ALBERT

Description: The composition and abundance of algal pigments provide information on characteristics of a phytoplankton community in respect to its photoacclimation, overall biomass, and taxonomic composition. Particularly, these pigments play a major role in photoprotection and in the light-driven part of photosynthesis. Most phytoplankton pigments can be measured by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) techniques to filtered water samples. This method, like others when water samples have to be analysed in the laboratory, is time consuming and therefore only a limited number of data points can be obtained. In order to receive information on phytoplankton pigment composition with a higher temporal and spatial resolution, we have developed a method to assess pigment concentrations from continuous optical measurements. The method applies an Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis to remote sensing reflectance data derived from ship-based hyper-spectral underwater radiometric and from multispectral satellite data (using the MERIS Polymer product developed by Steinmetz et al., 2011) measured in the Eastern Tropical Atlantic. Subsequently we developed statistically linear models with measured (collocated) pigment concentrations as the response variable and EOF loadings as predictor variables. The model results, show that surface concentrations of a suite of pigments and pigment groups can be well predicted from the ship-based reflectance measurements, even when only a multi-spectral resolution is chosen (i.e. eight bands similar to those used by MERIS). Based on the MERIS reflectance data, concentrations of total and monovinyl chlorophyll a and the groups of photoprotective and photosynthetic carotenoids can be predicted with high quality. The fitted statistical model constructed on the satellite reflectance data as input was applied to one month of MERIS Polymer data to predict the concentration of those pigment groups for the whole Eastern Tropical Atlantic area. Bootstrapping explorations of cross-validation error indicate that the method can produce reliable predictions with relatively small data sets (e.g., 〈 50 collocated values of reflectance and pigment concentration). The method allows for the derivation of time series from continuous reflectance data of various pigment groups at various regions, which can be used to study variability and change of phytoplankton composition and photo-physiology.

Description: Sea ice thickness information is important for sea ice modelling and ship operations. Here a method to detect the thickness of sea ice up to 50 cm during the freeze-up season based on high incidence angle observations of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite working at 1.4 GHz is suggested. By comparison of thermodynamic ice growth data with SMOS brightness temperatures, a high correlation to intensity and an anticorrelation to the difference between vertically and horizontally polarised brightness temperatures at incidence angles between 40 and 50° are found and used to develop an empirical retrieval algorithm sensitive to thin sea ice up to 50 cm thickness. The algorithm shows high correlation with ice thickness data from airborne measurements and reasonable ice thickness patterns for the Arctic freeze-up period.

Description: Following the launch of ESA's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, it has been shown that brightness temperatures at a low microwave frequency of 1.4 GHz (L-band) are sensitive to sea ice properties. In the first demonstration study, sea ice thickness up to 50 cm has been derived using a semi-empirical algorithm with constant tie-points. Here, we introduce a novel iterative retrieval algorithm that is based on a thermodynamic sea ice model and a three-layer radiative transfer model, which explicitly takes variations of ice temperature and ice salinity into account. In addition, ice thickness variations within the SMOS spatial resolution are considered through a statistical thickness distribution function derived from high-resolution ice thickness measurements from NASA's Operation IceBridge campaign. This new algorithm has been used for the continuous operational production of a SMOS-based sea ice thickness data set from 2010 on. The data set is compared to and validated with estimates from assimilation systems, remote sensing data, and airborne electromagnetic sounding data. The comparisons show that the new retrieval algorithm has a considerably better agreement with the validation data and delivers a more realistic Arctic-wide ice thickness distribution than the algorithm used in the previous study (Kaleschke et al., 2012).

Description: The ice shelf caverns around Antarctica are sources of cold and fresh water which contributes to the formation of Antarctic bottom water and thus to the ventilation of the deep basins of the World Ocean. While a realistic simulation of the cavern circulation requires high resolution, because of the complicated bottom topography and ice shelf morphology, the physics of melting and freezing at the ice shelf base is relatively simple. We have developed an analytically solvable box model of the cavern thermohaline state, using the formulation of melting and freezing as in Olbers and Hellmer (2010). There is high resolution along the cavern's path of the overturning circulation whereas the cross-path resolution is fairly coarse. The circulation in the cavern is prescribed and used as a tuning parameter to constrain the solution by attempting to match observed ranges for outflow temperature and salinity at the ice shelf front as well as of the mean basal melt rate. The method, tested for six Antarctic ice shelves, can be used for a quick estimate of melt/freeze rates and the overturning rate in particular caverns, given the temperature and salinity of the inflow and the above mentioned constrains for outflow and melting. In turn, the model can also be used for testing the compatibility of remotely sensed basal mass loss with observed cavern inflow characteristics.

Description: The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT), an activity of the international marine carbon research community, provides access to synthesis and gridded fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) products for the surface oceans. Version 2 of SOCAT is an update of the previous release (version 1) with more data (increased from 6.3 million to 10.1 million surface water fCO2 values) and extended data coverage (from 1968–2007 to 1968–2011). The quality control criteria, while identical in both versions, have been applied more strictly in version 2 than in version 1. The SOCAT website (http://www.socat.info/) has links to quality control comments, metadata, individual data set files, and synthesis and gridded data products. Interactive online tools allow visitors to explore the richness of the data. Applications of SOCAT include process studies, quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its spatial, seasonal, year-to-year and longerterm variation, as well as initialisation or validation of ocean carbon models and coupled climate-carbon models.

Description: In a feasibility study, the potential of proxy data for the temperature and salinity during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, about 19 000 to 23 000 years before present) in constraining the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) with a general ocean circulation model was explored. The proxy data were simulated by drawing data from four different model simulations at the ocean sediment core locations of the Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction of the Glacial Ocean surface (MARGO) project, and perturbing these data with realistic noise estimates. The results suggest that our method has the potential to provide estimates of the past strength of the AMOC even from sparse data, but in general, paleo-sea-surface temperature data without additional prior knowledge about the ocean state during the LGM is not adequate to constrain the model. On the one hand, additional data in the deep-ocean and salinity data are shown to be highly important in estimating the LGM circulation. On the other hand, increasing the amount of surface data alone does not appear to be enough for better estimates. Finally, better initial guesses to start the state estimation procedure would greatly improve the performance of the method. Indeed, with a sufficiently good first guess, just the sea-surface temperature data from the MARGO project promise to be sufficient for reliable estimates of the strength of the AMOC.

Description: We present first results from a coupled model setup, consisting of the state-of-the-art ice sheet model RIMBAY (Revised Ice Model Based on frAnk pattYn), and the community earth system model COSMOS. We show that special care has to be provided in order to ensure physical distributions of the forcings as well as numeric stability of the involved models. We demonstrate that a suitable statistical downscaling is crucial for ice sheet stability, especially for southern Greenland where surface temperatures are close to the melting point. The downscaling of net snow accumulation is based on an empirical relationship between surface slope and rainfall. The simulated ice sheet does not show dramatic loss of ice volume for pre-industrial conditions and is comparable with present-day ice orography. A sensitivity study with high CO2 level is used to demonstrate the effects of dynamic ice sheets onto climate compared to the standard setup with prescribed ice sheets.

Description: We estimate the contamination risks from the atmospheric dispersion of radionuclides released by severe nuclear power plant accidents using the ECHAM/Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy) atmospheric chemistry (EMAC) atmospheric chemistry-general circulation model at high resolution (50 km). We present an overview of global risks and also a case study of nuclear power plants that are currently under construction, planned and proposed in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, a region prone to earthquakes. We implemented continuous emissions from each location, making the simplifying assumption that all potential accidents release the same amount of radioactivity. We simulated atmospheric transport and decay, focusing on 137Cs and 131I as proxies for particulate and gaseous radionuclides, respectively. We present risk maps for potential surface layer concentrations, deposition and doses to humans from the inhalation exposure of 131I. The estimated risks exhibit seasonal variability, with the highest surface level concentrations of gaseous radionuclides in the Northern Hemisphere during winter.

Description: The long-lived pioneer species Pericopsis elata is one of the rare tropical timbers on the list of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species, supporting the need for accurate and reliable growth data. In one planted and one natural forest in the Democratic Republic of Congo, respectively four and 37 Pericopsis stem disks were collected. The tree-ring series of planted trees were used to confirm annual tree-ring formation. For the natural forest, a tree-ring chronology with 24 stem disks ranged from 1852 up to 2008. This chronology was compared with time-series of local precipitation, resulting in a significant correlation with the second half of the rainy season (September–November). This seasonal precipitation was related with sea surface temperatures of the West Indian Ocean. Higher precipitation during El Niño years corresponded with higher tree-ring indices but differences were not significant. In addition, pointer years were rare and did not have a consistent link with extreme climatic conditions. The existence of annual tree rings encourages further tree-ring analyses of P. elata and other flagship timber species in order to further document climate-growth responses and to provide the long-term framework that is needed for sustainable management planning.

Description: A Lagrangian advection scheme with shape matrix (LASM) for solving advection problems Geoscientific Model Development, 7, 2951-2968, 2014 Author(s): L. Dong, B. Wang, and L. Liu A new Lagrangian advection scheme with shape matrix (LASM) is proposed to take advantage of the extreme low numerical diffusion of the Lagrangian methods. The tracer is discretized into finite parcels, which move along the downstream trajectories. Different from other Lagrangian schemes, the parcel shape is simulated explicitly by a linear transformation matrix. By doing so, the aliasing error in the Lagrangian schemes is largely reduced without introducing substantial interparcel mixing in the pure advection stage, because the flow information will be respected when remapping tracer density onto the fixed model grids. An adaptive interparcel mixing algorithm is constructed to ensure the validity of the linear approximation of the parcel shape, where the mixing is only triggered when it is necessary and resembles the physical mixing. The total tracer mass on the parcels is conserved exactly. The new scheme is validated by using several test cases.

Description: Technical Note: Reducing the spin-up time of integrated surface water–groundwater models Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 18, 5169-5179, 2014 Author(s): H. Ajami, J. P. Evans, M. F. McCabe, and S. Stisen One of the main challenges in the application of coupled or integrated hydrologic models is specifying a catchment's initial conditions in terms of soil moisture and depth-to-water table (DTWT) distributions. One approach to reducing uncertainty in model initialization is to run the model recursively using either a single year or multiple years of forcing data until the system equilibrates with respect to state and diagnostic variables. However, such "spin-up" approaches often require many years of simulations, making them computationally intensive. In this study, a new hybrid approach was developed to reduce the computational burden of the spin-up procedure by using a combination of model simulations and an empirical DTWT function. The methodology is examined across two distinct catchments located in a temperate region of Denmark and a semi-arid region of Australia. Our results illustrate that the hybrid approach reduced the spin-up period required for an integrated groundwater–surface water–land surface model (ParFlow.CLM) by up to 50%. To generalize results to different climate and catchment conditions, we outline a methodology that is applicable to other coupled or integrated modeling frameworks when initialization from an equilibrium state is required.

Description: Extending periodic eddy covariance latent heat fluxes through tree sapflow measurements to estimate long-term total evaporation in a peat swamp forest Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 11, 13607-13661, 2014 Author(s): A. D. Clulow, C. S. Everson, M. G. Mengistu, J. S. Price, A. Nickless, and G. P. W. Jewitt A combination of measurement and modelling was used to find a pragmatic solution to estimate the annual total evaporation (ET) from the rare and indigenous Nkazana Peat Swamp Forest (PSF) on the east coast of Southern Africa to improve the water balance estimates within the area. Total evaporation was measured during three window periods (between seven and nine days each) using an eddy covariance (EC) system on a telescopic mast above the forest canopy. Sapflow of an understory and an emergent tree was measured using a low maintenance heat pulse velocity system for an entire hydrological year (October 2009 to September 2010). An empirical model was derived, describing the relationship between the observed ET of the Nkazana PSF measured during two of the window periods ( R 2 = 0.92 and 0.90) which, overlapped with sapflow measurements, thereby providing hourly estimates of predicted ET of the Nkazana PSF for a year, totalling 1125 mm (while rainfall was 650 mm). In building the empirical model, it was found that including the understory tree sapflow provided no benefit to the model performance. In addition, the observed emergent tree sapflow relationship with observed ET between the two field campaigns was consistent and could be represented by a single empirical model ( R 2 = 0.90; RMSE = 0.08 mm). During the window periods of EC measurement, no single meteorological variable was found to describe the Nkazana PSF ET satisfactorily. However, in terms of evaporation models, the hourly FAO56 Penman–Monteith equation best described the observed ET from EC during the August 2009 ( R 2 = 0.75), November 2009 ( R 2 = 0.85) and March 2010 ( R 2 = 0.76) field campaigns, compared to the Priestley–Taylor model ( R 2 = 0.54, 0.74 and 0.62 during the respective field campaigns). From the empirical model of ET and the FAO56 Penman–Monteith equation, a monthly crop factor ( K c ) was derived for the Nkazana PSF providing a method of estimating long-term swamp forest ET from meteorological data. The monthly crop factor indicated two distinct periods. From February to May, it was between 1.2 and 1.4 compared with June to January, when the crop factor was 0.8 to 1.0. The derived monthly K c values were verified as accurate (to one significant digit) using historical data measured at the same site, also using EC, from a~previous study. The measurements provided insights into the microclimate within a subtropical peat swamp forest and the contrasting sapflow of emergent and understory trees. They showed that expensive, high maintenance equipment can be used during manageable window periods in conjunction with low maintenance systems, dedicated to individual trees, to derive a model to estimate long-term ET over remote heterogeneous forests. In addition, the contrast in ET and rainfall emphasises the reliance of the Nkazana PSF on groundwater.

Description: Our aim is to explore general practitioners’ (GPs’) knowledge about EMF, and to assess whether different knowledge structures are related to the GPs’ concern about EMF. Random samples were drawn from lists of GPs in Germany in 2008. Knowledge about EMF was assessed by seven items. A latent class analysis was conducted to identify latent structures in GPs’ knowledge. Further, the GPs’ concern about EMF health risk was measured using a score comprising six items. The association between GPs’ concern about EMF and their knowledge was analysed using multiple linear regression. In total 435 (response rate 23.3%) GPs participated in the study. Four groups were identified by the latent class analysis: 43.1% of the GPs gave mainly correct answers; 23.7% of the GPs answered low frequency EMF questions correctly; 19.2% answered only the questions relating EMF with health risks, and 14.0% answered mostly “don’t know”. There was no association between GPs’ latent knowledge classes or between the number of correct answers given by the GPs and their EMF concern, whereas the number of incorrect answers was associated with EMF concern. Greater EMF concern in subjects with more incorrect answers suggests paying particular attention to misconceptions regarding EMF in risk communication.

