ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction to the topic of thrustbelts; Mechanics of thrust wedges; Mechanics of thrust sheets; Thin-skin thrustbelt structures; Thick-skin thrustbelt structures; Determination of timing of thrusting and deformation rates; Role of mechanical stratigraphy on evolving architectural elements and structural style; Role of pre-contractional tectonics and anisotropy on evolving structural style; Role of syn-orogenic erosion and deposition on evolving structural style; Fluid flow in thrustbelts during and after deformation; Role of pre-orogenic heat flow on subsequent thermal regimes; Role of structural and stratigraphic architecture on thermal regimes; Role of syn-orogenic burial and/or uplift and erosion on thermal regimes; Role of deformation on thermal regimes; Role of fluid movement on thermal regimes; Hydrocarbons in thrustbelts: global view; Source rocks in thrustbelt settings; Maturation and migration in thrustbelts; Seals and traps in thrustbelts; Reservoir destruction or enhancement due to thrusting; Remaining petroleum potential of thrustbelts.

Description / Table of Contents: Motivations and Opportunities. - Structural Mapping Techniques and Tools. - Characterizing Structures Using Differential Geometry. - Physical Quantities, Fields, Dimensions, and Scaling. - Deformation and Flow. - Force, Traction, and Stress. - Conservation of Mass and Momentum. - Elastic Deformation. - Brittle Behavior. - Viscous Flow. - Rheological Behavior. - Model Development and Methodology.

