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  • American Association for the Advancement of Science  (3,367)
  • American Meteorological Society (AMS)
  • Periodicals Archive Online (PAO)
  • Annual Reviews
  • 1995-1999  (4,274)
  • 1980-1984
  • 1998  (4,274)
Collection
Publisher
Years
  • 1995-1999  (4,274)
  • 1980-1984
Year
  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    EUREKA! AND OTHER PLEASURES* (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 1-25 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: At first one is very pleased at being invited to write a Prefatory Chapter, but as the delivery deadline draws closer one begins to think, "Oh my God! What on earth can I say that all but family members and few close friends will not find a great bore?" One solution is to write a scientific essay, but I concluded that that was a cop-out. I decided that perhaps the best tack to follow was to try to convey to the reader the personal characteristics I bring to my science and to other aspects of my professional career. The writing of this chapter has certainly convinced me that my particular background influenced what problems I chose to work on and how I approached their solution, but I hope that my results have a more ecumenical significance. There's been much written recently about how one's cultural background affects one's science, but I think that thesis can also be exaggerated. Science is a method of inquiry that by using certain guidelines permits rational individuals to observe Nature in a way that their findings will agree and have permanence. We shouldn't be diffident about defending that claim of objectivity.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.1
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    CD40 AND CD154 IN CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 111-135 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract CD40-CD154-mediated contact-dependent signals between B and T cells are required for the generation of thymus dependent (TD) humoral immune responses. CD40-CD154 interactions are however also important in many other cell systems. CD40 is expressed by a large variety of cell types other than B cells, and these include dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. CD40- and CD154-knockout mice and antibodies to CD40 and CD154 have helped to elucidate the role of the CD40-CD154 system in immune responses. Recently published studies indicate that CD40-CD154 interactions can influence T cell priming and T cell-mediated effector functions; they can also upregulate costimulatory molecules and activate macrophages, NK cells, and endothelia as well as participate in organ-specific autoimmune disease, graft rejection, and even atherosclerosis. This review focuses on the role of the CD40-CD154 system in the regulation of many newly discovered functions important in inflammation and cell-mediated immunity.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.111
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
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    T CELL MEMORY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 201-223 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Immunological memory can be defined as the faster and stronger response of an animal that follows reexposure to the same antigen. By this definition, it is an operational property of the whole animal or the immune system. Memory cells express a different pattern of cell surface markers, and they respond in several ways that are functionally different from those of naive cells. Murine memory cells are CD44 high and low in the expression of activation markers such as CD25 (IL-2R), whereas human memory cells are CD45RA-, CD45RO+. In contrast to naive cells, memory cells secrete a full range of T cell cytokines and can be polarized to secrete particular restricted patterns of secretion for both CD4 and CD8 T cells. The requirements for the activation of memory cells for proliferation and cytokine production are not quite as strict as those of naive cells, but costimulation in the broad sense is required for optimum responses and for responses to suboptimum antigen concentrations. It would appear that memory cells can persist in the absence of antigenic stimulation and persist as nondividing cells. Reencounter with the same antigen can expand the population to a new, stable, higher level and generate a separate population of CD44 high effectors that may be required for protection, while competition from other antigens can drive it down to a lower stable level. It is unclear how or where memory cells arise, but once generated they have different pathways of recirculation and homing.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.201
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    NK CELL RECEPTORS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 359-393 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract NK cells are regulated by opposing signals from receptors that activate and inhibit effector function. While positive stimulation may be initiated by an array of co-stimulatory receptors, specificity is provided by inhibitory signals transduced by receptors for MHC class I. Three distinct receptor families, Ly49, CD94/NKG2, and KIR, are involved in NK cell recognition of polymorphic MHC class I molecules. A common pathway of inhibitory signaling is provided by ITIM sequences in the cytoplasmic domains of these otherwise structurally diverse receptors. Upon ligand binding and activation, the inhibitory NK cell receptors become tyrosine phosphorylated and recruit tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and possibly SHP-2, resulting in inhibition of NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity and cytokine expression. Recent studies suggest these inhibitory NK cell receptors are members of a larger superfamily containing ITIM sequences, the inhibitory receptor superfamily (IRS).