Description: This study aims to explore the efficiency of using online education as an intervention measure to prevent occupational hazards in a clinical nursing setting. The subjects were 320 female nursing staff from two hospitals in Taiwan. The questionnaire results indicated that the subjects primarily experienced human factor occupational hazards, as well as psychological and social hazards. Specifically, 73.1% and 69.8% of the subjects suffered from poor sleep quality and low back pain, respectively. After web-based learning, the experimental group had higher post-test scores than the control group in terms of knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP). However, there was only a significant difference (p 〈 0.05) in their knowledge about the prevention of occupational hazards. It is suggested that an online discussion may enhance nursing staff’s participation in web-based learning, and further facilitate their comments on negative factors. The findings can highly promote nursing staff’s attitudes and practices toward preventing occupational hazards through web-based learning.

Description: Ambient particulate matters and temperature were reported to have additive effects over the respiratory disease hospital admissions and deaths. The purpose of this study is to discuss the interactive pulmonary toxicities of cold stress and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure by estimating inflammation and oxidative stress responses. 48 Wistar male rats, matched by weight and age, were randomly assigned to six groups, which were treated with cold stress alone (0 °C, 10 °C, and 20 °C (Normal control)) and cold stresses plus PM2.5 exposures respectively. Cold stress alone groups were intratracheal instillation of 0.25 mL normal saline, while cold stress plus PM2.5 exposure groups were intratracheal instillation of 8 mg/0.25 mL PM2.5. These procedures were carried out for three times with an interval of 48 hours for each treatment. All rats were sacrificed after 48 hours of the third treatment. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected for analyzing inflammatory cells and cytokines, and lung homogenate MDA was determined for oxidative stress estimation. Results showed higher level of total cell and neutrophil in the BALF of PM2.5 exposed groups (p 〈 0.05). Negative relationships between cold stress intensity and the level of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a), C-reactive protein (CRP) interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) in BALF were indicated in PM2.5 exposure groups. Exposure to cold stress alone caused significant increase of inflammatory cytokines and methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) and decline of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity only in 0 °C exposure group (p 〈 0.05). The two-way ANOVA found significant interactive effects between PM2.5 exposure and cold stress in the level of neutrophil, IL-6 and IL-8 and SOD activity (p 〈 0.05). These data demonstrated that inflammation and oxidative stress involved in the additive effect of PM2.5 exposure and cold stress on pulmonary toxicity, providing explanation for epidemiological studies on the health effect of ambient PM2.5 and cold stress.

Description: This paper presents a detailed description of an approach designed to investigate the application of the Health Impact Assessment (HIA) framework to assess the potential health impacts of climate change. A HIA framework has been combined with key climate change terminology and concepts. The fundamental premise of this framework is an understanding of the interactions between people, the environment and climate. The diversity and complexity of these interactions can hinder much needed action on the critical health issue of climate change. The objectives of the framework are to improve the methodology for understanding and assessing the risks associated with potential health impacts of climate change, and to provide decision-makers with information that can facilitate the development of effective adaptation plans. While the process presented here provides guidance with respect to this task it is not intended to be prescriptive. As such, aspects of the process can be amended to suit the scope and available resources of each project. A series of working tables has been developed to assist in the collation of evidence throughout the process. The framework has been tested in a number of locations including Western Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Nauru.

Description: Stratospheric ozone depletion from future nitrous oxide increases Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12967-12982, 2014 Author(s): W. Wang, W. Tian, S. Dhomse, F. Xie, J. Shu, and J. Austin We have investigated the impact of the assumed nitrous oxide (N 2 O) increases on stratospheric chemistry and dynamics using a series of idealized simulations with a coupled chemistry-climate model (CCM). In a future cooler stratosphere the net yield of NO y from N 2 O is shown to decrease in a reference run following the IPCC A1B scenario, but NO y can still be significantly increased by extra increases of N 2 O over 2001–2050. Over the last decade of simulations, 50% increases in N 2 O result in a maximal 6% reduction in ozone mixing ratios in the middle stratosphere at around 10 hPa and an average 2% decrease in the total ozone column (TCO) compared with the control run. This enhanced destruction could cause an ozone decline in the first half of this century in the middle stratosphere around 10 hPa, while global TCO still shows an increase at the same time. The results from a multiple linear regression analysis and sensitivity simulations with different forcings show that the chemical effect of N 2 O increases dominates the N 2 O-induced ozone depletion in the stratosphere, while the dynamical and radiative effects of N 2 O increases are overall insignificant. The analysis of the results reveals that the ozone depleting potential of N 2 O varies with the time period and is influenced by the environmental conditions. For example, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) increases can strongly offset the ozone depletion effect of N 2 O.

Description: Corrigendum to "Air-sea exchange and gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Mediterranean" published in Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 8905–8915, 2014 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12965-12965, 2014 Author(s): M. D. Mulder, A. Heil, P. Kukučka, J. Klánová, J. Kuta, R. Prokeš, F. Sprovieri, and G. Lammel No abstract available.

Description: Mechanistic study of secondary organic aerosol components formed from nucleophilic addition reactions of methacrylic acid epoxide Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12951-12964, 2014 Author(s): A. W. Birdsall, C. R. Miner, L. E. Mael, and M. J. Elrod Recently, methacrylic acid epoxide (MAE) has been proposed as a precursor to an important class of isoprene-derived compounds found in secondary organic aerosol (SOA): 2-methylglyceric acid (2-MG) and a set of oligomers, nitric acid esters, and sulfuric acid esters related to 2-MG. However, the specific chemical mechanisms by which MAE could form these compounds have not been previously studied with experimental methods. In order to determine the relevance of these processes to atmospheric aerosol, MAE and 2-MG have been synthesized and a series of bulk solution-phase experiments aimed at studying the reactivity of MAE using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy have been performed. The present results indicate that the acid-catalyzed MAE reaction is more than 600 times slower than a similar reaction of an important isoprene-derived epoxide, but is still expected to be kinetically feasible in the atmosphere on more acidic SOA. The specific mechanism by which MAE leads to oligomers was identified, and the reactions of MAE with a number of atmospherically relevant nucleophiles were also investigated. Because the nucleophilic strengths of water, sulfate, alcohols (including 2-MG), and acids (including MAE and 2-MG) in their reactions with MAE were found to be of similar magnitudes, it is expected that a diverse variety of MAE + nucleophile product species may be formed on ambient SOA. Thus, the results indicate that epoxide chain reaction oligomerization will be limited by the presence of high concentrations of non-epoxide nucleophiles (such as water); this finding is consistent with previous environmental chamber investigations of the relative humidity dependence of 2-MG-derived oligomerization processes and suggests that extensive oligomerization may not be likely on ambient SOA because of other competitive MAE reaction mechanisms.

Description: Megacity emission plume characteristics in summer and winter investigated by mobile aerosol and trace gas measurements: the Paris metropolitan area Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12931-12950, 2014 Author(s): S.-L. von der Weiden-Reinmüller, F. Drewnick, Q. J. Zhang, F. Freutel, M. Beekmann, and S. Borrmann For the investigation of megacity emission plume characteristics mobile aerosol and trace gas measurements were carried out in the greater Paris region in July 2009 and January–February 2010 within the EU FP7 MEGAPOLI project (Megacities: Emissions, urban, regional and Global Atmospheric POLlution and climate effects, and Integrated tools for assessment and mitigation). The deployed instruments measured physical and chemical properties of sub-micron aerosol particles, gas phase constituents of relevance for urban air pollution studies and meteorological parameters. The emission plume was identified based on fresh pollutant (e.g., particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, black carbon, CO 2 and NO x ) concentration changes in combination with wind direction data. The classification into megacity influenced and background air masses allowed a characterization of the emission plume during summer and winter environmental conditions. On average, a clear increase of fresh pollutant concentrations in plume compared to background air masses was found for both seasons. For example, an average increase of 190% (+ 8.8 ng m −3 ) in summer and of 130% (+ 18.1 ng m −3 ) in winter was found for particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in plume air masses. The aerosol particle size distribution in plume air masses was influenced by nucleation and growth due to coagulation and condensation in summer, while in winter only the latter process (i.e., particle growth) seemed to be initiated by urban pollution. The observed distribution of fresh pollutants in the emission plume – its cross sectional Gaussian-like profile and the exponential decrease of pollutant concentrations with increasing distance to the megacity – are in agreement with model results. Differences between model and measurements were found for plume center location, plume width and axial plume extent. In general, dilution was identified as the dominant process determining the axial variations within the Paris emission plume. For in-depth analysis of transformation processes occurring in the advected plume, simultaneous measurements at a suburban measurement site and a stationary site outside the metropolitan area using the mobile laboratory have proven to be most useful. Organic aerosol oxidation was observed in summer, while in winter transformation processes seemed to occur at a slower rate.

Description: A regional CO 2 observing system simulation experiment for the ASCENDS satellite mission Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12897-12914, 2014 Author(s): J. S. Wang, S. R. Kawa, J. Eluszkiewicz, D. F. Baker, M. Mountain, J. Henderson, T. Nehrkorn, and T. S. Zaccheo Top–down estimates of the spatiotemporal variations in emissions and uptake of CO 2 will benefit from the increasing measurement density brought by recent and future additions to the suite of in situ and remote CO 2 measurement platforms. In particular, the planned NASA Active Sensing of CO 2 Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons (ASCENDS) satellite mission will provide greater coverage in cloudy regions, at high latitudes, and at night than passive satellite systems, as well as high precision and accuracy. In a novel approach to quantifying the ability of satellite column measurements to constrain CO 2 fluxes, we use a portable library of footprints (surface influence functions) generated by the Stochastic Time-Inverted Lagrangian Transport (STILT) model in combination with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model in a regional Bayesian synthesis inversion. The regional Lagrangian particle dispersion model framework is well suited to make use of ASCENDS observations to constrain weekly fluxes in North America at a high resolution, in this case at 1° latitude × 1° longitude. We consider random measurement errors only, modeled as a function of the mission and instrument design specifications along with realistic atmospheric and surface conditions. We find that the ASCENDS observations could potentially reduce flux uncertainties substantially at biome and finer scales. At the grid scale and weekly resolution, the largest uncertainty reductions, on the order of 50%, occur where and when there is good coverage by observations with low measurement errors and the a priori uncertainties are large. Uncertainty reductions are smaller for a 1.57 μm candidate wavelength than for a 2.05 μm wavelength, and are smaller for the higher of the two measurement error levels that we consider (1.0 ppm vs. 0.5 ppm clear-sky error at Railroad Valley, Nevada). Uncertainty reductions at the annual biome scale range from ~40% to ~75% across our four instrument design cases and from ~65% to ~85% for the continent as a whole. Tests suggest that the quantitative results are moderately sensitive to assumptions regarding a priori uncertainties and boundary conditions. The a posteriori flux uncertainties we obtain, ranging from 0.01 to 0.06 Pg C yr −1 across the biomes, would meet requirements for improved understanding of long-term carbon sinks suggested by a previous study.

Description: Estimating regional fluxes of CO 2 and CH 4 using space-borne observations of XCH 4 : XCO 2 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 12883-12895, 2014 Author(s): A. Fraser, P. I. Palmer, L. Feng, H. Bösch, R. Parker, E. J. Dlugokencky, P. B. Krummel, and R. L. Langenfelds We use the GEOS-Chem global 3-D atmospheric chemistry transport model to interpret XCH 4 :XCO 2 column ratios retrieved from the Japanese Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT). The advantage of these data over CO 2 and CH 4 columns retrieved independently using a full physics optimal estimation algorithm is that they are less prone to scattering-related regional biases. We show that the model is able to reproduce observed global and regional spatial (mean bias =0.7%) and temporal variations (global r 2 =0.92) of this ratio with a model bias 〈 2.5%. We also show that these variations are driven by emissions of CO 2 and CH 4 that are typically 6 months out of phase, which may reduce the sensitivity of the ratio to changes in either gas. To simultaneously estimate fluxes of CO 2 and CH 4 we use a maximum likelihood estimation approach. We use two approaches to resolve independent flux estimates of these two gases using GOSAT observations of XCH 4 :XCO 2 : (1) the a priori error covariance between CO 2 and CH 4 describing common source from biomass burning; and (2) also fitting independent surface atmospheric measurements of CH 4 and CO 2 mole fraction that provide additional constraints, improving the effectiveness of the observed GOSAT ratio to constrain flux estimates. We demonstrate the impact of these two approaches using numerical experiments. A posteriori flux estimates inferred using only the GOSAT ratios and taking advantage of the error covariance due to biomass burning are not consistent with the true fluxes in our experiments, as the inversion system cannot judge which species' fluxes to adjust. This reflects the weak dependence of XCH 4 :XCO 2 on biomass burning. We find that adding the surface data effectively provides an "anchor" to the inversion that dramatically improves the ability of the GOSAT ratios to infer both CH 4 and CO 2 fluxes. We show that the regional flux estimates inferred from GOSAT XCH 4 :XCO 2 ratios together with the surface mole fraction data during 2010 are typically consistent with or better than the corresponding values inferred from fitting XCH 4 or the full-physics XCO 2 data products, as judged by a posteriori uncertainties. We show that the fluxes inferred from the ratio measurements perform best over regions where there is a large seasonal cycle such as Tropical South America, for which we report a small but significant annual source of CO 2 compared to a small annual sink inferred from the XCO 2 data. We argue that given that the ratio measurements are less compromised by systematic error than the full physics data products, the resulting a~posteriori estimates and uncertainties provide a more faithful description of the truth. Based on our analysis we also argue that by using the ratios we may be reaching the current limits on the precision of these observed space-based data.

Description: One of the most uncertain parameters in stepped spillway design is the length (from the crest) of boundary layer development. The normal velocity profiles responding to the steps as bed roughness are investigated in the developing non-aerated flow region. A detailed analysis of the logarithmic vertical velocity profiles on stepped spillways is conducted through experimental data to verify the computational code and numerical experiments to expand the data available. To determine development length, the hydraulic roughness and displacement thickness, along with the shear velocity, are needed. This includes determining displacement height d and surface roughness length z0 and the relationship of d and z0 to the step geometry. The results show that the hydraulic roughness height ks is the primary factor on which d and z0 depend. In different step height, step width, discharge and intake Froude number, the relations d/ks = 0.22–0.27, z0/ks = 0.06–0.1 and d/z0 = 2.2–4 result in a good estimate. Using the computational code and numerical experiments, air inception will occur over stepped spillway flow as long as the Bauer-defined boundary layer thickness is between 0.72 and 0.79.