Description / Table of Contents: Earth is a water planet. Oceans of liquid water dominate the surface processes of the planet. On the surface, water controls weathering as well as transport and deposition of sediments. Liquid water is necessary for life. In the interior, water fluxes melting and controls the solid-state viscosity of the convecting mantle and so controls volcanism and tectonics. Oceans cover more than 70% of the surface but make up only about 0.025% of the planet's mass. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the cosmos, but in the bulk Earth, it is one of the most poorly constrained chemical compositional variables. Almost all of the nominally anhydrous minerals that compose the Earth's crust and mantle can incorporate measurable amounts of hydrogen. Because these are minerals that contain oxygen as the principal anion, the major incorporation mechanism is as hydroxyl, OH-, and the chemical component is equivalent to water, H2O. Although the hydrogen proton can be considered a monovalent cation, it does not occupy same structural position as a typical cation in a mineral structure, but rather forms a hydrogen bond with the oxygens on the edge of the coordination polyhedron. The amount incorporated is thus quite sensitive to pressure and the amount of H that can be incorporated in these phases generally increases with pressure and sometimes with temperature. Hydrogen solubility in nominally anhydrous minerals is thus much more sensitive to temperature and pressure than that of other elements. Because the mass of rock in the mantle is so large relative to ocean mass, the amount that is incorporated the nominally anhydrous phases of the interior may constitute the largest reservoir of water in the planet. Understanding the behavior and chemistry of hydrogen in minerals at the atomic scale is thus central to understanding the geology of the planet. There have been significant recent advances in the detection, measurement, and location of H in the nominally anhydrous silicate and oxide minerals that compose the planet. There have also been advances in experimental methods for measurement of H diffusion and the effects of H on the phase boundaries and physical properties whereby the presence of H in the interior may be inferred from seismic or other geophysical studies. It is the objective of this volume to consolidate these advances with reviews of recent research in the geochemistry and mineral physics of hydrogen in the principal mineral phases of the Earth's crust and mantle. The Chapters We begin with a review of analytical methods for measuring and calibrating water contents in nominally anhydrous minerals by George Rossman. While infrared spectroscopy is still the most sensitive and most convenient method for detecting water in minerals, it is not intrinsically quantitative but requires calibration by some other, independent analytical method, such as nuclear reaction analysis, hydrogen manometry, or SIMS. A particular advantage of infrared spectroscopy, however, is the fact that it does not only probe the concentration, but also the structure of hydrous species in a mineral and in many cases the precise location of a proton in a mineral structure can be worked out based on infrared spectra alone. The methods and principles behind this are reviewed by Eugen Libowitzky and Anton Beran, with many illustrative examples. Compared to infrared spectroscopy, NMR is much less used in studying hydrogen in minerals, mostly due to its lower sensitivity, the requirement of samples free of paramagnetic ions such as Fe2+ and because of the more complicated instrumentation required for NMR measurements. However, NMR could be very useful under some circumstances. It could detect any hydrogen species in a sample, including such species as H2 that would be invisible with infrared. Potential applications of NMR to the study of hydrogen in minerals are reviewed by Simon Kohn. While structural models of "water" in minerals have already been deduced from infrared spectra several decades ago, in recent years atomistic modeling has become a powerful tool for predicting potential sites for hydrogen in minerals. The review by Kate Wright gives an overview over both quantum mechanical methods and classical methods based on interatomic potentials. Joseph Smyth then summarizes the crystal chemistry of hydrogen in high-pressure silicate and oxide minerals. As a general rule, the incorporation of hydrogen is not controlled by the size of potential sites in the crystal lattice; rather, the protons will preferentially attach to oxygen atoms that are electrostatically underbonded, such as the non-silicate oxygen atoms in some high-pressure phases. Moreover, heterovalent substitutions, e.g., the substitution of Al3+ for Si4+, can have a major effect on the incorporation of hydrogen. Data on water in natural minerals from crust and mantle are compiled and discussed in three reviews by Elisabeth Johnson, Henrik Skogby and by Anton Beran and Eugen Libowitzky. Among the major mantle minerals, clinopyroxenes usually retain the highest water contents, followed by orthopyroxenes and olivine, while the water contents in garnets are generally low. Most of these water contents need to be considered as minimum values, as many of the mantle xenoliths may have lost water during ascent. However, there are some cases where the correlation between the water contents and other geochemical parameters suggest that the measured water concentrations reflect the true original water content in the mantle. The basic thermodynamics as well as experimental data on water solubility and partitioning are reviewed by Hans Keppler and Nathalie Bolfan Casanova. Water solubility in minerals depends in a complicated way on pressure, temperature, water fugacity and bulk composition. For example, water solubility in the same mineral can increase or decrease with temperature, depending on the pressure of the experiments. Nevertheless, the pressure and temperature dependence of water solubility can be described by a rather simple thermodynamic formalism and for most minerals of the upper mantle, the relevant thermodynamic parameters are known. The highest water solubilities are reached in the minerals wadsleyite and ringwoodite stable in the transition zone, while the minerals of the lower mantle are probably mostly dry. The rather limited experimental data on water partitioning between silicate melts and minerals are reviewed by Simon Kohn and Kevin Grant. One important observation here is that comparing the compatibility of hydrogen with that of some rare earth element is misleading, as such correlations are always limited to a small range of pressure and temperature for a given mineral. The stabilities of hydrous phases in the peridotite mantle and in subducted slabs are reviewed by Daniel Frost and by Tatsuhiko Kawamoto. While most of the water in the mantle is certainly stored in the nominally anhydrous minerals, hydrous phases can be important storage sites of water in certain environments. Amphibole and phlogopite require a significant metasomatic enrichment of Na and K in order to be stabilized in the upper mantle, but serpentine may be an important carrier of water in cold subducted slabs. The diffusion of hydrogen in minerals is reviewed by Jannick Ingrin and Marc Blanchard. An important general observation here is that natural minerals usually do not loose hydrogen as water, but as H2 generated by redox reaction of OH with Fe2+. Moreover, diffusion coefficients of different mantle minerals can vary by orders of magnitude, often with significant anisotropy. While some minerals in a mantle xenolith may therefore have lost virtually all of their water during ascent, other minerals may still preserve the original water content and in general, the apparent partition coefficients of water between the minerals of the same xenolith can be totally out of equilibrium. Accordingly, it would be highly desirable to directly deduce the water content in the mantle from geophysical data. One strategy, based on seismic velocities and therefore ultimately on the effect of water on the equation of state of minerals, is outlined by Steve Jacobsen. The dissolution of water in minerals usually increases the number of cation vacancies, yielding reduced bulk and shear moduli and seismic velocities. Particularly, the effect on shear velocities is strong and probably larger than the effect expected from local temperature variations. Accordingly, the vs/vp ratio could be a sensitive indicator of mantle hydration. A more general approach towards remote sensing of hydrogen in the Earth's mantle, including effects of seismic anisotropy due to lattice preferred orientation and the use of electrical conductivity data is presented by Shun-ichiro Karato. Probably the most important effect of water on geodynamics is related to the fact that even traces of water dramatically reduce the mechanical strength of rocks during deformation. The physics behind this effect is discussed by David Kohlstedt. Interestingly, it appears that the main mechanism behind "hydrolytic weakening" is related to the effect of water on the concentration and mobility of Si vacancies, rather than to the protons themselves. Water may have major effects on the location of mantle discontinuities, as reviewed by Eiji Ohtani and Konstantin Litasov. Most of these effects can be rationalized as being due to the expansion of the stability fields of those phases (e.g., wadsleyite) that preferentially incorporate water. Together with other geophysical data, the changes in the depths of discontinuities are a promising tool for the remote sensing of water contents in the mantle. The global effects of water on the evolution of our planet are reviewed in the last two chapters by Bernard Marty, Reika Yokochi and Klaus Regenauer-Lieb. By combining hydrogen und nitrogen isotope data, Marty and Yokochi demonstrate convincingly that most of the Earth's water very likely originated from a chondritic source. Water may have had a profound effect on the early evolution of our planet, since a water-rich dense atmosphere could have favored melting by a thermal blanketing effect. However, Marty and Yokochi also show very clearly that it is pretty much impossible to derive reliable estimates of the Earth's present-day water content from cosmochemical arguments, since many factors affecting the loss of water during and after accretion are poorly constrained or not constrained at all. In the last chapter, Klaus Regenauer-Lieb investigates the effect of water on the style of global tectonics. He demonstrates that plate tectonics as we know it is only possible if the water content of the mantle is above a threshold value. The different tectonic style observed on Mars and Venus may therefore be directly related to differences in mantle water content. Earth is the water planet — not just because of it's oceans, but also because of its tectonic evolution.