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.359
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
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    XENOGENEIC TRANSPLANTATION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 433-470 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract This review summarizes the clinical history and rationale for xenotransplantation; recent progress in understanding the physiologic, immunologic, and infectious obstacles to the procedure's success; and some of the strategies being pursued to overcome these obstacles. The problems of xenotransplantation are complex, and a combination of approaches is required. The earliest and most striking immunologic obstacle, that of hyperacute rejection, appears to be the closest to being solved. This phenomenon depends on the binding of natural antibody to the vascular endothelium, fixation of complement by that antibody, and finally, activation of the endothelium and initiation of coagulation. Therefore, these three pathways have been targeted as sites for intervention in the process. The mechanisms responsible for the next immunologic barrier, that of delayed xenograft/acute vascular rejection, remain to be fully elucidated. They probably also involve multiple pathways, including antibody and/or immune cell binding and endothelial cell activation. The final immunologic barrier, that of the cellular immune response, involves mechanisms that are similar to those involved in allograft rejection. However, the strength of the cellular immune response to xenografts is so great that it is unlikely to be controlled by the types of nonspecific immunosuppression used routinely to prevent allograft rejection. For this reason, it may be essential to induce specific immunologic unresponsiveness to at least some of the most antigenic xenogeneic molecules.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.433
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  • 6
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    THE ROLE OF COMPLEMENT AND COMPLEMENT RECEPTORS IN INDUCTION AND REGULATION OF IMMUNITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 545-568 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Covalent attachment of activated complement C3 (C3d) to antigen links innate and adaptive immunity by targeting antigen to follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and B cells via specific receptors CD21 and CD35. Recent characterization of knockout mice deficient in complement components C3, C4, or the receptors CD21 and CD35 as well as biochemical studies of the CD21/CD19/Tapa-1 coreceptor on B cells have helped to elucidate the mechanism of complement regulation of both B-1 and B-2 lymphocytes. Interestingly, natural antibody of the adaptive immune system provides a major recognition role in activation of the complement system, which in turn enhances activation of antigen-specific B cells. Enhancement of the primary and secondary immune response to T-dependent antigens is mediated by coligation of the coreceptor and the B cell antigen receptor, which dramatically increases follicular retention and B cell survival within the germinal center. Most recent evidence suggests that complement also regulates elimination of self-reactive B cells, as breeding of mice that are deficient in C4 or CD21/CD35 with the lupus-prone strain of lpr mice demonstrates an exacerbation of disease due to an increase in autoantibodies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.545
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  • 7
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    THE STEREOCHEMICAL MECHANISM OF THE COOPERATIVE EFFECTS IN HEMOGLOBIN REVISITED (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 1-34 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In 1970, Perutz tried to put the allosteric mechanism of hemoglobin, proposed by Monod, Wyman and Changeux in 1965, on a stereochemical basis. He interpreted their two-state model in terms of an equilibrium between two alternative structures, a tense one (T) with low oxygen affinity, constrained by salt-bridges between the C-termini of the four subunits, and a relaxed one (R) lacking these bridges. The equilibrium was thought to be governed primarily by the positions of the iron atoms relative to the porphyrin: out-of-plane in five-coordinated, high-spin deoxyhemoglobin, and in-plane in six-coordinated, low-spin oxyhemoglobin. The tension exercised by the salt-bridges in the T-structure was to be transmitted to the heme-linked histidines and to restrain the movement of the iron atoms into the porphyrin plane that is necessary for oxygen binding. At the beta-hemes, the distal valine and histidine block the oxygen-combining site in the T-structure; its tension was thought to strengthen that blockage. Finally, Perutz attributed the linearity of proton release with early oxygen uptake to the sequential rupture of salt-bridges in the T-structure and to the accompanying drop in pKa of the weak bases that form part of them. Almost every feature of this mechanism has been disputed, but evidence that has come to light more than 25 years later now shows it to have been substantially correct. That new evidence is reviewed below.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.1
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
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    MINOR GROOVE-BINDING ARCHITECTURAL PROTEINS: Structure, Function, and DNA Recognition1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 105-131 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract To date, high-resolution structures have been solved for five different architectural proteins complexed to their DNA target sites. These include TATA-box-binding protein, integration host factor (IHF), high mobility group I(Y)[HMG I(Y)], and the HMG-box-containing proteins SRY and LEF-1. Each of these proteins interacts with DNA exclusively through minor groove contacts and alters DNA conformation. This paper reviews the structural features of these complexes and the roles they play in facilitating assembly of higher-order protein-DNA complexes and discusses elements that contribute to sequence-specific recognition and conformational changes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.105