Description: A regional-level and dimensionless analysis for designing a domestic rainwater harvesting system (DRWHS) was developed. To consider various combinations of water demand, storage capacity, effective roof area, and rainfall in DRWHS design, two dimensionless ratios were used, namely, demand fraction and storage fraction, along with a relationship between the two ratios. Firstly, Northern Taiwan was divided into four sub-regions through cluster analysis based on the average annual 10-day rainfall distribution at rainfall stations and administrative districts. Easy-to-use dimensionless curves between demand fraction and storage fraction were obtained for five rainwater supply reliabilities of the DRWHS for the four sub-regions. Based on the dimensionless curves, a nomogram was constructed for designing DRWHSs at a rainwater supply reliability of 95% in the sub-region I. Storage capacities determined from the dimensionless curves showed a close fit with those determined from simulated values, but were larger than the values estimated from the method presented in the Green Building Evaluation Manual in most situations. The methodology developed herein can be used effectively for the preliminary design of a DRWHS and for overcoming the difficulties faced in designing a DRWHS without rainfall data and with incomplete rainfall data.

Description: In the title compound, C36H44O10·C6H6, the dioxolane ring adopts an envelope conformation with the C atom bonded to the H atom as the flap, while the cyclohexene and cyclohexane rings are in half-chair and chair conformations, respectively. In the crystal, a pair of O—H...O hydrogen bonds with an R22(26) graph-set motif connect the benzoate molecules into an inversion dimer. The dimers are linked by a weak C—H...O interaction into a tape structure along [01-1]. The benzene molecule links the tapes through C—H...O and C—H...π interactions, forming a sheet parallel to (100).

Description: In each of the title isomeric compounds, C9H7.3N·C7H3.7ClNO4, (I), and C9H8N·C7H3ClNO4, (II), of isoquinoline with 3-chloro-2-nitrobenzoic acid and 4-chloro-2-nitrobenzoic acid, the two components are linked by a short hydrogen bond between a base N atom and a carboxy O atom. In the hydrogen-bonded unit of (I), the H atom is disordered over two positions with N and O site occupancies of 0.30 (3) and 0.70 (3), respectively, while in (II), an acid–base interaction involving H-atom transfer occurs and the H atom is located at the N site. In the crystal of (I), the acid–base units are connected through C—H...O hydrogen bonds into a tape structure along the b-axis direction. Inversion-related adjacent tapes are further linked through π–π interactions [centroid–centroid distances = 3.6389 (7)–3.7501 (7) Å], forming a layer parallel to (001). In the crystal of (II), the acid–base units are connected through C—H...O hydrogen bonds into a ladder structure along the a-axis direction. The ladders are further linked by another C—H...O hydrogen bond into a layer parallel to (001).

Description: The title compound, C21H16N2O, has an almost planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.0074 Å) 1,2-dibenzylidenehydrazine backbone with an approximately orthogonal almost planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.0368 Å) phenylethanone substituent on one of the imine C atoms. The dihedral angle between the two mean planes is 76.99 (4)°. In the crystal, molecules are linked via C—H...O hydrogen bonds and C—H...π contacts, forming a three-dimensional structure with molecules stacked along the a-axis direction.

Description: The title compound, C27H26O3, crystallized with two independent molecules (A and B) in the asymmetric unit. In molecule A, the plane of the central benzene ring forms dihedral angles of 75.78 (14) and 52.75 (16)° with that of the terminal benzene rings, and the dihedral angle between the planes of the terminal benzene rings is 51.49 (17)°. The corresponding values for molecule B are 75.18 (14), 58.11 (16) and 47.91 (16)°, respectively. The cyclohexene ring adopts an envelope conformation in both molecules, with the C atom to which is attached the central benzene ring as the flap. The crystal packing, is stabilized by C—H...π interactions.

Description: The title compound, C40H22Cl2O4, was formed by a Michael–Aldol domino reaction sequence, which coupled acenaphthenequinone with 4-chloroacetophenone in the presence of KOH in methanol. The dihedral angles between the central cyclopenta[a]acenaphthylene fused-ring system (r.m.s. deviation = 0.066 Å) and the 4-chlorobenzoyl rings are 62.25 (10) and 70.19 (10)°. The dihedral angle between the central ring system and the naphthoic acid grouping is 62.46 (7)°. This twisting of the pendant rings facilitates the formation of an intramolecular aromatic π–π stacking interaction between the 4-chlorobenzoyl and naphthoic acid rings, with centroid–centroid distances of 3.4533 (16) and 3.5311 (16) Å, and a C—H...π interaction between one of the H atoms of the central moiety and the 4-chlorobenzoyl ring with an H...π distance of 2.57 Å. In the crystal, carboxylic acid inversion dimers generate R22(8) loops. The dimers are linked by weak C—H...O and C—H...Cl hydrogen bonds and C—H...π interactions, generating a three-dimensional architecture.

Description: The title compound, C22H17NO4, crystallizes with two independent molecules (A and B) in the asymmetric unit. Each molecule exists as an E isomer with C—C=C—C torsion angles of −175.69 (17) and −178.41 (17)° in A and B, respectively. In molecule A, the planes of the terminal benzene rings are twisted by an angle of 26.67 (10)°, while the biphenyl unit is non-planar, the dihedral angle between the rings being 30.81 (10)°. The dihedral angle between the nitrophenyl ring and the inner phenyl ring is 6.50 (9)°. The corresponding values in molecule B are 60.61 (9), 31.07 (8) and 31.05 (9)°. In the crystal, molecules are arranged in a head-to-head manner, with the 3-nitrophenyl groups nearly parallel to one another. The A and B molecules are linked to one another via C—H...O hydrogen bonds, forming chains lying parallel to (-320) and enclosing R22(10) and R22(12) ring motifs. The methoxy group in both molecules is positionally disordered with a refined occupancy ratio of 0.979 (4):0.021 (4) for molecule A and 0.55 (4):0.45 (4) for molecule B.

Description: In the title compound, [UO2(C5H7O2)2(C14H15N)], the uranyl(VI) unit ([O=U=O]2+) is coordinated to two acetylacetonate (acac) anions and one 1-phenyl-3-(pyridin-4-yl)propane (ppp) molecule. The geometry around the U atom is UNO6 pentagonal–bipyramidal; two uranyl(VI) O atoms are located at the axial positions, whereas four O atoms from two chelating bidentate acac ligands and one N atom of a ppp ligand form the equatorial plane.

Description: The structures of a series of complexes with general formula n[Pd(pza)X]Y·mH2O (n = 1, 2; X = Cl, Br, I, N3, NCS; Y = NO3, I, N3, [Pd(SCN)4]; m = 0, 0.5, 1) have been determined, where pza is the tridentate ligand bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)ethyl]amine, C14H23N5. In all complexes, {bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)ethyl]amine-κN}chloridopalladium nitrate, [Pd(pza)Cl]NO3, (1), {bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)ethyl]amine-κN}bromidopalladium nitrate, [Pd(pza)Br]NO3, (2), {bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)ethyl]amine-κN}iodidopalladium iodide hemihydrate, [Pd(pza)I]I·0.5H2O, (3), azido{bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)ethyl]amine-κN}palladium azide monohydrate, [Pd(pza)N3]N3·H2O, (4), and bis[{bis[2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)ethyl]amine-κN}(thiocyanato-κN)palladium] tetrakis(thiocyanato-κS)palladate, [Pd(pza)NCS]2[Pd(SCN)4], (5), the [Pd(pza)X]+ complex cation displays a square-planar coordination geometry, and the pza ligand is twisted, approximating twofold rotation symmetry. Although the pza ligand is found with the same conformation along the series, the dihedral angle between pyrazole rings depends on the co-ligand X. This angle span the range 79.0 (3)–88.6 (1)° for the studied complexes. In (3), two complex cations, two I− anions and one water molecule of crystallization are present in the asymmetric unit. In (5), the central amine group of pza is disordered over two positions [occupancy ratio 0.770 (18):0.230 (18)]. The complex [Pd(SCN)4]2− anion of this compound exhibits inversion symmetry and shows the Pd2+ transition metal cation likewise in a square-planar coordination environment. Compound (5) is also a rare occurrence of a non-polymeric compound in which the pseudohalide ligand NCS− behaves both as thiocyanate and isothiocyanate, i.e. is coordinating either through the N atom (in the cation) or the S atom (in the anion).

Description: In the title hydrated symetrically substituted 1,3-bis(4-methylbenzyl)benzimidazolium salt, C23H23N2+·Br−·H2O, the dihedral angles between the benzimidazole ring system (r.m.s. deviation = 0.003 Å) and the pendant benzene rings are 73.18 (16) and 77.52 (16)°. Both benzene rings lie to the same side of the benzimidazole ring system, giving the cation an overall U-shape. In the crystal, the cation is linked to the water molecule by a short C—H...O hydrogen bond and the water molecule forms O—H...Br hydrogen bonds. Together, these interactions lead to [010] chains. The packing is consolidated by C—H...Br hydrogen bonds and aromatic π–π stacking interactions [centroid–centroid distances = 3.5401 (17) and 3.8815 (18) Å], generating a three-dimensional network.

Description: In the molecule of the title compound, C7H9N5O·0.40H2O, the seven-membered heterocyclic ring exhibits a boat conformation, whereas the five-membered triazole ring is almost planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.005 Å). In the crystal, centrosymmetric dimers are linked by pairs of C—H...O hydrogen bonds into dimers, which are further connected via O—H...N and C—H...N hydrogen bonds, forming a three-dimensional network. The structure contains a partially occupied water molecule lying on a twofold axis with an occupancy factor of 0.4.

Description: The title compound, [Hf(C5H5)2(C8H16)], proves a structural motif of hafnacyclopentane besides the coordination of two cyclopentadienyl ligands in an η5-fashion. The hafnacyclopentane ring has a twist conformation and is substituted by two ethyl groups in the β,β′-positions, which are trans orientated to each other. One cyclopentadienyl ring and one ethyl group are each disordered over two positions with site-occupancy ratios of 0.679 (15):0.321 (15) and 0.702 (18):0.298 (18), respectively.

Description: The title salt, C12H10BrN3O2+·2Br−, was synthesized from the reaction of N1,N4-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethylidene)benzene-1,4-diamine and bromine in a methanol solution. All non-H atoms of the 2-azaniumyl-3-bromo-6-oxo-5,6-dihydropyrido[1,2-a]quinoxalin-11-ium cation are nearly coplanar, the maximum deviation being 0.114 (4) Å. In the crystal, the cations and anions are linked through N—H...Br hydrogen bonds and weak C—H...Br interactions, forming a three-dimensional supramolecular architecture. A short Br...Br contact [3.3088 (9) Å] is observed in the crystal.

Description: The complete molecule of the title compound, C22H24N2O6, is generated by crystallographic inversion symmetry and is approximately planar (r.m.s. deviation of the non-H atoms = 0.134 Å). The packing consists of inter-digitated sheets inclined at 25.9 (4)° to one another and linked by short C—H...O hydrogen bonds.

Description: In the title compound, C9H13Cl2NO2, the piperidine ring shows a chair conformation and the O—C—C—O torsion angle between the carbonyl groups is 183.6 (4)°. In the crystal, molecules are linked into an infinite layer along the ab plane by a bifurcated C—H...O hydrogen bond between the carbonyl O atom adjacent to the methyl group and one of the methylene groups next to nitrogen and an additional hydrogen bond of the C—H...Cl type. These layers are connected into a three-dimensional supramolecular arrangement by O...Cl contacts [2.8979 (12) and 3.1300 (12) Å].

Description: The list of authors in the paper by Çelikesir et al. [Acta Cryst. (2014), E70, o935] is corrected.

Description: The asymmetric unit of the title compound, C17H17N3O2S, consists of two independent molecules, A and B, with different conformations: in molecule A, the dihedral angles between the central benzene ring and the pendant tolyl and carbamothioylhydrazono groups are 71.12 (9) and 5.95 (8)°, respectively. The corresponding angles in molecule B are 50.56 (12) and 26.43 (11)°, respectively. Both molecules feature an intramolecular N—H...N hydrogen bond, which closes an S(5) ring. In the crystal, molecules are linked by N—H...O, N—H...S and C—H...O hydrogen bonds, generating a three-dimensional network.

Description: In the title compound, C11H13N3O2S, there is a short intramolecular N—H...N contact. The benzo[d][1,3]dioxole ring system is approximately planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.025 Å) and makes a dihedral angle of 56.83 (6)° with the mean plane of the methylthiosemicarbazone fragment [–N—N—C(=S)—N—C; maximum deviation = 0.1111 (14) Å for the imino N atom]. In the crystal, molecules are linked via pairs of N—H...S hydrogen bonds, forming inversion dimers. The dimers are connected by N—H...S hydrogen bonds into layers parallel to (100). The H atoms of both methyl groups are disordered over two sets of sites and were refined with occupancy ratios of 0.5:0.5 and 0.75:0.25.

Description: Long-term variability of storm surge frequency in the Venice Lagoon: an update thanks to eighteenth century sea level observations Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2, 7465-7486, 2014 Author(s): F. Raicich Sea level observations made in the Venice Lagoon between 1751 and 1792 have been recovered, consisting of two time series of daily data on high and low waters at Venice and Chioggia. From comparisons with modern observations the quality of the 18th century data appears to be good enough to allow a useful analysis. A composite time series of daily mean sea level is obtained by merging the 18th century data and 1872–2004 observations at Venice Punta della Salute. The absence of reliable information on vertical references prevents the connection of the two 18th century time series with each other and with modern observations. However, daily sea level anomalies relative to the mean sea level enable to recognize storm surge events, that appear to occur more frequently in the second half of the 18th century than in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly during the 1751–1769 period. The record-breaking storm surge of 4 November 1966 turns out to be a remarkable event also in comparison with the events extracted from the 18th century time series. Further work is required to fill the gap between the old and modern observations.

Description: Ground-penetrating radar observations for estimating the vertical displacement of rotational landslides Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2, 7487-7506, 2014 Author(s): C. Lissak, O. Maquaire, J.-P. Malet, F. Lavigne, C. Virmoux, C. Gomez, and R. Davidson The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the applicability of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for monitoring the displacement of slow-moving landslides. GPR data is used to estimate the vertical movement of rotational slides in combination with other surveying techniques. The experimental site is located along the Normandy coast (North East France) here several rotational landslides are continuously affected by a seasonal kinematic pattern (low displacement rates of 0.01 to 0.10 m yr −1 ) and periodically by major acceleration events (high displacement of 1.0 to 7.0 m per event).