Description / Table of Contents: The Eastern Mediterranean region is a classic area for the study of tectonic processes and settings related to the development of the Tethyan orogenic belt. The present set of research and synthesis papers by Earth scientists from countries in this region and others provides an up-to-date, interdisciplinary overview of the tectonic development of the Eastern Mediterranean region from Precambrian to Recent. Key topics include continental rifting, ophiolite genesis and emplacement, continental collision, extensional tectonics, crustal exhumation and intra-plate deformation (e.g. active faulting). Alternative tectonic reconstructions of the Tethyan orogen are presented and discussed, with important implications for other regions of the world. The book will be an essential source of information and interpretation for academic researchers (geologists and geophysicists), advanced undergraduates and also for industry professionals, including those concerned with hydrocarbons, minerals and geological hazards (e.g. earthquakes).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction. 2. The water cycle 2.1 Distribution of water on earth 2.2 The Continental Water Cycle 2.2.1 Components of the Water CycleRainfall and hydrological characteristics of different climate zones 2.3 The vadose zone and its water balance for different climate zones 2.4 Rechargeable and "fossil" groundwater and water exploitation 2.5 The place of recharge in the water cycle 3. Mechanisms and processes of recharge 3.1 The input: precipitation and snow melt 3.2 Wet and dry deposition at the interface atmosphere/lithosphere/biosphere 3.3 Overland-flow and infiltration 3.4 Matrix-flow and preferential-flow 3.5 Inter-flow 3.6 River-infiltration. 3.7 Artificial recharge 3.8 Water vapour fluxes in the subsurface 4. Research tools and methods in the study of recharge 4.1 Water balance estimates 4.1.1 Estimate of evapo-transpiration 4.1.2 Hydrograph methods 4.2 Lysimeter studies 4.3 Hydraulic methods 4.4 Isotope and chemical tracers 4.4.1 Stable isotopes and dating methodologies 4.5 Water sampling and sample conservation 4.6 Comparison between tracers and conventional techniques 5. Recharge under different climate regimes and their chemical and isotope signatures 5.1 Humid tropical climates 5.2 Humid temperate climates 5.2.1 Conceptual models 5.2.2 Water balance and separation of discharge components 5.2.3 Chemistry of groundwater recharge 5.3 Semi-arid climates 5.4 Arid climates 5.5 Cold climates 6. Mans impact on the groundwater recharge 6.1 Land use changes: agricultural activities and urbanization 6.2 Return waters from irrigated areas, industrial activities and urban areas 6.3 Salinization and pollution 6.4 Imported waters 6.5 Global changes on the water cycle