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  • 9
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    THE STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF PROTEIN PHOSPHATASES: Insights into Catalysis and Regulation (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 133-164 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Eukaryotic protein phosphatases are structurally and functionally diverse enzymes that are represented by three distinct gene families. Two of these, the PPP and PPM families, dephosphorylate phosphoserine and phosphothreonine residues, whereas the protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) dephosphorylate phosphotyrosine amino acids. A subfamily of the PTPs, the dual-specificity phosphatases, dephosphorylate all three phosphoamino acids. Within each family, the catalytic domains are highly conserved, with functional diversity endowed by regulatory domains and subunits. The protein Ser/Thr phosphatases are metalloenzymes and dephosphorylate their substrates in a single reaction step using a metal-activated nucleophilic water molecule. In contrast, the PTPs catalyze dephosphorylation by use of a cysteinyl-phosphate enzyme intermediate. The crystal structures of a number of protein phosphatases have been determined, enabling us to understand their catalytic mechanisms and the basis for substrate recognition and to begin to provide insights into molecular mechanisms of protein phosphatase regulation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.133
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  • 10
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    STRUCTURE, DYNAMICS, AND FUNCTION OF CHROMATIN IN VITRO (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 285-327 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The substrates for the essential biological processes of transcription, replication, recombination, DNA repair, and cell division are not naked DNA; rather, they are protein-DNA complexes known as chromatin, in one or another stage of a hierarchical series of compactions. These are exciting times for students of chromatin. New studies provide incontrovertible evidence linking chromatin structure to function. Exceptional progress has been made in studies of the structure of chromatin subunits. Surprising new dynamic properties have been discovered. And, much progress has been made in dissecting the functional roles of specific chromatin proteins and domains. This review focuses on in vitro studies of chromatin structure, dynamics, and function.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.285
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  • 11
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    INHIBITORS OF HIV-1 PROTEASE: A Major Success of Structure-Assisted Drug Design1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 249-284 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Retroviral protease (PR) from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was identified over a decade ago as a potential target for structure-based drug design. This effort was very successful. Four drugs are already approved, and others are undergoing clinical trials. The techniques utilized in this remarkable example of structure-assisted drug design included crystallography, NMR, computational studies, and advanced chemical synthesis. The development of these drugs is discussed in detail. Other approaches to designing HIV-1 PR inhibitors, based on the concepts of symmetry and on the replacement of a water molecule that had been found tetrahedrally coordinated between the enzyme and the inhibitors, are also discussed. The emergence of drug-induced mutations of HIV-1 PR leads to rapid loss of potency of the existing drugs and to the need to continue the development process. The structural basis of drug resistance and the ways of overcoming this phenomenon are mentioned.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.249
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  • 12
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    SPATIO-TEMPORAL RESOLUTION OF EXOCYTOSIS FROM INDIVIDUAL CELLS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 77-103 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Biophysical events involved in late stages of exocytosis occur at highly localized areas of cells on millisecond and submillisecond time scales. Thus, methodologies with high spatio-temporal resolution are required to achieve measurements at individual secretory cells. Much has been learned about the mechanisms and kinetics of vesicular release through analysis with the carbon fiber microelectrode techniques amperometry and cyclic voltammetry. Coupling of these techniques with other methods such as patch-clamp continues to reveal details of the secretion process. It is now clear that extrusion of the vesicular contents is a more complex process than previously believed. Vesicle-cell fusion, revealed by cell capacitance measurements, is temporally dissociated from secretion measured amperometrically. The stability imparted by interaction and association of vesicle contents at rest results in a rate-limiting extrusion process after full fusion. Furthermore, the presence of partial fusion events and the occurrence of nonquantized release have been revealed with electrochemical tools.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.77
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  • 13