Description: Global representation of tropical cyclone-induced ocean thermal changes using Argo data – Part 2: Estimating air–sea heat fluxes and ocean heat content changes Ocean Science Discussions, 11, 2907-2937, 2014 Author(s): L. Cheng, J. Zhu, and R. L. Sriver We use Argo temperature data to examine changes in ocean heat content (OHC) and air–sea heat fluxes induced by tropical cyclones (TC)s on a global scale. A footprint technique that analyzes the vertical structure of cross-track thermal responses along all storm tracks during the period 2004–2012 is utilized (see part I). We find that TCs are responsible for 1.87 PW (11.05 W m −2 when averaging over the global ocean basin) of heat transfer annually from the global ocean to the atmosphere during storm passage (0–3 days) on a global scale. Of this total, 1.05 ± 0.20 PW (4.80 ± 0.85 W m −2 ) is caused by Tropical storms/Tropical depressions (TS/TD) and 0.82 ± 0.21 PW (6.25 ± 1.5 W m −2 ) is caused by hurricanes. Our findings indicate that ocean heat loss by TCs may be a substantial missing piece of the global ocean heat budget. Net changes in OHC after storm passage is estimated by analyzing the temperature anomalies during wake recovery following storm events (4–20 days after storm passage) relative to pre-storm conditions. Results indicate the global ocean experiences a 0.75 ± 0.25 PW (5.98 ± 2.1W m −2 ) net heat gain annually for hurricanes. In contrast, under TS/TD conditions, ocean experiences 0.41 ± 0.21 PW (1.90 ± 0.96 W m −2 ) net ocean heat loss, suggesting the overall oceanic thermal response is particularly sensitive to the intensity of the event. The net ocean heat uptake caused by all storms is 0.34 PW.

Description: Development and field testing of a rapid and ultra-stable atmospheric carbon dioxide spectrometer Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 7, 4445-4453, 2014 Author(s): B. Xiang, D. D. Nelson, J. B. McManus, M. S. Zahniser, R. A. Wehr, and S. C. Wofsy We present field test results for a new spectroscopic instrument to measure atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) with high precision (0.02 μmol mol −1 , or ppm at 1 Hz) and demonstrate high stability (within 0.1 ppm over more than 8 months), without the need for hourly, daily, or even monthly calibration against high-pressure gas cylinders. The technical novelty of this instrument (ABsolute Carbon dioxide, ABC) is the spectral null method using an internal quartz reference cell with known CO 2 column density. Compared to a previously described prototype, the field instrument has better stability and benefits from more precise thermal control of the optics and more accurate pressure measurements in the sample cell (at the mTorr level). The instrument has been deployed at a long-term ecological research site (the Harvard Forest, USA), where it has measured for 8 months without on-site calibration and with minimal maintenance, showing drift bounds of less than 0.1 ppm. Field measurements agree well with those of a commercially available cavity ring-down CO 2 instrument (Picarro G2301) run with a standard calibration protocol. This field test demonstrates that ABC is capable of performing high-accuracy, unattended, continuous field measurements with minimal use of reference gas cylinders.

Description: Meteorological factors controlling low-level continental pollutant outflow across a coast Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 13295-13312, 2014 Author(s): D. L. Peake, H. F. Dacre, J. Methven, and O. Coceal Coastal outflow describes the horizontal advection of pollutants from the continental boundary layer (BL) across a coastline. The outflow can ventilate polluted continental BLs and thus regulate air quality in highly populated coastal regions. This paper investigates the factors controlling coastal outflow and quantifies their importance as a ventilation mechanism. Tracers in the Met Office Unified Model (MetUM) are used to examine the magnitude and variability of coastal outflow over the eastern United States during summer 2004. Over the 4 week period examined, ventilation of tracer from the continental BL via coastal outflow occurs with the same magnitude as vertical ventilation via convection and advection. The relative importance of tracer decay rate, cross-coastal advection rate, and a parameter based on the relative continental and marine BL heights on coastal outflow is assessed by reducing the problem to a time-dependent box model. The ratio of the advection rate and decay rate is a dimensionless parameter which determines whether tracers are long-lived or short-lived. Long- and short-lived tracers exhibit different behaviours with respect to coastal outflow. Short-lived tracers exhibit large diurnal variability in coastal outflow but long-lived tracers do not. For short-lived tracers, increasing the advection rate increases the diurnally averaged magnitude of coastal outflow, but this has the opposite effect for very long-lived tracers. By using the box-model solutions to interpret the MetUM simulations, a land width is determined which represents the distance inland over which emissions contribute significantly to coastal outflow. A land width of between 100 and 400 km is found to be representative for a tracer with a lifetime of 24 h.

Description: Three ideal point-based multi-criteria decision methods (MCDM), i.e., iterative ideal point thresholding (IIPT), compromise programming (CP) and a newly-proposed CP variant, called balanced compromise programming (BCP), were applied to the Tabacay catchment in Ecuador with the aim of finding a distribution of land use types (LUT) that optimizes regional land performance. This performance was expressed in terms of several conflicting on-site ecosystem services (ESS), namely water conservation, soil protection, carbon storage and monetary income. IIPT selects the best performing LUT on a per-land unit basis, that is the assignment of a LUT to a land unit is completely independent with respect to other land units. CP and BCP, on the other hand, aim at optimizing the integrated regional performance. These methods produce a LUT distribution that is as close as possible to the absolute optimal performance that would be achieved when conflict among ESS is not considered. In general, similar results were obtained with CP and BCP. This was not the case when the results produced by these two methods were contrasted with IIPT. For most ESS under consideration, CP and BCP produced balanced results that were closer to the absolute optimal values when compared to IIPT. We conclude from our results that, when optimization of land performance at a regional scale is at stake, CP-derived models emerge as the preferable option over IIPT, especially when balanced solutions are a requirement.

Description: Current understanding of aspen fire ecology in western North America includes the paradoxical characterization that aspen-dominated stands, although often regenerated following fire, are “fire-proof”. We tested this idea by predicting potential fire behavior across a gradient of aspen dominance in northern Utah using the Forest Vegetation Simulator and the Fire and Fuels Extension. The wind speeds necessary for crowning (crown-to-crown fire spread) and torching (surface to crown fire spread) were evaluated to test the hypothesis that predicted fire behavior is influenced by the proportion of aspen in the stand. Results showed a strong effect of species composition on crowning, but only under moderate fire weather, where aspen-dominated stands were unlikely to crown or torch. Although rarely observed in actual fires, conifer-dominated stands were likely to crown but not to torch, an example of “hysteresis” in crown fire behavior. Results support the hypothesis that potential crown fire behavior varies across a gradient of aspen dominance and fire weather, where it was likely under extreme and severe fire weather, and unlikely under moderate and high fire weather. Furthermore, the “fire-proof” nature of aspen stands broke down across the gradient of aspen dominance and fire weather.

Description: Continental Portuguese Territory Flood Susceptibility Index – contribution for a vulnerability index Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2, 7521-7552, 2014 Author(s): R. Jacinto, N. Grosso, E. Reis, L. Dias, F. D. Santos, and P. Garrett This work defines a national flood susceptibility index for the Portuguese continental territory, by proposing the aggregation of different variables which represent natural conditions for permeability, runoff and accumulation. This index is part of the national vulnerability index developed in the scope of Flood Maps in Climate Change Scenarios (CIRAC) project, supported by the Portuguese Association of Insurers (APS). This approach expands on previous works by trying to bridge the gap between different floods mechanisms (e.g. progressive and flash floods) occurring at different spatial scales in the Portuguese territory through: (a) selecting homogeneously processed datasets, (b) aggregating their values to better translate the spatially continuous and cumulative influence in floods at multiple spatial scales. Results show a good ability to capture, in the higher susceptibility classes, different flood types: progressive floods and flash floods. Lower values are usually related to: mountainous areas, low water accumulation potential and more permeable soils. Validation with independent flood datasets confirmed these index characteristics, although some overestimation can be seen in the southern region of Alentejo where, due to a dense hydrographic network and an overall low slope, floods are not as frequent as a result of lower precipitation mean values. Future work will focus on: (i) including extreme precipitation datasets to represent the triggering factor, (ii) improving representation of smaller and stepper basins, (iii) optimizing variable weight definition process, (iii) developing more robust independent flood validation datasets.

Description: Simple, affordable and sustainable borehole observatories for complex monitoring objectives Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems Discussions, 4, 653-681, 2014 Author(s): A. Kopf, T. Freudenthal, V. Ratmeyer, M. Bergenthal, M. Lange, T. Fleischmann, S. Hammerschmidt, C. Seiter, and G. Wefer Seafloor drill rigs are remotely operated systems that provide a cost effective means to recover sedimentary records of the upper sub-seafloor deposits. Recent increases in their payload included downhole logging tools or autoclave coring systems. We here report on another milestone in using seafloor rigs: the development and installation of shallow borehole observatories. Three different systems have been developed for the MARUM-MeBo seafloor drill, which is operated by MARUM, University of Bremen, Germany. A simple design, the MeBoPLUG, separates the inner borehole from the overlying ocean by using o-ring seals at the conical threads of the drill pipe. The systems are self-contained and include data loggers, batteries, thermistors and a differential pressure sensor. A second design, the so-called MeBoCORK, is more sophisticated and also hosts an acoustic modem for data transfer and, if desired, fluid sampling capability using osmotic pumps. Of these MeBoCORKs, two systems have to be distinguished: the CORK-A (A = autonomous) can be installed by the MeBo alone and monitors pressure and temperature inside and above the borehole (the latter for reference). The CORK-B (B = bottom) has a higher payload and can additionally be equipped with geochemical, biological or other physical components. Owing to its larger size, it is installed by ROV and utilises a hotstab connection in the upper portion of the drill string. Either design relies on a hotstab connection from beneath which coiled tubing with a conical drop weight is lowered to couple to the formation. These tubes are fluid-saturated and either serve to transmit pore pressure signals or collect pore water in the osmo-sampler. The third design, the MeBoPUPPI ( P op- U p P ore P ressure I nstrument), is similar to the MeBoCORK-A and monitors pore pressure and temperature in a self-contained manner. Instead of transferring data upon command using an acoustic modem, the MeBoPUPPI contains a pop-up telemetry with Iridium link. After a predefined period, the data unit with satellite link is released, ascends to the sea surface, and remains there for up to two weeks while sending the long-term data sets to shore. In summer 2012, two MeBoPLUGs, one MeBoCORK-A and one MeBoCORK-B were installed with MeBo on German RV Sonne in the Nankai Trough area, Japan. We have successfully downloaded data from the CORKs, attesting that coupling to the formation worked and pressure records were elevated relative to the seafloor reference. In the near future, we will further deploy the first two MeBoPUPPIs. Recovery of all monitoring systems by ROV is planned for 2016.

Description: Dye tracing for investigating flow and transport properties of hydrocarbon-polluted Rabots glaciär, Kebnekaise, Sweden Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 11, 13711-13744, 2014 Author(s): C. C. Clason, C. Coch, J. Jarsjö, K. Brugger, P. Jansson, and G. Rosqvist Over 11 000 L of hydrocarbon pollution was deposited on the surface of Rabots glaciär on the Kebnekaise Massif, northern Sweden, following the crash of a Royal Norwegian Air Force aircraft in March 2012. An environmental monitoring programme was subsequently commissioned, including water, snow and ice sampling. The scientific programme further included a series of dye tracing experiments during the 2013 melt season, conducted to investigate flow pathways for pollutants through the glacier hydrological system, and to gain new insight to the internal hydrological system of Rabots glaciär. Results of dye tracing reveal a degree of homogeneity in the topology of the drainage system throughout July and August, with an increase in efficiency as the season progresses, as reflected by decreasing temporary storage and dispersivity. Early onset of melting likely led to formation of an efficient, discrete drainage system early in the melt season, subject to decreasing sinuosity and braiding as the season progressed. Analysis of turbidity-discharge hysteresis further supports the formation of discrete, efficient drainage, with clockwise diurnal hysteresis suggesting easy mobilisation of readily-available sediments in channels. Dye injection immediately downstream of the pollution source zone revealed prolonged storage of dye followed by fast, efficient release. Twinned with a low dye recovery, and supported by sporadic detection of hydrocarbons in the proglacial river, we suggest that meltwater, and thus pollutants in solution, may be released periodically from this zone of the glacier hydrological system. The here identified dynamics of dye storage, dispersion and breakthrough indicate that the ultimate fate and permanence of pollutants in the glacier system is likely to be governed by storage of pollutants in the firn layer and ice mass, or within the internal hydrological system, where it may refreeze. This shows that future studies on the fate of hydrocarbons in pristine, glaciated mountain environments should address the extent to which pollutants in solution act like water molecules or whether they are more susceptible to, for example, refreezing into the surrounding ice, becoming stuck in micro-fractures and pore spaces, or sorption onto subglacial sediments.

Description: In this study we evaluate the capabilities of three satellite sensors for assessing water composition and bottom depth in Lake Garda, Italy. A consistent physics-based processing chain was applied to Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and RapidEye. Images gathered on 10 June 2014 were corrected for the atmospheric effects with the 6SV code. The computed remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) from MODIS and OLI were converted into water quality parameters by adopting a spectral inversion procedure based on a bio-optical model calibrated with optical properties of the lake. The same spectral inversion procedure was applied to RapidEye and to OLI data to map bottom depth. In situ measurements of Rrs and of concentrations of water quality parameters collected in five locations were used to evaluate the models. The bottom depth maps from OLI and RapidEye showed similar gradients up to 7 m (r = 0.72). The results indicate that: (1) the spatial and radiometric resolutions of OLI enabled mapping water constituents and bottom properties; (2) MODIS was appropriate for assessing water quality in the pelagic areas at a coarser spatial resolution; and (3) RapidEye had the capability to retrieve bottom depth at high spatial resolution. Future work should evaluate the performance of the three sensors in different bio-optical conditions.

Description: From a holistic view, this paper addresses a perspective of coordinated development of economy, society, and environment for regional sustainability assessment. Firstly, a comprehensive indicator system for co-evaluating the level of economic, social, and environmental subsystems is presented based on a holistic understanding of regional sustainability. Then, a coordinated development index model focusing on the level of coordination among the subsystems as well as their comprehensive development level is established. Furthermore, an empirical study of all the provinces and municipalities is conducted by collecting the panel data from 2004 to 2010. The result shows that: (1) the coordinated developments of the most developed and the most underdeveloped regions stay stable while the regions with medium development level possess more fluctuant trends during the study years; (2) regional disparities are indicated according to the grading of CDI (the coordinated development index), which are further analyzed to be related to the local economic development patterns; (3) the conditions and causes of economic, social, and environmental development in real situations under different grades of CDI are discussed through detailed case studies of typical regions, which indicate specific suggestions of sustainable development for regions in the same pattern.