Description / Table of Contents: In this paper, the hydrologic basis of the water balance model LARSIM and application examples are presented. LARSIM allows a process- and area-detailed simulation of the water cycle. It uses system data, which are readily available in most cases.Fundamental approaches used in LARSIM are described in detail for the following hydrological subprocesses: interception, actual evapotranspiration, snow accumulation, metamorphosis of snow and snow melt, soil water and groundwater storage, lateral water transport to streams (run-off concentration), water temperature and routing in channel networks. Furthermore, procedures for regionalisation of model parameters of LARSIM and methods of spatial interpolation of me-teorological input data are discussed.Various applications of LARSIM are described: the impact of climate change on water balance in south-western Germany, water budget of the Baltic Sea catchment in connection with coupled atmosphere-hydrology simulations, hydrologic effects of land use change and the operational forecasts of low flow, flood and water temperature by the Flood Forecast Centre (HVZ) of the federal state of Baden-Württemberg (Germany).

Description / Table of Contents: Welcher Anteil des Niederschlagswassers gelangt von landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Bäche und Flüsse? Wie stark und mit welchen Stoffen ist dieses abfließende Wasser belastet? Wie sehen die langfristigen Folgen aus? Das Buch ist eine allgemeine und umfassende Darstellung von kleinräumigen hydrologischen Prozessen im punktuellen cm-Bereich bis hin zum kleinen Einzugsgebiet. Diese abgestimmte Kombination von Theorie, Feldmessung und numerischer Modellierung ist zukunftsweisend für die moderne Hydrologie.