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    RNA RECOGNITION BY RNP PROTEINS DURING RNA PROCESSING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 407-445 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The ribonucleoprotein (RNP) domain is one of the most common eukaryotic protein folds. Proteins containing RNP domains function in important steps of posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression by directing the assembly of multiprotein complexes on primary transcripts, mature mRNAs, and stable ribonucleoprotein components of the RNA processing machinery. The diverse functions performed by these proteins depend on their dual ability to recognize RNA and to interact with other proteins, often utilizing specialized auxiliary domains. Crystallographic and NMR structures of several RNP domains and a handful of structures of RNA-protein complexes have begun to reveal the molecular basis for RNP-RNA recognition.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.407
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  • 14
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    ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING OF THE BRAIN (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 447-474 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In this review we discuss various recent topics that characterize functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These topics include a brief description of MRI image acquisition, how to cope with noise or signal fluctuation, the basis of fMRI signal changes, and the relation of MRI signal to neuronal events. Several observations of fMRI that show good correlation to the neurofunction are referred to. Temporal characteristics of fMRI signals and examples of how the feature of real time measurement is utilized are then described. The question of spatial resolution of fMRI, which must be dictated by the vascular structure serving the functional system, is discussed based on various fMRI observations. Finally, the advantage of fMRI mapping is shown in a few examples. Reviewing the vast number of recent fMRI application that have now been reported is beyond the scope of this article.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.447
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  • 15
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    UBIQUITIN AND THE CONTROL OF PROTEIN FATE IN THE SECRETORY AND ENDOCYTIC PATHWAYS1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 19-57 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The modification of proteins by chains of ubiquitin has long been known to mediate targeting of cytosolic and nuclear proteins for degradation by proteasomes. In this article, we discuss recent developments that reveal the involvement of ubiquitin in the degradation of proteins retained within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the internalization of plasma membrane proteins. Both luminal and transmembrane proteins retained in the ER are now known to be retrotranslocated into the cytosol in a process that involves ER chaperones and components of the protein import machinery. Once exposed to the cytosolic milieu, retro-translocated proteins are degraded by the proteasome, in most cases following polyubiquitination. There is growing evidence that both the ubiquitin-conjugating machinery and proteasomes may be associated with the cytosolic face of the ER membrane and that they could be functionally coupled to the process of retro-translocation. The ubiquitination of plasma membrane proteins, on the other hand, mediates internalization of the proteins, which in most cases is followed by lysosomal/vacuolar degradation. There is, however, a well-documented case of a plasma membrane protein (the c-Met receptor) for which ubiquitination results in proteasomal degradation. These recent findings imply that ubiquitin plays more diverse roles in the regulation of the fate of cellular proteins than originally anticipated.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.19
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  • 16
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    FUNCTIONS OF LIPID RAFTS IN BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 111-136 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Recent studies showing that detergent-resistant membrane fragments can be isolated from cells suggest that biological membranes are not always in a liquid-crystalline phase. Instead, sphingolipid and cholesterol-rich membranes such as plasma membranes appear to exist, at least partially, in the liquid-ordered phase or a phase with similar properties. Sphingolipid and cholesterol-rich domains may exist as phase-separated "rafts" in the membrane. We discuss the relationship between detergent-resistant membranes, rafts, caveolae, and low-density plasma membrane fragments. We also discuss possible functions of lipid rafts in membranes. Signal transduction through the high-affinity receptor for IgE on basophils, and possibly through related receptors on other hematopoietic cells, appears to be enhanced by association with rafts. Raft association may also aid in signaling through proteins anchored by glycosylphosphatidylinositol, particularly in hematopoietic cells and neurons. Rafts may also function in sorting and trafficking through the secretory and endocytic pathways.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.111
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  • 17
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    TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL OF MUSCLE DEVELOPMENT BY MYOCYTE ENHANCER FACTOR-2 (MEF2) PROTEINS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 167-196 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Metazoans contain multiple types of muscle cells that share several common properties, including contractility, excitability, and expression of overlapping sets of muscle structural genes that mediate these functions. Recent biochemical and genetic studies have demonstrated that members of the myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF2) family of MADS (MCM1, agamous, deficiens, serum response factor)-box transcription factors play multiple roles in muscle cells to control myogenesis and morphogenesis. Like other MADS-box proteins, MEF2 proteins act combinatorially through protein-protein interactions with other transcription factors to control specific sets of target genes. Genetic studies in Drosophila have also begun to reveal the upstream elements of myogenic regulatory hierarchies that control MEF2 expression during development of skeletal, cardiac, and visceral muscle lineages. Paradoxically, MEF2 factors also regulate cell proliferation by functioning as endpoints for a variety of growth factor-regulated intracellular signaling pathways that are antagonistic to muscle differentiation. We discuss the diverse functions of this family of transcription factors, the ways in which they are regulated, and their mechanisms of action.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.167