Description: As the largest solid waste (SW) generator in the world, China is facing serious pollution issues induced by increasing quantities of SW. The sustainability assessment of SW management is very important for designing relevant policy for further improving the overall efficiency of solid waste management (SWM). By focusing on industrial solid waste (ISW) and municipal solid waste (MSW), the paper investigated the sustainability performance of SWM by applying decoupling analysis, and further identified the main drivers of SW change in China by adopting Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) model. The results indicate that China has made a great achievement in SWM which was specifically expressed as the increase of ISW utilized amount and harmless disposal ratio of MSW, decrease of industrial solid waste discharged (ISWD), and absolute decoupling of ISWD from economic growth as well. However, China has a long way to go to achieve the goal of sustainable management of SW. The weak decoupling, even expansive negative decoupling of ISW generation and MSW disposal suggests that China needs timely technology innovation and rational institutional arrangement to reduce SW intensity from the source and promote classification and recycling. The factors of investment efficiency and technology are the main determinants of the decrease in SW, inversely, economic growth has increased SW discharge. The effects of investment intensity showed a volatile trend over time but eventually decreased SW discharged. Moreover, the factors of population and industrial structure slightly increased SW.

Description: This paper aims to construct conservation laws for a Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation with variable coefficients, which is a third-order partial differential equation. This equation does not have a Lagrangian and so we transform it to a fourth-order partial differential equation, which has a Lagrangian. The Noether approach is then employed to construct the conservation laws. It so happens that the derived conserved quantities fail to satisfy the divergence criterion and so one needs to make adjustments to the derived conserved quantities in order to satisfy the divergence condition. The conservation laws are then expressed in the original variable. Finally, a conservation law is used to obtain exact solution of a special case of the Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation.

Description: The sensorimotor system (SMS) plays an important role in sports and in every day movement. Several tools for assessment and training have been designed. Many of them are directed to specific populations, and have major shortcomings due to the training effect or safety. The aim of the present study was to design and assess a dynamic sensorimotor test and training device that can be adjusted for all levels of performance. The novel pneumatic-driven mechatronic device can guide the trainee, allow independent movements or disrupt the individual with unpredicted perturbations while standing on a platform. The test-reliability was evaluated using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Subjects were required to balance their center of pressure (COP) in a target circle (TITC). The time in TITC and the COP error (COPe) were recorded for analysis. The results of 22 males and 14 females (23.7 ± 2.6 years) showed good to excellent test–retest reliability. The newly designed Active Balance System (ABS) was then compared with the Biodex Balance System SD® (BBS). The results of 15 females, 14 males (23.4 ± 1.6 years) showed modest correlation in static and acceptable correlation in dynamic conditions, suggesting that ABS could be a reliable and comparable tool for dynamic balance assessments.

Description: Air temperature variability over three glaciers in the Ortles-Cevedale (Italian Alps): effects of glacier disintegration, intercomparison of calculation methods, and impacts on mass balance modeling The Cryosphere Discussions, 8, 6147-6192, 2014 Author(s): L. Carturan, F. Cazorzi, F. De Blasi, and G. Dalla Fontana Glacier mass balance models rely on accurate spatial calculation of input data, in particular air temperature. Lower temperatures (the so-called glacier cooling effect), and lower temperature variability (the so-called glacier damping effect) generally occur over glaciers, compared to ambient conditions. These effects, which depend on the geometric characteristics of glaciers and display a high spatial and temporal variability, have been mostly investigated on medium- to large-size glaciers so far, while observations on smaller ice bodies are scarce. Using a dataset from 8 on-glacier and 4 off-glacier weather stations, collected in summer 2010 and 2011, we analyzed the air temperature variability and wind regime over three different glaciers in the Ortles-Cevedale. The magnitude of the cooling effect and the occurrence of katabatic boundary layer (KBL) processes showed remarkable differences among the three ice bodies, suggesting the likely existence of important reinforcing mechanisms during glacier decay and disintegration. None of the methods proposed in the literature for calculating on-glacier temperature from off-glacier data fully reproduced our observations. Among them, the more physically-based procedure of Greuell and Böhm (1998) provided the best overall results where the KBL prevail, but it was not effective elsewhere (i.e. on smaller ice bodies and close to the glacier margins). The accuracy of air temperature estimations strongly impacted the results from a mass balance model which was applied to the three investigated glaciers. Most importantly, even small temperature deviations caused distortions in parameter calibration, thus compromising the model generalizability.

Description: Climate change will increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events and create risks that will impact health care facilities. Health care facilities will need to assess climate change risks and adopt adaptive management strategies to be resilient, but guidance tools are lacking. In this study, a toolkit was developed for health care facility officials to assess the resiliency of their facility to climate change impacts. A mixed methods approach was used to develop climate change resiliency indicators to inform the development of the toolkit. The toolkit consists of a checklist for officials who work in areas of emergency management, facilities management and health care services and supply chain management, a facilitator’s guide for administering the checklist, and a resource guidebook to inform adaptation. Six health care facilities representing three provinces in Canada piloted the checklist. Senior level officials with expertise in the aforementioned areas were invited to review the checklist, provide feedback during qualitative interviews and review the final toolkit at a stakeholder workshop. The toolkit helps health care facility officials identify gaps in climate change preparedness, direct allocation of adaptation resources and inform strategic planning to increase resiliency to climate change.

Description: The World Health Organization defines social determinants of health as “complex, integrated, and overlapping social structures and economic systems” that are responsible for most health inequities. Similar to the individual-level risk factors such as behavioral and biological risk factors that influence disease, we consider social determinants of health such as the distribution of income, wealth, influence and power as risk factors for risk of disease. We operationally define health inequity in a disease within a population due to a risk factor that is unfair and avoidable as the difference between the disease outcome with and without the risk factor in the population. We derive expressions for difference in health inequity between two populations due to a risk factor that is unfair and avoidable for a given disease. The difference in heath inequity between two population groups due to a risk factor increases with increasing difference in relative risks and the difference in prevalence of the risk factor in the two populations. The difference in health inequity could be larger than the difference in health outcomes between the two populations in some situations. Compared to health disparities which are typically measured and monitored using absolute or relative disparities of health outcomes, the methods presented in this manuscript provide a different, yet complementary, picture because they parse out the contributions of unfair and avoidable risk factors.

Description: In this research, structural-functional integrated cement-based materials were prepared by employing cement paste and a microencapsulated phase change material (MPCM) manufactured using urea-formaldehyde resin as the shell and paraffin as the core material. The encapsulation ratio of the MPCM could reach up to 91.21 wt%. Thermal energy storage cement pastes (TESCPs) incorporated with different MPCM contents (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by weight of cement) were developed, and their thermal and mechanical properties were studied. The results showed that the total energy storage capacity of the hardened cement specimens with MPCM increased by up to 3.9-times compared with that of the control cement paste. The thermal conductivity at different temperature levels (35–36 °C, 55–56 °C and 72–74 °C) decreased with the increase of MPCM content, and the decrease was the highest when the temperature level was 55–56 °C. Moreover, the compressive strength, flexural strength and density of hardened cement paste decreased with the increase in MPCM content linearly. Among the evaluated properties, the compressive strength of TESCPs had a larger and faster degradation with the increase of MPCM content.

Description: Mesoscale modeling study of the interactions between aerosols and PBL meteorology during a haze episode in China Jing–Jin–Ji and its near surrounding region – Part 1: Aerosol distributions and meteorological features Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, 14, 31675-31717, 2014 Author(s): H. Wang, M. Xue, X. Y. Zhang, H. L. Liu, C. H. Zhou, S. C. Tan, H. Z. Che, B. Chen, and T. Li The urbanized region of Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei – often shortened to Jing–Jin–Ji and referred to as the 3JNS region in this paper – and its near surrounding region is becoming China's most polluted area by haze, exceeding even the Yangtze and Pearl river deltas. Aside from pollutant emission, the meteorology of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) is the most important factor affecting haze pollution. Focusing on July 2008, the aerosol optical properties and PBL meteorology features closely related with haze formation were simulated in 3JNS region using an online atmospheric chemical transport model. The relationship between regional PBL meteorology, PM 2.5 , and haze is discussed. Model results accurately simulated the aerosol optical depth (AOD), single scattering albedo (SSA) and asymmetry parameter (ASY), validate by comparison with observations from the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the China Aerosol Remote Sensing NETwork (CARSNET) and the Aerosol Robotic NETwork (AERONET). Modeled PBL wind speeds showed reasonable agreement with those from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Reanalysis 2. A monthly mean AOD value as high as 1.2 was found from both model and observations, with a daily mean larger than 2.0 during haze episodes in the 3JNS Region. Modeled and observed SSA values of 0.9–0.96 and ASY values of 0.72–0.74 demonstrated the high scattering characteristic of summer aerosols in this region. PBL wind speeds from modeled and NCEP data both showed a reversing trend of PM 2.5 variation, illustrating the importance of the "PBL window shadow" on haze formation. Turbulence diffusion and PBL height showed had opposite phases to surface PM 2.5 , indicating that lower PBL height and weaker PBL turbulence diffusion are essential to haze formation. It is noted that homogeneous air pressure does not occur at the surface but at an 85–950 hPa height during the haze episode. The momentum transmitting downward of the cold air from above the PBL to the low PBL and surface lead to an increase in surface wind speeds and haze dispersal.

Description: Impact of seawater Ca 2+ on the calcification and calcite Mg/Ca of Amphistegina lessonii Biogeosciences Discussions, 11, 17463-17489, 2014 Author(s): A. Mewes, G. Langer, S. Thoms, G. Nehrke, G.-J. Reichart, L. J. de Nooijer, and J. Bijma Mg/Ca ratios in foraminiferal tests are routinely used as paleo temperature proxy, but on long timescales, also hold the potential to reconstruct past seawater Mg/Ca. Impact of both temperature and seawater Mg/Ca on Mg incorporation in foraminifera have been quantified by a number of studies. The underlying mechanism responsible for Mg incorporation in foraminiferal calcite and its sensitivity to environmental conditions, however, is not fully identified. A recently published biomineralization model (Nehrke et al., 2013) proposes a combination of transmembrane transport and seawater leakage or vacuolization to link calcite Mg/Ca to seawater Mg/Ca and explains inter-species variability in Mg/Ca ratios. To test the assumptions of this model, we conducted a culture study in which seawater Mg/Ca was manipulated by varying [Ca 2+ ] and keeping [Mg 2+ ] constant. Foraminiferal growth rates, test thickness and calcite Mg/Ca of newly formed chambers were analyzed. Results showed optimum growth rates and test thickness at Mg/Ca closest to that of ambient seawater. Calcite Mg/Ca is positively correlated to seawater Mg/Ca, indicating that not absolute seawater [Ca 2+ ] and [Mg 2+ ], but the telative ratio controls Mg/Ca in tests. These results demonstrate that the calcification process cannot be based only on seawater vacuolization, supporting the mixing model proposed by Nehrke et al. (2013). Here we, however, suggest a transmembrane transport fractionation that is not as strong as suggested by Nehrke et al. (2013).

Description: Laminated sediments in the Bering Sea reveal atmospheric teleconnections to Greenland climate on millennial to decadal timescales during the last deglaciation Climate of the Past, 10, 2215-2236, 2014 Author(s): H. Kuehn, L. Lembke-Jene, R. Gersonde, O. Esper, F. Lamy, H. Arz, G. Kuhn, and R. Tiedemann During the last glacial termination, the upper North Pacific Ocean underwent dramatic and rapid changes in oxygenation that lead to the transient intensification of oxygen minimum zones (OMZs), recorded by the widespread occurrence of laminated sediments on circum-Pacific continental margins. We present a new laminated sediment record from the mid-depth (1100 m) northern Bering Sea margin that provides insight into these deglacial OMZ maxima with exceptional, decadal-scale detail. Combined ultrahigh-resolution micro-X-ray-fluorescence (micro-XRF) data and sediment facies analysis of laminae reveal an alternation between predominantly terrigenous and diatom-dominated opal sedimentation. The diatomaceous laminae are interpreted to represent spring/summer productivity events related to the retreating sea ice margin. We identified five laminated sections in the deglacial part of our site. Lamina counts were carried out on these sections and correlated with the Bølling–Allerød and Preboreal phases in the North Greenland Ice Core (NGRIP) oxygen isotope record, indicating an annual deposition of individual lamina couplets (varves). The observed rapid decadal intensifications of anoxia, in particular within the Bølling–Allerød, are tightly coupled to short-term warm events through increases in regional export production. This dependence of laminae formation on warmer temperatures is underlined by a correlation with published Bering Sea sea surface temperature records and δ 18 O data of planktic foraminifera from the Gulf of Alaska. The rapidity of the observed changes strongly implies a close atmospheric teleconnection between North Pacific and North Atlantic regions. We suggest that concomitant increases in export production and subsequent remineralization of organic matter in the Bering Sea, in combination with oxygen-poor waters entering the Being Sea, drove down oxygen concentrations to values below 0.1 mL L −1 and caused laminae preservation. Calculated benthic–planktic ventilation ages show no significant variations throughout the last deglaciation, indicating that changes in formation rates or differing sources of North Pacific mid-depth waters are not prime candidates for strengthening the OMZ at our site. The age models established by our correlation procedure allow for the determination of calendar age control points for the Bølling–Allerød and the Preboreal that are independent of the initial radiocarbon-based chronology. Resulting surface reservoir ages range within 730–990 yr during the Bølling–Allerød, 800–1100 yr in the Younger Dryas, and 765–775 yr for the Preboreal.

Description: Land surface temperature (LST) retrieval is a key issue in infrared quantitative remote sensing. In this paper, a split window algorithm is proposed to estimate LST with daytime data in two mid-infrared channels (channel 66 (3.746~4.084 μm) and channel 68 (4.418~4.785 μm)) from Airborne Hyperspectral Scanner (AHS). The estimation is conducted after eliminating reflected direct solar radiance with the aid of water vapor content (WVC), the view zenith angle (VZA), and the solar zenith angle (SZA). The results demonstrate that the LST can be well estimated with a root mean square error (RMSE) less than 1.0 K. Furthermore, an error analysis for the proposed method is also performed in terms of the uncertainty of LSE and WVC, as well as the Noise Equivalent Difference Temperature (NEΔT). The results show that the LST errors caused by a LSE uncertainty of 0.01, a NEΔT of 0.33 K, and a WVC uncertainty of 10% are 0.4~2.8 K, 0.6 K, and 0.2 K, respectively. Finally, the proposed method is applied to the AHS data of 4 July 2008. The results show that the differences between the estimated and the ground measured LST for water, bare soil and vegetation areas are approximately 0.7 K, 0.9 K and 2.3K, respectively.