Description / Table of Contents: Tracers in Hydrology and Water Research is a comprehensive overview of the application of natural and artificial tracers in hydrology and environmental research. Taking a unique approach by providing the reader with a systematic and state of the art description of natural and artificial tracers, the book also covers key analytical techniques and applications, and modern tracer methods in the context of systematic hydrology. Tracers have become a primary tool for process investigation, qualitative and quantitative system analysis and integrated resource management. This book will outline the fundamentals of the subject, and examine the latest research findings, clearly showing the entire process of tracer application through the inclusion of numerous integrated case studies.As many techniques derive from different scientific disciplines (chemistry, biology, physics), the effort of compilation and integration into modern hydrology and environmental science research and application requires substantial continuity and experience, which certifies this group of authors.This book will be an invaluable reference not only for students and researchers within the field of Hydrology and Hydrogeology but also for engineers and other tracer techniques applying users.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Part I: Subduction Zone Geodynamics.- Part II: Seismic Tomography and Anisotropy.- Part III: Great Subduction Zone Earthquakes.- Part IV: Seismogenic Zone Characterization.- Part V: Continental and Ridge Subduction Processes.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Fluid Dynamics of Mantle Plumes.- Tracing the Hawaiian Mantle Plume by Converted Seismic Waves.- Iceland: The Current Picture of a Ridge-Centred Plume.- Combined Gas-geochemical and Receiver Function Studies on the Vogtland/NW Bohemia Intraplate Mantle Degassing Field, Central Europe.- Crustal and Upper Mantle Structure of the French Massif Central Plume.- Geodynamic Setting of the Tertiary Hocheifel Volcanism (Germany), Part I: 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology.- Geodynamic Setting of the Tertiary Hocheifel Volcanism (Germany), Part II: Geochemistry and Sr, Nd and Pb Isotopic Compositions.- The Quaternary Volcanic Fields of the East and West Eifel (Germany).- Thermal and Geochemical Evolution of the Shallow Subcontinental Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Eifel: Constraints from Mantle Xenoliths, a Review.- He-Ne-Ar Isotope Systematics of Eifel and Pannonian Basin Mantle Xenoliths Trace Deep Mantle Plume-Lithosphere Interaction Beneath the European Continent.- Quaternary Uplift in the Eifel Area.- The Seismic Signature of the Eifel Plume.- Upper Mantle Structure Beneath the Eifel from Receiver Functions.- Rayleigh Wave Dispersion in the Eifel Region.- Seismic Anisotropy in the Asthenosphere Beneath the Eifel Region, Western Germany.- Gravity Observations in the Western Rhenish Massif and Forward Modelling of the Eifel Plume Bouguer Anomaly.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Section I. Introduction and Overview. - Emerging Issues in Fractured-Rock Flow and Transport Investigations: Introduction and Overview / Boris Faybishenko, Paul A. Witherspoon, Gudmundur S. Bodvarsson, and John Gale. - Section II. Models and Modeling of Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock. - Do Heterogeneous Sediment Properties and Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations Have Something in Common? Some History and a New Stochastic Process / Fred J. Molz, Mark M. Meerschaert, Tom J. Kozubowski, and Paul D. Hyden . - Quantification of Non-Fickian Transport in Fractured Formations / Brian Berkowitz and Harvey Scher . - Study of Single and Multiphase Flow in Fractured Porous Media, Using a Percolation Approach / P.M. Adler, V.V. Mourzenko, J.-F. Thovert, and I. Bogdanov . - Percolation-Continuum Model of Evaporative Drying: Homogeneous or Patchy Saturation? / H. F. Wang, T. E. Strand, and J. G. Berryman . - Navier-Stokes Simulations of Fluid Flow Through a Rock Fracture / Azzan H. Al-Yaarubi, Chris C. Pain, Carlos A. Grattoni, and Robert W. Zimmerman . - Theoretical and Numerical Study of Flow at the Interface of Porous Media / Ravid Rosenzweig and Uri Shavit . - Numerical Simulations Show Potential for Strong Nonisothermal Effects During Fluid Leakage from a Geologic Disposal Reservoir for CO 2 / Karsten Pruess . - Uncertainty in Groundwater Flow Simulations Caused by Multiple Modeling Approaches, at the Mizunami Underground Research Laboratory, Japan / Atsushi Sawada, Hiromitsu Saegusa, andYuji Ijiri . - Section III: Case Studies from Laboratory and Field Investigations . - III.1. Multi-Scale Investigations and Underground Facilities . - Predicting Fractured Zones in the Culebra Dolomite / Robert M. Holt, Richard L. Beauheim, and Dennis W. Powers . - Assessment of Retention Processes for Transport in a Fractured System at Äspö (Sweden) Granitic Site: From Short-Time Experiments to Long-Time Predictive Models / Christophe Grenier, André Fourno, Emmanuel Mouche, Frédérick Delay, and Hakim Benabderrahmane. - Simulation of Hydraulic Disturbances Caused by the Underground Rock Characterization Facility in Olkiluoto, Finland / Jari Löfman and Ferenc Mészáros . - III.2. Coupled Processes of Solute Transport and Chemical Processes. - Evaporation from Fractures Exposed at Land Surface: Impact of Gas-Phase Convection on Salt Accumulation / Noam Weisbrod, Modi Pillersdorf, Maria Dragila, Chris Graham, James Cassidy, and Clay A. Cooper . - Dissolved Chemical Discharge from Fractured Clay Aquitards Contaminated by DNAPLs / Ronald W. Falta . - III.3. Geothermal Reservoirs . - Dry-Steam Wellhead Discharges From Liquid-Dominated Geothermal Reservoirs: A Result of Coupled Nonequilibrium Multiphase Fluid and Heat Flow Through Fractured Rock / John W. Pritchett . - III.4. Microbial Transport . - Microbial Processes in Fractured Rock Environments / Nancy E. Kinner, T. Taylor Eighmy, M. Mills, J. Coulburn, and L. Tisa . - The Effect of Microbial Activity on Biodegradation of 2,4,6-Tribromophenol and Flow in Naturally Fractured Chalk Cores / Shai Arnon, Eilon Adar, Zeev Ronen, Alexander Yakirevich, and Ronit Nativ .