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  • 18
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    CONTROL OF TRANSLATION INITIATION IN ANIMALS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 399-458 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Regulation of translation initiation is a central control point in animal cells. We review our current understanding of the mechanisms of regulation, drawing particularly on examples in which the biological consequences of the regulation are clear. Specific mRNAs can be controlled via sequences in their 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) and by alterations in the translation machinery. The 5'UTR sequence can determine which initiation pathway is used to bring the ribosome to the initiation codon, how efficiently initiation occurs, and which initiation site is selected. 5'UTR-mediated control can also be accomplished via sequence-specific mRNA-binding proteins. Sequences in the 3' untranslated region and the poly(A) tail can have dramatic effects on initiation frequency, with particularly profound effects in oogenesis and early development. The mechanism by which 3'UTRs and poly(A) regulate initiation may involve contacts between proteins bound to these regions and the basal translation apparatus. mRNA localization signals in the 3'UTR can also dramatically influence translational activation and repression. Modulations of the initiation machinery, including phosphorylation of initiation factors and their regulated association with other proteins, can regulate both specific mRNAs and overall translation rates and thereby affect cell growth and phenotype.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.399
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  • 19
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    CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF STAR-FORMING REGIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 317-368 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent advances in the understanding of the chemical processes that occur during all stages of the formation of stars, from the collapse of molecular clouds to the assemblage of icy planetesimals in protoplanetary accretion disks, are reviewed. Observational studies of the circumstellar material within 100-10,000 AU of the young star with (sub)millimeter single-dish telescopes, millimeter interferometers, and ground-based as well as space-borne infrared observatories have only become possible within the past few years. Results are compared with detailed chemical models that emphasize the coupling of gas-phase and grain-surface chemistry. Molecules that are particularly sensitive to different routes of formation and that may be useful in distinguishing between a variety of environments and histories are outlined. In the cold, low-density prestellar cores, radicals and long unsaturated carbon chains are enhanced. During the cold collapse phase, most species freeze out onto the grains in the high-density inner region. Once young stars ignite, their surroundings are heated through radiation and/or shocks, whereupon new chemical characteristics appear. Evaporation of ices drives a "hot core" chemistry rich in organic molecules, whereas shocks propagating through the dense envelope release both refractory and volatile grain material, resulting in prominent SiO, OH, and H2O emission. The role of future instrumentation in further developing these chemical and temporal diagnostics is discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.317
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  • 20
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    THE LEPTOTENE-ZYGOTENE TRANSITION OF MEIOSIS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 619-697 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The leptotene/zygotene transition of meiosis, as defined by classical cytological studies, is the period when homologous chromosomes, already being discernible individualized entities, begin to be close together or touching over portions of their lengths. This period also includes the bouquet stage: Chromosome ends, which have already become integral components of the inner nuclear membrane, move into a polarized configuration, along with other nuclear envelope components. Chromosome movements, active or passive, also occur. The detailed nature of interhomologue interactions during this period, with special emphasis on the involvement of chromosome ends, and the overall role for meiosis and recombination of chromosome movement and, especially, the bouquet stage are discussed.
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    SIGNALING TO THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 305-338 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The actin cytoskeleton is a highly dynamic network composed of actin polymers and a large variety of associated proteins. The main functions of the actin cytoskeleton are to mediate cell motility and cell shape changes during the cell cycle and in response to extracellular stimuli, to organize the cytoplasm, and to generate mechanical forces within the cell. The reshaping and functions of the actin cytoskeleton are regulated by signaling pathways. Here we broadly review the actin cytoskeleton and the signaling pathways that regulate it. We place heavy emphasis on the yeast actin cytoskeleton.