Description: Implication of methodological uncertainties for mid-Holocene sea surface temperature reconstructions Climate of the Past, 10, 2237-2252, 2014 Author(s): I. Hessler, S. P. Harrison, M. Kucera, C. Waelbroeck, M.-T. Chen, C. Anderson, A. de Vernal, B. Fréchette, A. Cloke-Hayes, G. Leduc, and L. Londeix We present and examine a multi-sensor global compilation of mid-Holocene (MH) sea surface temperatures (SST), based on Mg/Ca and alkenone palaeothermometry and reconstructions obtained using planktonic foraminifera and organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst census counts. We assess the uncertainties originating from using different methodologies and evaluate the potential of MH SST reconstructions as a benchmark for climate-model simulations. The comparison between different analytical approaches (time frame, baseline climate) shows the choice of time window for the MH has a negligible effect on the reconstructed SST pattern, but the choice of baseline climate affects both the magnitude and spatial pattern of the reconstructed SSTs. Comparison of the SST reconstructions made using different sensors shows significant discrepancies at a regional scale, with uncertainties often exceeding the reconstructed SST anomaly. Apparent patterns in SST may largely be a reflection of the use of different sensors in different regions. Overall, the uncertainties associated with the SST reconstructions are generally larger than the MH anomalies. Thus, the SST data currently available cannot serve as a target for benchmarking model simulations. Further evaluations of potential subsurface and/or seasonal artifacts that may contribute to obscure the MH SST reconstructions are urgently needed to provide reliable benchmarks for model evaluations.

Description: Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) extract heat from underground hot dry rock (HDR) by first fracturing the HDR and then circulating a geofluid (typically water) into it and bringing the heated geofluid to a power plant to generate electricity. This study focuses on analysis, examination, and comparison of leading geothermal power plant configurations with a geofluid temperature from 200 to 800 °C, and also analyzes the embodied energy of EGS surface power plants. The power generation analysis is focused on flash type cycles for using subcritical geofluid (〈374 °C) and expansion type cycles for using supercritical geofluid (>374 °C). Key findings of this study include: (i) double-flash plants have 24.3%–29.0% higher geofluid effectiveness than single-flash ones, and 3%–10% lower specific embodied energy; (ii) the expansion type plants have geofluid effectiveness > 750 kJ/kg, significantly higher than flash type plants (geofluid effectiveness 〈 300 kJ/kg) and the specific embodied energy is lower; (iii) to increase the turbine outlet vapor fraction from 0.75 to 0.90, we include superheating by geofluid but that reduces the geofluid effectiveness by 28.3%; (iv) for geofluid temperatures above 650 °C, double-expansion plants have a 2% higher geofluid effectiveness and 5%–8% lower specific embodied energy than single-expansion ones.

Description: A new method of depositing tin dioxide nanofibers in order to develop chemical sensors is presented. It involves an electrospinning process with in-plane electrostatic focusing over micromechanized substrates. It is a fast and reproducible method. After an annealing process, which can be performed by the substrate heaters, it is observed that the fibers are intertwined forming porous networks that are randomly distributed on the substrate. The fiber diameters oscillate from 100 nm to 200 nm and fiber lengths reach several tens of microns. Each fiber has a polycrystalline structure with multiple nano-grains. The sensors have been tested for the detection of acetone and hydrogen peroxide (precursors of the explosive triacetone triperoxide, TATP) in air in the ppm range. High and fast responses to these gases have been obtained.

Description: Stored-heat assessments: a review in the light of field experience Geothermal Energy Science, 2, 49-54, 2014 Author(s): M. A. Grant Stored-heat or volumetric assessments of geothermal resources are appealingly simple: the resource being exploited is heat. A stored-heat calculation simply computes the amount of heat in the resource, similarly to computing the amount of ore in an ore body. The method has theoretical support in numerical simulations of resource production. While there are significant unknowns in any resource, some of these can be covered by probabilistic approaches, notably a Monte Carlo method. The Australian Geothermal Reporting Code represents one specification of such stored-heat assessments. However the experience of recent decades, with the development of significant numbers of geothermal resources, has shown that the method is highly unreliable and usually biased high. The tendency to overestimates, in particular, has led to the reduced credibility of the method. An example is quoted where simple application of the apparently simple rules gives a ridiculous result. Much of the problem lies in the "recovery factor", the proportion of the resource that can actually be exploited, where comparison with actual performance shows past values have been in all cases too high, as is the current version of the Australian code. There are further problems, usually overlooked, in the way that the reservoir volume and "cutoff temperature" are defined. Differing approaches mean that results between different reports are not comparable. The different approaches also imply unrecognised assumptions about the physical processes controlling reservoir depletion. The failure of Monte Carlo methods is similarly due to unrecognised violation of logical consistency in the use of probabilities. The net effect of these problems is that the method is not a simple means to generate a rough resource estimate, and it often generates faulty results. Usually, such results are overestimates. Monte Carlo methods do not provide a protection against these errors. The Australian Geothermal Reporting Code should be used for hydrothermal systems with an average recovery factor of 10%. With this average, results are subject to an error of ±70%. For enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), the recovery factor should be a few percent.

Description: Sensitivity of the Mediterranean sea level to atmospheric pressure and free surface elevation numerical formulation in NEMO Geoscientific Model Development, 7, 3001-3015, 2014 Author(s): P. Oddo, A. Bonaduce, N. Pinardi, and A. Guarnieri The sensitivity of the dynamics of the Mediterranean Sea to atmospheric pressure and free surface elevation formulation using NEMO (Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean) was evaluated. Four different experiments were carried out in the Mediterranean Sea using filtered or explicit free surface numerical schemes and accounting for the effect of atmospheric pressure in addition to wind and buoyancy fluxes. Model results were evaluated by coherency and power spectrum analysis with tide gauge data. We found that atmospheric pressure plays an important role for periods shorter than 100 days. The free surface formulation is important to obtain the correct ocean response for periods shorter than 30 days. At frequencies higher than 15 days −1 the Mediterranean basin's response to atmospheric pressure was not coherent and the performance of the model strongly depended on the specific area considered. A large-amplitude seasonal oscillation observed in the experiments using a filtered free surface was not evident in the corresponding explicit free surface formulation case, which was due to a phase shift between mass fluxes in the Gibraltar Strait and at the surface. The configuration with time splitting and atmospheric pressure always performed best; the differences were enhanced at very high frequencies.

Description: The effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure and sodium selenite supplementation on cell apoptosis of jejunum in broilers were studied. A total of 240 one-day-old male AA broilers were randomly assigned four dietary treatments containing 0 mg/kg of AFB1 (control), 0.3 mg/kg AFB1 (AFB1), 0.4 mg/kg supplement Se (+ Se) and 0.3 mg/kg AFB1 + 0.4 mg/kg supplement Se (AFB1 + Se), respectively. Compared with the control broilers, the number of apoptotic cells, the expression of Bax and Caspase-3 mRNA were significantly increased, while the expression of Bcl-2 mRNA and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio were significantly decreased in AFB1 broilers. The number of apoptotic cells and the expression of Caspase-3 mRNA in AFB1 + Se broilers were significantly higher than those in the control broilers, but significantly lower than those in AFB1 broilers. There were no significant changes in the expression of Bax mRNA between AFB1 + Se and control broilers; the expression of Bcl-2 mRNA and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio in AFB1 + Se broilers were significantly lower than those in the control broilers, but significantly higher than those in AFB1 broilers. In conclusion, 0.3 mg/kg AFB1 in the diet can increase cell apoptosis, decrease Bcl-2 mRNA expression, and increase of Bax and Caspase-3 mRNA expression in broiler’s jejunum. However, supplementation of dietary sodium selenite at the concentration of 0.4 mg/kg Se may ameliorate AFB1-induced apoptosis by increasing Bcl-2 mRNA expression, and decreasing Bax and Caspase-3 mRNA expression.

Description: Are seasonal calving dynamics forced by buttressing from ice mélange or undercutting by melting? Outcomes from full-Stokes simulations of Store Glacier, West Greenland The Cryosphere, 8, 2353-2365, 2014 Author(s): J. Todd and P. Christoffersen We use a full-Stokes 2-D model (Elmer/Ice) to investigate the flow and calving dynamics of Store Glacier, a fast-flowing outlet glacier in West Greenland. Based on a new, subgrid-scale implementation of the crevasse depth calving criterion, we perform two sets of simulations: one to identify the primary forcing mechanisms and another to constrain future stability. We find that the mixture of icebergs and sea ice, known as ice mélange or sikussak, is principally responsible for the observed seasonal advance of the ice front. On the other hand, the effect of submarine melting on the calving rate of Store Glacier appears to be limited. Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the glacier's calving dynamics are sensitive to seasonal perturbation, but are stable on interannual timescales due to the strong topographic control on the flow regime. Our results shed light on the dynamics of calving glaciers and may help explain why neighbouring glaciers do not necessarily respond synchronously to changes in atmospheric and oceanic forcing.

Description: Deglaciation of the Caucasus Mountains, Russia/Georgia, in the 21st century observed with ASTER satellite imagery and aerial photography The Cryosphere, 8, 2367-2379, 2014 Author(s): M. Shahgedanova, G. Nosenko, S. Kutuzov, O. Rototaeva, and T. Khromova Changes in the map area of 498 glaciers located on the Main Caucasus ridge (MCR) and on Mt. Elbrus in the Greater Caucasus Mountains (Russia and Georgia) were assessed using multispectral ASTER and panchromatic Landsat imagery with 15 m spatial resolution in 1999/2001 and 2010/2012. Changes in recession rates of glacier snouts between 1987–2001 and 2001–2010 were investigated using aerial photography and ASTER imagery for a sub-sample of 44 glaciers. In total, glacier area decreased by 4.7 ± 2.1% or 19.2 ± 8.7 km 2 from 407.3 ± 5.4 km 2 to 388.1 ± 5.2 km 2 . Glaciers located in the central and western MCR lost 13.4 ± 7.3 km 2 (4.7 ± 2.5%) in total or 8.5 km 2 (5.0 ± 2.4%) and 4.9 km 2 (4.1 ± 2.7%) respectively. Glaciers on Mt. Elbrus, although located at higher elevations, lost 5.8 ± 1.4 km 2 (4.9 ± 1.2%) of their total area. The recession rates of valley glacier termini increased between 1987–2000/01 and 2000/01–2010 (2000 for the western MCR and 2001 for the central MCR and Mt.~Elbrus) from 3.8 ± 0.8, 3.2 ± 0.9 and 8.3 ± 0.8 m yr −1 to 11.9 ± 1.1, 8.7 ± 1.1 and 14.1 ± 1.1 m yr −1 in the central and western MCR and on Mt. Elbrus respectively. The highest rate of increase in glacier termini retreat was registered on the southern slope of the central MCR where it has tripled. A positive trend in summer temperatures forced glacier recession, and strong positive temperature anomalies in 1998, 2006, and 2010 contributed to the enhanced loss of ice. An increase in accumulation season precipitation observed in the northern MCR since the mid-1980s has not compensated for the effects of summer warming while the negative precipitation anomalies, observed on the southern slope of the central MCR in the 1990s, resulted in stronger glacier wastage.

Description: In this study, an electroactive polymer (EAP), poly(2,5-bis(N-methyl-N-hexylamino)phenylene vinylene) (BAM-PPV) was investigated as a potential alternative surface pretreatment for hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI))-based aerospace coatings. BAM-PPV was tested as a pretreatment coating on an aerospace aluminum alloy (AA2024-T3) substrate in combination with a non-Cr(VI) epoxy primer and a polyurethane Advanced Performance Coating (APC) topcoat. This testing was undertaken to determine BAM-PPV’s adhesion, corrosion-inhibition, compatibility and survivability in laboratory testing and during outdoor field-testing. BAM-PPV showed excellent adhesion and acceptable corrosion performance in laboratory testing. The BAM-PPV aerospace coating system (BAM-PPV, non-Cr(VI) epoxy primer and polyurethane APC topcoat) was field tested for one year on the rear hatch door of the United States Air Force C-5 cargo plane. After one year of field testing there was no evidence of delamination or corrosion of the BAM-PPV aerospace coating system.

Description: The effect of chemical treatment of hemp hurds slices in three solutions (EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), NaOH and Ca(OH)2) on the properties of natural material was discussed in this paper. Changes in the morphology, chemical composition and structure as well as thermal stability of hemp hurds before and after their modification were investigated by using FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), XRD (X-ray powder diffraction analysis) and TG (thermogravimetry)/DSC (differential scanning calorimetry). Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) measurements were used for determination of degree of cellulose polymerization of hemp hurd samples. Chemical modification is related to the partial removal of non-cellulosic components of lignin, hemicellulose and pectin as well as waxes from the surface of hemp hurd slices. Another effect of the chemical treatment applied is connected with increasing the crystallinity index of cellulose determined by FTIR and XRD methods. Decrease in degree of cellulose polymerization and polydispersity index in chemically modified hemp hurds compared to the original sample was observed. Increase in thermal stability of treated hemp hurd was found. The most significant changes were observed in alkaline treated hemp hurds by NaOH.

Description: Inversion method for initial tsunami waveform reconstruction Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2, 7735-7772, 2014 Author(s): V. V. Voronin, T. A. Voronina, and V. A. Tcheverda This paper deals with the application of r-solution method to recover the initial tsunami waveform in a tsunami source area by remote water-level measurements. Wave propagation is considered within the scope of a linear shallow-water theory. An ill-posed inverse problem is regularized by means of least square inversion using a truncated SVD approach. The properties of obtained solution are determined to a large extent by the properties of an inverse operator, which were numerically investigated. The method presented allows one to control instability of the numerical solution and to obtain an acceptable result in spite of ill-posedness of the problem. It is shown that the accuracy of tsunami source reconstruction strongly depends on the signal-to-noise ratio, the azimuthal coverage of recording stations with respect to the source area and bathymetric features along the wave path. The numerical experiments were carried out with synthetic data and various computational domains including a real bathymetry. The method proposed allows us to make a preliminary prediction of the efficiency of the inversion with a given set of the recording stations and to find out the most informative part of the existing observation system. This essential property of the method can prove to be useful in designing a monitoring system for tsunamis.