Description / Table of Contents: Contens: Preface: H. S. Wheater, S. Sorooshian and K. D. Sharma; 1. Modelling hydrological processes in arid and semi-arid areas - an introduction H. Wheater; 2. Global precipitation estimation from satellite imagery using artificial neural networks S. Sorooshian, K.-L. Hsu, B. Imam and Y. Hong; 3. Modelling semi-arid and arid hydrology and water resources - the southern Africa experience D. A. Hughes; 4. Use of the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model in arid and semi-arid regions B. F. W. Croke and A. J. Jakeman; 5. KINEROS2 and the AGWA modelling framework D. J. Semmens, D. C. Goodrich, C. L. Unkrich, R. E. Smith, D. A. Woolhiser and S. N. Miller; 6. A distributed spatial sediment delivery model for arid regions K. D. Sharma; 7. The Modular Modeling System (MMS): a toolbox for water and environmental resources management G. H. Leavesley, S. L. Markstrom, R. J. Viger and L. E. Hay; 8. Calibration, uncertainty and regional analysis of conceptual rainfall-runoff models H. Wheater, T. Wagener and N. McIntyre; 9. Real-time flow forecasting P. C. Young; 10. Real-time flood forecasting - Indian experience R. D. Singh; 11. Groundwater modeling in hard-rock terrain in semi-arid areas: experience from India S. Ahmed, J.-C. Maréchal, E. Ledoux and G. de Marsily;

Description / Table of Contents: Accretionary orogens form at convergent plate boundaries and include the supra-subduction zone forearc, magmatic arc and backarc components. They can be broken into retreating and advancing types, based on their kinematic framework and resulting geological character.Accretionary systems have been active throughout Earth history, extending back until at least 3.2 Ga, and provide an important constraint on the initiation of horizontal motion of lithospheric plates on Earth.Accretionary orogens have been responsible for major growth of the continental lithosphere, through the addition of juvenile magmatic products, but are also major sites of consumption and reworking of continental crust through time.

Description / Table of Contents: Tectonic motion of the Adria microplate exerts a first-order control on the tectonics, geology, seismology, resource distribution, and the geological hazards across a broad zone of south-central Europe and the north-central Mediterranean.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Tectonic Faults: Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth. - Fault Zones from Top to Bottom . - Nucleation and Growth of Fault Systems. - Seismic Fault Rheology and Earthquake Dynamics. - Continental Fault Structure and Rheology from the Frictional-to-Viscous Transition Downwards. - Group Report: Rheology of Fault Rocks and Their Surroundings. - Topography, Denudation, and Deformation: The Role of Surface Processes on Fault Evolution. - Constraining the Denudational Response to Faulting. - Surface Environmental Effects on and of Faulting. - Fluid Processes in Deep Crustal Fault Zones. - Deformation in the Presence of Fluids and Mineral Reactions: Effect of Fracturing and Fluid Rock Interaction on Seismic Cycles. - On the Effects of Melting on Faulting and Continental Deformation. - Fluids, Geochemical Cycles, and Mass Transport in Fault Zones.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Hydrogeologic environment of fractured rock. 2. Conceptual models, groundwater flow and resources infractured rocks. 3. Groundwater quality in fractured rocks. 4. Investigation and interpretation methods in fractured environment. 5. Anthropogenic impacts on fractured environment. 6. Numerical modelling of fractured environment

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Kontraktionstheorie, Kontinentverschiebung und Plattentektonik, 2. Plattenbewegungen und ihre geometrischen Beziehungen, 3. Kontinentale Grabenbrüche, 4. Passive Kontinentränder und Tiefseebecken, 5. Mittelozeanische Rücken, 6. Heiße Flecken, 7. Subduktionszonen, Inselbögen und Aktive Kontinentränder, 8. Transformstörungen, 9. Terrane, 10. Plattentektonik im frühen Präkambrium, 11. Plattentektonik und Gebirgsbildung, 12. Alte Gebirge, 13. Junge Gebirge - Alpen und Himalaja.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Part I. Background: 1. Introduction; 2. Types of rivers; 3. Non-regime channels; Part II. Upstream Controls: 4. History; 5. Tectonics and relief; 6. Lithology; 7. Climate: hydrology; 8. Humans; Part III. Fixed Local Controls: 9. Bedrock: alluvium; 10. Tributaries; 11. Active tectonics; 12. Valley morphology; Part IV. Variable Local Controls: 13. Floods; 14. Vegetation; 15. Accidents; Part V. Downstream Controls: 16. Base-level; 17. Length; Part VI. Rivers and Humans: 18. Applications; 19. Some unintended consequences; 20. River impact on ancient civilisations: a hypothesis

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: INTRODUCTION TO KARST. - THE KARST ROCKS. - DISSOLUTION: CHEMICAL AND KINETIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE KARST ROCKS. - DISTRIBUTION AND RATE OF KARST DENUDATION. - KARST HYDROLOGY. - ANALYSIS OF KARST DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. - SPELEOGENESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVE SYSTEMS. - CAVE INTERIOR DEPOSITS. - KARST LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT IN HUMID REGIONS. - THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT. - KARST WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. - HUMAN IMPACTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION.