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    INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FROM THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM TO THE NUCLEUS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 459-485 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Cells respond to an accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by increasing transcription of genes encoding ER resident proteins. The information is transmitted from the ER lumen to the nucleus by an intracellular signaling pathway called the unfolded protein response (UPR). Recent work has shown that this signaling pathway utilizes several novel mechanisms, including translational attenuation and a regulated mRNA splicing step. In this review we aim to integrate these recent advances with current knowledge about maintenance of ER composition and abundance.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.459
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    ROAMING THROUGH ASTROPHYSICS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 1-16 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.1
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    THE LYMAN ALPHA FOREST IN THE SPECTRA OF QUASISTELLAR OBJECTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 267-316 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of redshifted Lyman alpha (Lyalpha) forest absorption in the spectra of quasistellar objects (QSOs) provide a highly sensitive probe of the distribution of gaseous matter in the universe. Over the past two decades, optical spectroscopy with large ground-based telescopes, and more recently ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy from space, have yielded a wealth of information on what appears to be a gaseous, photoionized intergalactic medium (IGM), partly enriched by the products of stellar nucleosynthesis, residing in coherent structures over many hundreds of kiloparsecs. Recent progress with cosmological hydro-simulations based on hierarchical structure formation models has led to important insights into the physical structures giving rise to the forest. If these ideas are correct, a truly inter- and protogalactic medium [at high redshift (z~ 3), the main repository of baryons] collapses under the influence of dark matter gravity into flattened or filamentary structures, which are seen in absorption against background QSOs. With decreasing redshift, galaxies forming in the denser regions may contribute an increasing part of the Lyalpha absorption cross section. Comparisons between large data samples from the new generation of telescopes and artificial Lyalpha forest spectra from cosmological simulations promise to become a useful cosmological tool.
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    ASTRONOMICAL SEARCHES FOR EARTH-LIKE PLANETS AND SIGNS OF LIFE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 507-537 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract If Earth-like planets orbit nearby stars, they could be detectable with specially designed telescopes. Direct observations would be very revealing, particularly low resolution infrared spectra, which could establish habitability on the basis of temperature and atmospheric water. Abundant, primitive life based on organized molecular structure might reveal itself, as on Earth, by an atmospheric composition modified in ways unlikely to be from inorganic processes. The technical challenge is to detect and obtain spectra of an object with Mbol~ 28 that is very close to a star and some 5 x 109 times less luminous. Indirect methods, used to detect Jupiter-mass planets, do not seem to offer an easy intermediate step to finding Earth-like planets. However, the direct detection techniques needed for spectroscopy also offer a viable method for discovery by imaging. Thermal infrared wavelengths, in which a planet emits most energy, are the most favorable. A robust search for planets of ~100 nearby solar-type stars, with spectroscopic follow-up of Earth-like candidates, could be made with an interferometer ~75 m in length. In visible light, the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) could, with the addition of a high resolution correction instrument, see Earth-like planets around a dozen or so of the nearest stars. Both infrared and optical instruments are possible within the range of current space agency plans.
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    SIMULATIONS OF STRUCTURE FORMATION IN THE UNIVERSE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 599-654 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Cosmic structure has formed as a result of gravitational amplification of primordial density fluctuations together with the action of other physical processes (adiabatic gas dynamics, radiative cooling, photoionization and recombination, radiative transfer). These complex nonlinear processes, acting over a wide range of length scales (from kiloparsecs to tens of megaparsecs), make this a difficult problem for computation. During the last two decades, significant progress has been made in developing numerical methods and statistical tools for analyzing simulations and data. Combined with observational advances, numerical simulations have led to the demise of several formerly popular models and to an improved understanding of galaxy clusters, quasistellar object (QSO) absorption line systems, and other phenomena. This review summarizes these advances.
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    STAR FORMATION IN GALAXIES ALONG THE HUBBLE SEQUENCE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 189-231 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of star formation rates (SFRs) in galaxies provide vital clues to the physical nature of the Hubble sequence and are key probes of the evolutionary histories of galaxies. The focus of this review is on the broad patterns in the star formation properties of galaxies along the Hubble sequence and their implications for understanding galaxy evolution and the physical processes that drive the evolution. Star formation in the disks and nuclear regions of galaxies are reviewed separately, then discussed within a common interpretive framework. The diagnostic methods used to measure SFRs are also reviewed, and a self-consistent set of SFR calibrations is presented as an aid to workers in the field.
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    HERBIG Ae/Be STARS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 233-266 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the wide range of observed properties of Herbig Ae/Be stars and try to combine this rich data set into a consistent picture of their circumstellar environment and evolutionary status. We discuss in some detail the geometry of the circumstellar environment. The presence of disks in Herbig Ae/Be stars is inferred from direct and indirect observational evidence. Envelopes can dominate the spectral energy distributions on large angular scales. In some stars, a fairly massive disk persists until the star has reached the main sequence. The evidence for an evolutionary link between isolated Herbig Ae/Be stars and beta Pictoris is summarized.