Description: Reevaluation of stratospheric ozone trends from SAGE II data using a simultaneous temporal and spatial analysis Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14, 13455-13470, 2014 Author(s): R. P. Damadeo, J. M. Zawodny, and L. W. Thomason This paper details a new method of regression for sparsely sampled data sets for use with time-series analysis, in particular the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) II ozone data set. Non-uniform spatial, temporal, and diurnal sampling present in the data set result in biased values for the long-term trend if not accounted for. This new method is performed close to the native resolution of measurements and is a simultaneous temporal and spatial analysis that accounts for potential diurnal ozone variation. Results show biases, introduced by the way data are prepared for use with traditional methods, can be as high as 10%. Derived long-term changes show declines in ozone similar to other studies but very different trends in the presumed recovery period, with differences up to 2% per decade. The regression model allows for a variable turnaround time and reveals a hemispheric asymmetry in derived trends in the middle to upper stratosphere. Similar methodology is also applied to SAGE II aerosol optical depth data to create a new volcanic proxy that covers the SAGE II mission period. Ultimately this technique may be extensible towards the inclusion of multiple data sets without the need for homogenization.

Description: Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is an active sensor that can effectively acquire a large number of three-dimensional (3-D) points. LiDAR systems can be equipped on different platforms for different applications, but to integrate the data, point cloud registration is needed to improve geometric consistency. The registration of airborne and terrestrial mobile LiDAR is a challenging task because the point densities and scanning directions differ. We proposed a scheme for the registration of airborne and terrestrial mobile LiDAR using the least squares 3-D surface registration technique to minimize the surfaces between two datasets. To analyze the effect of point density in registration, the simulation data simulated different conditions and estimated the theoretical errors. The test data were the point clouds of the airborne LiDAR system (ALS) and the mobile LiDAR system (MLS), which were acquired by Optech ALTM 3070 and Lynx, respectively. The resulting simulation analysis indicated that the accuracy of registration improved as the density increased. For the test dataset, the registration error of mobile LiDAR between different trajectories improved from 40 cm to 4 cm, and the registration error between ALS and MLS improved from 84 cm to 4 cm. These results indicate that the proposed methods can obtain 5 cm accuracy between ALS and MLS.

Description: Nighttime satellite imagery from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Programs’ Operational Linescan System (DMSP OLS) is being used for myriad applications including population mapping, characterizing economic activity, disaggregate estimation of CO2 emissions, wildfire monitoring, and more. Here we present a method for in situ radiance calibration of the DMSP OLS using a ground based light source as an active target. We found that the wattage of light used by our active target strongly correlates with the signal measured by the DMSP OLS. This approach can be used to enhance our ability to make intertemporal and intersatellite comparisons of DMSP OLS imagery. We recommend exploring the possibility of establishing a permanent active target for the calibration of nocturnal imaging systems.

Description: Investigating uptake of N 2 O in agricultural soils using a high-precision dynamic chamber method Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 7, 4455-4462, 2014 Author(s): N. J. Cowan, D. Famulari, P. E. Levy, M. Anderson, D. S. Reay, and U. M. Skiba Uptake (or negative flux) of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) in agricultural soils is a controversial issue which has proved difficult to investigate in the past due to constraints such as instrumental precision and methodological uncertainties. Using a recently developed high-precision quantum cascade laser gas analyser combined with a closed dynamic chamber, a well-defined detection limit of 4 μg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 could be achieved for individual soil flux measurements. 1220 measurements of N 2 O flux were made from a variety of UK soils using this method, of which 115 indicated uptake by the soil (i.e. a negative flux in the micrometeorological sign convention). Only four of these apparently negative fluxes were greater than the detection limit of the method, which suggests that the vast majority of reported negative fluxes from such measurements are actually due to instrument noise. As such, we suggest that the bulk of negative N 2 O fluxes reported for agricultural fields are most likely due to limits in detection of a particular flux measurement methodology and not a result of microbiological activity consuming atmospheric N 2 O.

Description: For near real-time water applications, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometers (MODIS) on Terra and Aqua are currently the only satellite instruments that can provide well-calibrated top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance data over the global aquatic environments. However, TOA radiance data in the MODIS ocean bands over turbid atmosphere in east China often saturate, leaving only four land bands to use. In this study, an approach based on Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis has been developed and validated to estimate chlorophyll a concentrations (Chla, μg/L) in surface waters of Taihu Lake, the third largest freshwater lake in China. The EOF approach analyzed the spectral variance of normalized Rayleigh-corrected reflectance (Rrc) data at 469, 555, 645, and 859 nm, and subsequently related that variance to Chla using 28 concurrent MODIS and field measurements. This empirical algorithm was then validated using another 30 independent concurrent MODIS and field measurements. Image analysis and radiative transfer simulations indicated that the algorithm appeared to be tolerant to aerosol perturbations, with unbiased RMS uncertainties of 〈80% for Chla ranging between 3 and 100 μg/L. Application of the algorithm to a total of 853 MODIS images between 2000 and 2013 under cloud-free conditions revealed spatial distribution patterns and seasonal changes that are consistent to previous findings based on floating algae mats. The current study can provide additional quantitative estimates of Chla that can be assimilated in an existing forecast model, which showed improved performance over the use of a previous Chla algorithm. However, the empirical nature, relatively large uncertainties, and limited number of spectral bands all point to the need of further improvement in data availability and accuracy with future satellite sensors.

Description: MEMS Inertial Measurement Units are available at low cost and can replace expensive units in mobile mapping platforms which need direct georeferencing. This is done through the integration with GNSS measurements in order to achieve a continuous positioning solution and to obtain orientation angles. This paper presents the results of the assessment of the accuracy of a system that integrates GNSS and a MEMS IMU in a terrestrial platform. We describe the methodology used and the tests realized where the accuracy of the positions and orientation parameters were assessed using an independent photogrammetric technique employing cameras that integrate the mobile mapping system developed by the authors. Results for the accuracy of attitude angles and coordinates show that accuracies better than a decimeter in positions, and under a degree in angles, can be achieved even considering that the terrestrial platform is operating in less than favorable environments.

Description: This paper proposes an automated system for monitoring mobility patterns using a network of very low resolution visual sensors (30 30 pixels). The use of very low resolution sensors reduces privacy concern, cost, computation requirement and power consumption. The core of our proposed system is a robust people tracker that uses low resolution videos provided by the visual sensor network. The distributed processing architecture of our tracking system allows all image processing tasks to be done on the digital signal controller in each visual sensor. In this paper, we experimentally show that reliable tracking of people is possible using very low resolution imagery. We also compare the performance of our tracker against a state-of-the-art tracking method and show that our method outperforms. Moreover, the mobility statistics of tracks such as total distance traveled and average speed derived from trajectories are compared with those derived from ground truth given by Ultra-Wide Band sensors. The results of this comparison show that the trajectories from our system are accurate enough to obtain useful mobility statistics.

Description: Comparison of spatial association approaches for landscape mapping of soil organic carbon stocks SOIL Discussions, 1, 757-802, 2014 Author(s): B. A. Miller, S. Koszinski, M. Wehrhan, and M. Sommer The distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC) can be variable at small analysis scales, but consideration of its role in regional and global issues demands the mapping of large extents. There are many different strategies for mapping SOC, among which are to model the variables needed to calculate the SOC stock indirectly or to model the SOC stock directly. The purpose of this research is to compare direct and indirect approaches to mapping SOC stocks from rule-based, multiple linear regression models applied at the landscape scale via spatial association. The final products for both strategies are high-resolution maps of SOC stocks (kg m −2 ), covering an area of 122 km 2 , with accompanying maps of estimated error. For the direct modelling approach, the estimated error map was based on the internal error estimations from the model rules. For the indirect approach, the estimated error map was produced by spatially combining the error estimates of component models via standard error propagation equations. We compared these two strategies for mapping SOC stocks on the basis of the qualities of the resulting maps as well as the magnitude and distribution of the estimated error. The direct approach produced a map with less spatial variation than the map produced by the indirect approach. The increased spatial variation represented by the indirect approach improved R 2 values for the topsoil and subsoil stocks. Although the indirect approach had a lower mean estimated error for the topsoil stock, the mean estimated error for the total SOC stock (topsoil + subsoil) was lower for the direct approach. For these reasons, we recommend the direct approach to modelling SOC stocks be considered a more conservative estimate of the SOC stocks' spatial distribution.

Description: Magnetic sensing technology offers an attractive alternative for in vivo tracking with much better performance than RF and ultrasound technologies. In this paper, an efficient in vivo magnetic tracking system is presented. The proposed system is intended to localize an endoscopic capsule which delivers biomarkers around specific locations of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. For efficiently localizing a magnetic marker inside the capsule, a mathematical model has been developed for the magnetic field around a cylindrical magnet and used with a localization algorithm that provides minimum error and fast computation. The proposed tracking system has much reduced complexity compared to the ones reported in the literature to date. Laboratory tests and in vivo animal trials have demonstrated the suitability of the proposed system for tracking a magnetic marker with expected accuracy.

Description: Terra Preta Sanitation (TPS) plays a key role in sustainable sanitation (SuSan) and in the sustainable management of resources such as water, energy, soil (agriculture), liquid and solid organic waste streams as well as in the development of sustainable urban environment and infrastructure systems. This paper discusses the advantages of, and requirements for, SuSan systems, focusing on TPS. Case studies showing the stepwise extension and re-development of conventional sanitation systems (CSS) using TPS technologies and system approaches are presented and discussed. Decentralized TPS systems integrated in sustainable urban resource management were implemented in the German cities of Hamburg and Berlin. The compilation of best practice examples and findings using the newest TPS systems illustrates the immense potential of this approach for the transformation from conventional to SuSan systems. For this purpose, the potential savings of drinking water resources and the recycling potential of nutrient components are quantified. The results strongly suggest the need to encourage the development and application of innovative decentralized sanitation technologies, urban infrastructures, and resource management systems that have TP as a key component.

Description: Glacier-like forms on Mars The Cryosphere, 8, 2047-2061, 2014 Author(s): B. Hubbard, C. Souness, and S. Brough More than 1300 glacier-like forms (GLFs) are located in Mars' mid-latitudes. These GLFs are predominantly composed of ice–dust mixtures and are visually similar to terrestrial valley glaciers, showing signs of downhill viscous deformation and an expanded former extent. However, several fundamental aspects of their behavior are virtually unknown, including temporal and spatial variations in mass balance, ice motion, landscape erosion and deposition, and hydrology. Here, we investigate the physical glaciology of martian GLFs. We use satellite images of specific examples and case studies to build on existing knowledge relating to (i) GLF current and former extent, exemplified via a GLF located in Phlegra Montes; (ii) indicators of GLF motion, focusing on the presence of surface crevasses on several GLFs; (iii) processes of GLF debris transfer, focusing on mapping and interpreting boulder trains on one GLF located in Protonilus Mensae, the analysis of which suggests a best-estimate mean GLF flow speed of 7.5 mm a −1 ; and (iv) GLF hydrology, focusing on supra-GLF gulley networks. On the basis of this information, we summarize the current state of knowledge of the glaciology of martian GLFs and identify future research avenues.

Description: Strategy of valid 14 C dates choice in syngenetic permafrost The Cryosphere Discussions, 8, 5589-5621, 2014 Author(s): Y. K. Vasil'chuk and A. C. Vasil'chuk The main problem of radiocarbon dating within permafrost is the uncertain reliability of the 14 C dates. Syngenetic sediments contain allochthonous organic deposit that originated at a distance from its present position. Due to the very good preservation of organic materials in permafrost conditions and numerous re-burials of the fossils from ancient deposits into younger ones the dates could be both younger and older than the true age of dated material. The strategy for the most authentic radiocarbon date selection for dating of syncryogenic sediments is considered taking into account the fluvial origin of the syngenetic sediments. The re-deposition of organic material is discussed in terms of cyclic syncryogenic sedimentation and also the possible re-deposition of organic material in subaerial-subaqueous conditions. The advantages and the complications of dating organic micro-inclusions from ice wedges by the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) method are discussed applying to true age of dated material search. Radiocarbon dates of different organic materials from the same samples are compared. The younger age of the yedoma from cross-sections of Duvanny Yar in Kolyma River and Mamontova Khayata in the mouth of Lena River is substantiated due to the principle of the choice of the youngest 14 C date from the set.

Description: Modeling the elastic transmission of tidal stresses to great distances inland in channelized ice streams The Cryosphere, 8, 2007-2029, 2014 Author(s): J. Thompson, M. Simons, and V. C. Tsai Geodetic surveys suggest that ocean tides can modulate the motion of Antarctic ice streams, even at stations many tens of kilometers inland from the grounding line. These surveys suggest that ocean tidal stresses can perturb ice stream motion at distances about an order of magnitude farther inland than tidal flexure of the ice stream alone. Recent models exploring the role of tidal perturbations in basal shear stress are primarily one- or two-dimensional, with the impact of the ice stream margins either ignored or parameterized. Here, we use two- and three-dimensional finite-element modeling to investigate transmission of tidal stresses in ice streams and the impact of considering more realistic, three-dimensional ice stream geometries. Using Rutford Ice Stream as a real-world comparison, we demonstrate that the assumption that elastic tidal stresses in ice streams propagate large distances inland fails for channelized glaciers due to an intrinsic, exponential decay in the stress caused by resistance at the ice stream margins. This behavior is independent of basal conditions beneath the ice stream and cannot be fit to observations using either elastic or nonlinear viscoelastic rheologies without nearly complete decoupling of the ice stream from its lateral margins. Our results suggest that a mechanism external to the ice stream is necessary to explain the tidal modulation of stresses far upstream of the grounding line for narrow ice streams. We propose a hydrologic model based on time-dependent variability in till strength to explain transmission of tidal stresses inland of the grounding line. This conceptual model can reproduce observations from Rutford Ice Stream.