Description / Table of Contents: Knowledge about soil water transport and groundwater renewal rates is crucial for groundwater research and risk assessment. Particularly the impact of preferential flow paths in the unsaturated zone on pollutant transport is an important topic, as it affects the vulnerability of the adjacent aquifer. However, in literature the determination of preferential flow is only partly solved and especially quantification attempts have been rare. Therefore, a new method combining mathematical modelling with hydrological and environmental isotope data was developed to estimate the heterogeneity of the unsaturated transport processes. For this purpose, environmental isotope transport (18O, 2H) was investigated in several lysimeter experiments. A conceptual model was applied, which separates preferential and matrix flow. Both flow components are quantified and their transit time distribution functions are determined to construct specific vulnerability diagrams.Water flow and transport of environmental isotopes through the soil matrix was calculated using both a transient modelling approach solving numerically Richards and Convection-Dispersion-Equation for single porous medium and a lumped parameter approach using the Dispersion Model. The preferential flow component is assumed by piston flow occurring within one week and having no interaction with the soil matrix.For quantification a two component flow approach was applied to the isotope and hydrological data. The mean transit time distribution functions were obtained from the lumped parameter approach and visualized in specific vulnerability diagrams, showing when infiltrating water reaches the groundwater. This method was applied to different lysimeter experiments that were conducted under natural atmospheric conditions. Different lysimeters, filled mostly with sandy soil material, were under investigation to study the impact of soil properties and vegetation on the transport heterogeneity and amount of preferential flow.It was shown that the lumped parameter approach yielded good results modelling the isotope transport in the soils with bare surface. An application to the soils with vegetation required a modification of the classical input function including evapotranspiration and thus considering the infiltration events contributing to the discharge. Additional separation into the single vegetation periods improved the modelling.Preferential flow was observed in all soils and quantified with the two component flow approach. In bare sandy and gravel soils the mean fractions of preferential flow varied between 17 and 30 %. Here, the crucial parameter influencing these fractions was found to be the saturated hydraulic conductivity. In the cropped soils the mean fractions of preferential were dependent on the discharge rate and varied according to the vegetation. Mean fractions of 3 % and 18 % were observed in a loamy sand during intercrop period and cultivation of maize monoculture, respectively. The same soil material but cultivated with crop rotation yielded mean fractions of 14 % during maize, 4 % during winter barley and 15 % during the intercrop vegetation period. In a third experimental setup with sandy soil a mean fraction of 8 % was found.Specific vulnerability diagrams were constructed showing the mean transit time distribution functions of both, preferential and matrix flow. Their patterns were closely related to soil parameters. They can be used as a helpful tool to develop groundwater protection strategies more efficiently.It was shown that the presented method enabled the estimation of transport heterogeneity and the quantification of preferential flow under natural atmospheric conditions in bare and cropped lysimeters using environmental isotope data. Such isotopes are adequate tracer to study the transport processes in the unsaturated zone. It was revealed that experiments with continuous natural application like environmental tracers over long time periods were necessary to cover a broad range of flux variability and to determine transport heterogeneity.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Approaches to data integration. - Data integration for property characterization. - Data integration to understand hydrologic processes. - Meta analysis.

Description / Table of Contents: Following the late Neoproterozoic - early Cambrian breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, Gondwana evolved as one of the principal continental masses on Earth, embracing most of South America, Africa, Australasia, Antarctica, much of western Europe and parts of Asia. Around its margins were various other terranes that had varying tectonic and biogeographical affinities with the main continental block. This book incorporates a series of reviews and multidisciplinary research papers that together explore the tectonic, palaeogeographical and palaeobiogeographical evolution of the elements that made up the peri-Gondwanan collage. The stratigraphical scope of the coverage embraces the late Precambrian through early Devonian, providing a comprehensive overview of structural, stratigraphical and biological evolution through this significant interval of Earth history. Integration of these various processes throughout the volume will be of broad-based interest to a wide range of geoscientists.