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    THE GENETICS OF BREAST CANCER SUSCEPTIBILITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 95-121 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Following the genomic localization and subsequent identification of the breast cancer susceptibility genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, the basic patterns of cancer risk associated with mutations in these genes have been defined. In addition, preliminary insights into the prevalence of mutations and their contributions to cancer incidence have been acquired. Features of breast and other cancers that develop in these genetic syndromes have now been investigated and shown to differ from sporadic versions of the same neoplasms. However, several areas are complex and require further clarification. There remain discrepancies between published cancer risk estimates. Furthermore, there may be variation in cancer risk between different mutations in the same gene and there is preliminary evidence that genetic and nongenetic influences may modify risks. Finally, it is probable that the genes underlying a substantial component of susceptibility to breast cancer remain to be identified.
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    THE ETHYLENE GAS SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY: A Molecular Perspective (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 227-254 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The gaseous hormone ethylene induces diverse effects in plants throughout their life cycle. Ethylene response is regulated at multiple levels, from hormone synthesis and perception to signal transduction and transcriptional regulation. As more genes in the ethylene response pathway are cloned and characterized, they illustrate the precision with which signaling can be controlled. Wounding, pathogenic attack, flooding, fruit ripening, development, senescence, and ethylene treatment itself induce ethylene production. Ethylene binding to receptors with homology to two-component regulators triggers a kinase cascade that is propagated through the CTR1 Raf-like kinase and other components to the nucleus. Activation of the EIN3 family of nuclear proteins leads to induction of the relevant ethyleneresponsive genes via other transcription factors, eliciting a response appropriate to the original stimulus.
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    THE DIVERSE AND DYNAMIC STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL GENOMES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 339-377 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Bacterial genome sizes, which range from 500 to 10,000 kbp, are within the current scope of operation of large-scale nucleotide sequence determination facilities. To date, 8 complete bacterial genomes have been sequenced, and at least 40 more will be completed in the near future. Such projects give wonderfully detailed information concerning the structure of the organism's genes and the overall organization of the sequenced genomes. It will be very important to put this incredible wealth of detail into a larger biological picture: How does this information apply to the genomes of related genera, related species, or even other individuals from the same species? Recent advances in pulsed-field gel electrophoretic technology have facilitated the construction of complete and accurate physical maps of bacterial chromosomes, and the many maps constructed in the past decade have revealed unexpected and substantial differences in genome size and organization even among closely related bacteria. This review focuses on this recently appreciated plasticity in structure of bacterial genomes, and diversity in genome size, replicon geometry, and chromosome number are discussed at inter- and intraspecies levels.
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    KINETOCHORES AND THE CHECKPOINT MECHANISM THAT MONITORS FOR DEFECTS IN THE CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION MACHINERY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 307-337 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Whether we consider the division of the simplest unicellular organisms into two daughter cells or the generation of haploid gametes by the most complex eukaryotes, no two processes secure the continuance of life more than the proper replication and segregation of the genetic material. The cell cycle, marked in part by the periodic rise and fall of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activities, is the means by which these two processes are separated. DNA damage and mistakes in chromosome segregation are costly, so nature has further devised elaborate checkpoint mechanisms that halt cell cycle progression, allowing time for repairs or corrections. In this article, we review the mitotic checkpoint mechanism that responds to defects in the chromosome segregation machinery and arrests cells in mitosis prior to anaphase onset. At opposite ends of this pathway are the kinetochore, where many checkpoint proteins reside, and the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), the metaphase-to-interphase transition regulator. Throughout this review we focus on budding yeast but reference parallel processes found in other organisms.
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    EVOLUTION AND MECHANISM OF TRANSLATION IN CHLOROPLASTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 437-459 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The entire sequence (120 ~ 190 kb) of chloroplast genomes has been determined from a dozen plant species. The genome contains from 87 to 183 known genes, of which half encode components involved in translation. These include a complete set of rRNAs and about 30 tRNAs, which are likely to be sufficient to support translation in chloroplasts. RNA editing (mostly C to U base changes) occurs in some chloroplast transcripts, creating start and stop codons and changing codons to retain conserved amino acids. Many components that constitute the chloroplast translational machinery are similar to those of Escherichia coli, whereas only one third of the chloroplast mRNAs contain Shine-Dalgarno-like sequences at the correct positions. Analyses conducted in vivo and in vitro have revealed the existence of multiple mechanisms for translational initiation in chloroplasts.
