geology and dynamic reservoir analysis

Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Contens: Preface: H. S. Wheater, S. Sorooshian and K. D. Sharma; 1. Modelling hydrological processes in arid and semi-arid areas - an introduction H. Wheater; 2. Global precipitation estimation from satellite imagery using artificial neural networks S. Sorooshian, K.-L. Hsu, B. Imam and Y. Hong; 3. Modelling semi-arid and arid hydrology and water resources - the southern Africa experience D. A. Hughes; 4. Use of the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model in arid and semi-arid regions B. F. W. Croke and A. J. Jakeman; 5. KINEROS2 and the AGWA modelling framework D. J. Semmens, D. C. Goodrich, C. L. Unkrich, R. E. Smith, D. A. Woolhiser and S. N. Miller; 6. A distributed spatial sediment delivery model for arid regions K. D. Sharma; 7. The Modular Modeling System (MMS): a toolbox for water and environmental resources management G. H. Leavesley, S. L. Markstrom, R. J. Viger and L. E. Hay; 8. Calibration, uncertainty and regional analysis of conceptual rainfall-runoff models H. Wheater, T. Wagener and N. McIntyre; 9. Real-time flow forecasting P. C. Young; 10. Real-time flood forecasting - Indian experience R. D. Singh; 11. Groundwater modeling in hard-rock terrain in semi-arid areas: experience from India S. Ahmed, J.-C. Maréchal, E. Ledoux and G. de Marsily;