Description / Table of Contents: Plate tectonics provide a unifying conceptual framework for the understanding of Phanerozoic orogens.More controversially, recent syntheses apply these principles as far back as the Early Archaean. Manyancient orogens are, however, poorly preserved and the processes responsible for them are not well understood.The effects of processes such as delamination, subduction of oceanic and aseismic ridges, overridingof plumes and subduction erosion are rarely identified in ancient orogens, although they have a profoundeffect on Cenozoic orogens. However, deeply eroded ancient orogens provide insights into the hiddenroots of modern orogens. Recent advances in analytical techniques, as well as in fields such as geodynamics,have provided fresh insights into ancient orogenic belts, so that realistic modern analogies can nowbe applied. This Special Publication offers up-to-date reviews and models for some of the most importantorogenic belts developed over the past 2.5 billion years of Earth history.

Description / Table of Contents: This book considers the geology between North and South America. It contributes to debate about the area's evolution, particularly that of the Caribbean. Prevailing understanding is that the Caribbean formed inthe Pacific and was engulfed between the Americas as the latter drifted west. Accordingly, the CaribbeanPlate comprises internal, Jurassic-Cretaceous oceanic rocks, thickened into a Cretaceous hotspot/plumeplateau, with obducted ophiolites and Cretaceous-Palaeogene, subduction-related, intra-oceanic volcanicarc and metamorphosed arc/continental rocks exposed on its margins. An alternative interpretation is thatthe Caribbean evolved in place. It consists largely of continental crust, extended in the Triassic-Jurassic,which subsided below thick Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonate rocks and flood basalts, and Cenozoic carbonateand clastic rocks. After uplift of 'oceanic' and volcanic arc rocks onto (continental) margins, the interiorfoundered in the Middle Eocene. Papers range from regional overviews and discussions of Caribbeanorigins to aspects of local geology arranged in a circum-Caribbean tour and ending in the interior. They address tectonics, structure, geochronology, seismicity, igneous and metamorphic petrology, metamorphism, geochemistry, stratigraphy and palaeontology.

Description / Table of Contents: This is a thorough, up-to-date guide to groundwater science and technology. Our understanding of the occurrence and movement of water under the Earth's surface is constantly advancing, with new models, improved drilling equipment, new research, and refined techniques for managing this vital resource. Responding to these tremendous changes, David Todd and new coauthor Larry Mays equip readers with a thorough and up-to-date grounding in the science and technology of groundwater hydrology. "Groundwater Hydrology, Third Edition" offers a unified presentation of the field, treating fundamental principles, methods, and problems as a whole. With this new edition, you'll be able to stay current with recent developments in groundwater hydrology, learn modern modeling methods, and apply what you've learned to realistic situations. Highlights of the Third Edition include: new example problems and case studies, as well as problem sets at the end of each chapter; a special focus on modern groundwater modeling methods, including a new chapter on modeling (Chapter 9), which describes the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model; over 300 new figures and photos; both SI and U.S. customary units in the example problems; expanded coverage of groundwater contamination by chemicals; and new references at the end of each chapter, which provide sources for research and graduate study.

Description / Table of Contents: A new map of standardized, mesoscale (tens to thousands of hectares) terrestrial ecosystems for the conterminous United States was developed by using a biophysical stratification approach. The ecosystems delineated in this top-down, deductive modeling effort are described in NatureServe's classification of terrestrial ecological systems of the United States. The ecosystems were mapped as physically distinct areas and were associated with known distributions of vegetation assemblages by using a standardized methodology first developed for South America. This approach follows the geoecosystems concept of R.J. Huggett and the ecosystem geography approach of R.G. Bailey.Unique physical environments were delineated through a geospatial combination of national data layers for biogeography, bioclimate, surficial materials lithology, land surface forms, and topographic moisture potential. Combining these layers resulted in a comprehensive biophysical stratification of the conterminous United States, which produced 13,482 unique biophysical areas. These were considered as fundamental units of ecosystem structure and were aggregated into 419 potential terrestrial ecosystems.