Description: Simulating the Antarctic ice sheet in the Late-Pliocene warm period: PLISMIP-ANT, an ice-sheet model intercomparison project The Cryosphere Discussions, 8, 5539-5588, 2014 Author(s): B. de Boer, A. M. Dolan, J. Bernales, E. Gasson, H. Goelzer, N. R. Golledge, J. Sutter, P. Huybrechts, G. Lohmann, I. Rogozhina, A. Abe-Ouchi, F. Saito, and R. S. W. van de Wal In the context of future climate change, understanding the nature and behaviour of ice sheets during warm intervals in Earth history is of fundamental importance. The Late-Pliocene warm period (also known as the PRISM interval: 3.264 to 3.025 million years before present) can serve as a potential analogue for projected future climates. Although Pliocene ice locations and extents are still poorly constrained, a significant contribution to sea-level rise should be expected from both the Greenland ice sheet and the West and East Antarctic ice sheets based on palaeo sea-level reconstructions. Here, we present results from simulations of the Antarctic ice sheet by means of an international Pliocene Ice Sheet Modeling Intercomparison Project (PLISMIP-ANT). For the experiments, ice-sheet models including the shallow ice and shelf approximations have been used to simulate the complete Antarctic domain (including grounded and floating ice). We compare the performance of six existing numerical ice-sheet models in simulating modern control and Pliocene ice sheets by a suite of four sensitivity experiments. Ice-sheet model forcing fields are taken from the HadCM3 atmosphere–ocean climate model runs for the pre-industrial and the Pliocene. We include an overview of the different ice-sheet models used and how specific model configurations influence the resulting Pliocene Antarctic ice sheet. The six ice-sheet models simulate a comparable present-day ice sheet, although the models are setup with their own parameter settings. For the Pliocene simulations using the Bedmap1 bedrock topography, some models show a small retreat of the East Antarctic ice sheet, which is thought to have happened during the Pliocene for the Wilkes and Aurora basins. This can be ascribed to either the surface mass balance, as the HadCM3 Pliocene climate shows a significant increase over the Wilkes and Aurora basin, or the initial bedrock topography. For the latter, our simulations with the recently published Bedmap2 bedrock topography indicate a significantly larger contribution to Pliocene sea-level rise from the East Antarctic ice sheet for all six models relative to the simulations with Bedmap1.

Description: Native chilies (Capsicum spp.) are currently underutilized in Bolivia, one of this crop’s centers of diversity. Fewer local farmers cultivate native chilies annually due to low market demand. Increasing its private use value can lead to the in-situ conservation of this crop. The objective of the paper is to evaluate the market acceptability of three native chili products: (a) chili marmalade; (b) chili cooking paste; and (c) pickled chilies. Multi-product Becker-DeGroot-Marschak experimental auctions and hedonic tests were conducted with 337 participants in La Paz and Santa Cruz. Data were analyzed using seemingly unrelated regressions. Results suggest that consumers are willing to pay price premiums of about 25–50 percent. Biodiversity conservation and improvements in farmers’ quality of life statements would not have influence on first purchase decisions but rather on repurchase decisions and therefore on consumers’ product loyalty. This in turn could lead to sustainable agro-biodiversity conservation, centered on consumers’ purchase of these products over time.

Description: This study proposes a new concept, green organisational ambidexterity, that integrates green exploration learning and green exploitation learning simultaneously. Besides, this study argues that the antecedents of green organisational ambidexterity are green shared vision and green absorptive capacity and its consequents are green radical innovation performance and green incremental innovation performance. The results demonstrate that green exploration learning partially mediates the positive relationships between green radical innovation performance and its two antecedents—green shared vision and green absorptive capacity. In addition, this study indicates that green exploitation learning partially mediates the positive relationships between green incremental innovation performance and its two antecedents—green shared vision and green absorptive capacity. Hence, firms have to increase their green shared vision, green absorptive capacity, and green organisational ambidexterity to raise their green radical innovation performance and green incremental innovation performance.

Description: This paper presents a sensor fusion system of cameras and a 2D laser sensorfor large-scale 3D reconstruction. The proposed system is designed to capture data on afast-moving ground vehicle. The system consists of six cameras and one 2D laser sensor,and they are synchronized by a hardware trigger. Reconstruction of 3D structures is doneby estimating frame-by-frame motion and accumulating vertical laser scans, as in previousworks. However, our approach does not assume near 2D motion, but estimates free motion(including absolute scale) in 3D space using both laser data and image features. In orderto avoid the degeneration associated with typical three-point algorithms, we present a newalgorithm that selects 3D points from two frames captured by multiple cameras. The problemof error accumulation is solved by loop closing, not by GPS. The experimental resultsshow that the estimated path is successfully overlaid on the satellite images, such that thereconstruction result is very accurate.

Description: The proliferation of mobile smart devices has led to a rapid increase of location-based services, many of which are amassing large datasets of user trajectory information. Unfortunately, current trajectory information is not yet sufficiently rich to support classification of user transportation modes. In this paper, we propose a method that employs both the Global Positioning System and accelerometer data from smart devices to classify user outdoor transportation modes. The classified modes include walking, bicycling, and motorized transport, in addition to the motionless (stationary) state, for which we provide new depth analysis. In our classification, stationary mode has two sub-modes: stay (remaining in the same place for a prolonged time period; e.g., in a parked vehicle) and wait (remaining at a location for a short period; e.g., waiting at a red traffic light). These two sub-modes present different semantics for data mining applications. We use support vector machines with parameters that are optimized for pattern recognition. In addition, we employ ant colony optimization to reduce the dimension of features and analyze their relative importance. The resulting classification system achieves an accuracy rate of 96.31% when applied to a dataset obtained from 18 mobile users.

Description: For many years, ultrasound has provided clinicians with an affordable and effective imaging tool for applications ranging from cardiology to obstetrics. Development of microbubble contrast agents over the past several decades has enabled ultrasound to distinguish between blood flow and surrounding tissue. Current clinical practices using microbubble contrast agents rely heavily on user training to evaluate degree of localized perfusion. Advances in separating the signals produced from contrast agents versus surrounding tissue backscatter provide unique opportunities for specialized sensors designed to image microbubbles with higher signal to noise and resolution than previously possible. In this review article, we describe the background principles and recent developments of ultrasound transducer technology for receiving signals produced by contrast agents while rejecting signals arising from soft tissue. This approach relies on transmitting at a low-frequency and receiving microbubble harmonic signals at frequencies many times higher than the transmitted frequency. Design and fabrication of dual-frequency transducers and the extension of recent developments in transducer technology for dual-frequency harmonic imaging are discussed.

Description: Fluctuations of a Greenlandic tidewater glacier driven by changes in atmospheric forcing: observations and modelling of Kangiata Nunaata Sermia, 1859–present The Cryosphere, 8, 2031-2045, 2014 Author(s): J. M. Lea, D. W. F. Mair, F. M. Nick, B. R. Rea, D. van As, M. Morlighem, P. W. Nienow, and A. Weidick Many tidewater glaciers in Greenland are known to have undergone significant retreat during the last century following their Little Ice Age maxima. Where it is possible to reconstruct glacier change over this period, they provide excellent records for comparison to climate records, as well as calibration/validation for numerical models. These glacier change records therefore allow for tests of numerical models that seek to simulate tidewater glacier behaviour over multi-decadal to centennial timescales. Here we present a detailed record of behaviour from Kangiata Nunaata Sermia (KNS), SW Greenland, between 1859 and 2012, and compare it against available oceanographic and atmospheric temperature data between 1871 and 2012. We also use these records to evaluate the ability of a well-established one-dimensional flow-band model to replicate behaviour for the observation period. The record of terminus change demonstrates that KNS has advanced/retreated in phase with atmosphere and ocean climate anomalies averaged over multi-annual to decadal timescales. Results from an ensemble of model runs demonstrate that observed dynamics can be replicated. Model runs that provide a reasonable match to observations always require a significant atmospheric forcing component, but do not necessarily require an oceanic forcing component. Although the importance of oceanic forcing cannot be discounted, these results demonstrate that changes in atmospheric forcing are likely to be a primary driver of the terminus fluctuations of KNS from 1859 to 2012. We propose that the detail and length of the record presented makes KNS an ideal site for model validation exercises investigating links between climate, calving rates, and tidewater glacier dynamics.

Description: In this paper, a new low complexity and lossless image compression system for capsule endoscopy (CE) is presented. The compressor consists of a low-cost YEF color space converter and variable-length predictive with a combination of Golomb-Rice and unary encoding. All these components have been heavily optimized for low-power and low-cost and lossless in nature. As a result, the entire compression system does not incur any loss of image information. Unlike transform based algorithms, the compressor can be interfaced with commercial image sensors which send pixel data in raster-scan fashion that eliminates the need of having large buffer memory. The compression algorithm is capable to work with white light imaging (WLI) and narrow band imaging (NBI) with average compression ratio of 78% and 84% respectively. Finally, a complete capsule endoscopy system is developed on a single, low-power, 65-nm field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) chip. The prototype is developed using circular PCBs having a diameter of 16 mm. Several in-vivo and ex-vivo trials using pig's intestine have been conducted using the prototype to validate the performance of the proposed lossless compression algorithm. The results show that, compared with all other existing works, the proposed algorithm offers a solution to wireless capsule endoscopy with lossless and yet acceptable level of compression.

Description: A reflection fiber inclinometer is proposed and experimentally demonstrated based on two linearly polarized (LP) modes coupling. The configuration consists of a section of polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF) containing a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) splicing with single mode fiber (SMF). Bending the PMF in the upstream of FBG can induce an additional birefringence of PMF, which results in the intensity changes of two LP modes owing to orthogonal polarization coupling. The experimental results represent that the device shows different bending responses at the angle range from 0° to 40°and from 64° to 88°, respectively. Moreover, the temperature change just shifts the wavelengths of LP modes reflected and does not influence their intensities, which effectively avoid the temperature cross-sensitivity and make it a good candidate for measuring inclinometer and temperature simultaneously.

Description: Rapid, optical measurement of the atmospheric pressure on a fast research aircraft using open-path TDLAS Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 7, 3653-3666, 2014 Author(s): B. Buchholz, A. Afchine, and V. Ebert Because of the high travel speed, the complex flow dynamics around an aircraft, and the complex dependency of the fluid dynamics on numerous airborne parameters, it is quite difficult to obtain accurate pressure values at a specific instrument location of an aircraft's fuselage. Complex simulations using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models can in theory computationally "transfer" pressure values from one location to another. However, for long flight patterns, this process is inconvenient and cumbersome. Furthermore, these CFD transfer models require a local experimental validation, which is rarely available. In this paper, we describe an integrated approach for a spectroscopic, calibration-free, in-flight pressure determination in an open-path White cell on an aircraft fuselage using ambient, atmospheric water vapour as the "sensor species". The presented measurements are realised with the HAI (Hygrometer for Atmospheric Investigations) instrument, built for multiphase water detection via calibration-free TDLAS (tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy). The pressure determination is based on raw data used for H 2 O concentration measurement, but with a different post-flight evaluation method, and can therefore be conducted at deferred time intervals on any desired flight track. The spectroscopic pressure is compared in-flight with the static ambient pressure of the aircraft avionic system and a micro-mechanical pressure sensor, located next to the open-path cell, over a pressure range from 150 to 800 hPa, and a water vapour concentration range of more than 3 orders of magnitude. The correlation between the micro-mechanical pressure sensor measurements and the spectroscopic pressure measurements shows an average deviation from linearity of only 0.14% and a small offset of 9.5 hPa. For the spectroscopic pressure evaluation we derive measurement uncertainties under laboratory conditions of 3.2 and 5.1% during in-flight operation on the HALO airplane. Under certain flight conditions we quantified, for the first time, stalling-induced, dynamic pressure deviations of up to 30% (at 200 hPa) between the avionic sensor and the optical and mechanical pressure sensors integrated in HAI. Such severe local pressure deviations from the typically used avionic pressure are important to take into account for other airborne sensors employed on such fast flying platforms as the HALO aircraft.

Description: Long term measurements of optical properties and their hygroscopic enhancement Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, 14, 27731-27767, 2014 Author(s): M. Hervo, K. Sellegri, J. M. Pichon, J. C. Roger, and P. Laj Optical properties of aerosols were measured from the GAW Puy de Dôme station (1465 m) over a seven year period (2006–2012). The impact of hygroscopicity on aerosol optical properties was calculated over a two year period (2010–2011). The analysis of the spatial and temporal variability of the optical properties showed that while no long term trend was found, a clear seasonal and diurnal variation was observed on the extensive parameters (scattering, absorption). Scattering and absorption coefficients were highest during the warm season and daytime, in concordance with the seasonality and diurnal variation of the PBL height reaching the site. Intensive parameters (single scattering albedo, asymmetry factor, refractive index) did not show such a strong diurnal variability, but still indicated different values depending on the season. Both extensive and intensive optical parameters were sensitive to the air mass origin. A strong impact of hygroscopicity on aerosol optical properties was calculated, mainly on aerosol scattering, with a dependence on the aerosol type. At 90% humidity, the scattering factor enhancement ( f σ sca ) was more than 4.4 for oceanic aerosol that have mixed with a pollution plume. Consequently, the aerosol radiative forcing was estimated to be 2.8 times higher at RH = 90% and 1.75 times higher at ambient RH when hygroscopic growth of the aerosol was considered. The hygroscopicity enhancement factor of the scattering coefficient was parameterized as a function of humidity and air mass type.

Description: Fluxes of carbon and nutrients to the Iceland Sea surface layer and inferred primary productivity and stoichiometry Biogeosciences Discussions, 11, 15399-15433, 2014 Author(s): E. Jeansson, R. G. J. Bellerby, I. Skjelvan, H. Frigstad, S. R. Ólafsdóttir, and J. Ólafsson Fluxes of carbon and nutrients to the upper 100 m of the Iceland Sea are evaluated. The study utilises hydro-chemical data from the Iceland Sea time-series station (68.00° N, 12.67° W), for the years between 1993 and 2006. By comparing data of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and nutrients in the surface layer (upper 100 m), and a sub-surface layer (100–200 m), we calculate monthly deficits in the surface, and use these to deduce the surface layer fluxes that affect the deficits: vertical mixing, horizontal advection, air–sea exchange, and biological activity. The deficits show a clear seasonality with a minimum in winter, when the mixed layer is at the deepest, and a maximum in early autumn, when biological uptake has removed much of the nutrients. The annual vertical fluxes of DIC and nitrate amounts to 1.7 ± 0.3 and 0.23 ± 0.07 mol m −2 yr −1 , respectively, and the annual air–sea uptake of atmospheric CO 2 is 4.4 ± 1.1 mol m −2 yr −1 . The biologically driven changes in DIC during the year relates to net community production (NCP), and the net annual NCP corresponds to export production, and is here calculated to 6.1 ± 0.9 mol C m −2 yr −1 . The typical, median C : N ratio during the period of net community uptake is 11, and thus clearly higher than Redfield, but is varying during the season.