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    SYSTEMIN: A Polypeptide Signal for Plant Defensive Genes (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 1-17 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Damage to leaves of several plant species by herbivores or by other mechanical wounding induces defense gene activation throughout the plants within hours. An 18-amino acid polypeptide, called systemin, has been isolated from tomato leaves that is a powerful inducer of over 15 defensive genes when supplied to the tomato plants at levels of fmol/plant. Systemin is readily transported from wound sites and is considered to be the primary systemic signal. The polypeptide is processed from a 200-amino acid precursor called prosystemin, analogous to polypeptide hormones in animals. However, the plant prohormone does not possess typical dibasic cleavage sites, nor does it contain a signal sequence or any typical membrane-spanning regions. The signal transduction pathway that mediates systemin signaling involves linolenic acid release from membranes and subsequent conversion to jasmonic acid, a potent activator of defense gene transcription. The pathway exhibits analogies to arachidonic acid/prostaglandin signaling in animals that leads to inflammatory and acute phase responses.
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    INTRACELLULAR PATHOGENS AND THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 137-166 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Many pathogens actively exploit the actin cytoskeleton during infection. This exploitation may take place during entry into mammalian cells after engagement of a receptor and/or as series of signaling events culminating in the engulfment of the microorganism. Although actin rearrangements are a common feature of most internalization events (e.g. entry of Listeria, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Neisseria, and Bartonella), bacterial and other cellular factors involved in entry are specific to each bacterium. Another step during which pathogens harness the actin cytoskeleton takes place in the cytosol, within which some bacteria (Listeria, Shigella, Rickettsia) or viruses (vaccinia virus) are able to move. Movement is coupled to a polarized actin polymerization process, with the formation of characteristic actin tails. Increasing attention has focused on this phenomenon due to its striking similarity to cellular events occurring at the leading edge of locomoting cells. Thus pathogens are convenient systems in which to study actin cytoskeleton rearrangements in response to stimuli at the plasma membrane or inside cells.
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    PHOSPHOINOSITIDE LIPIDS AS SIGNALING MOLECULES: Common Themes for Signal Transduction, Cytoskeletal Regulation, and Membrane Trafficking (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 231-264 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Signaling roles for phosphoinositides that involve their regulated hydrolysis to generate second messengers have been well characterized. Recent work has revealed additional signaling roles for phosphoinositides that do not involve their hydrolysis. PtdIns 3-P, PtdIns 3,4,5-P3, and PtdIns 4,5-P2 function as site-specific signals on membranes that recruit and/or activate proteins for the assembly of spatially localized functional complexes. A large number of phosphoinositide-binding proteins have been identified as the potential effectors for phosphoinositide signals. Common themes of localized signal generation and the spatially localized recruitment of effector proteins appear to underlie mechanisms employed in signal transduction, cytoskeletal, and membrane trafficking events.
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    ISOFORM SORTING AND THE CREATION OF INTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 339-372 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The generation of isoforms via gene duplication and alternative splicing has been a valuable evolutionary tool for the creation of biological diversity. In addition to the formation of molecules with related but different functional characteristics, it is now apparent that isoforms can be segregated into different intracellular sites within the same cell. Sorting has been observed in a wide range of genes, including those encoding structural molecules, receptors, channels, enzymes, and signaling molecules. This results in the creation of intracellular compartments that (a) can be independently controlled and (b) have different functional properties. The sorting mechanisms are likely to operate at the level of both proteins and mRNAs. Isoform sorting may be an important consequence of the evolution of isoforms and is likely to have contributed to the diversity of functional properties within groups of isoforms.
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    DEFINING ACTIN FILAMENT LENGTH IN STRIATED MUSCLE: Rulers and Caps or Dynamic Stability? (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 487-525 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Actin filaments (thin filaments) are polymerized to strikingly uniform lengths in striated muscle sarcomeres. Yet, actin monomers can exchange dynamically into thin filaments in vivo, indicating that actin monomer association and dissociation at filament ends must be highly regulated to maintain the uniformity of filament lengths. We propose several hypothetical mechanisms that could generate uniform actin filament length distributions and discuss their application to the determination of thin filament length in vivo. At the Z line, titin may determine the minimum extent and tropomyosin the maximum extent of thin filament overlap by regulating alpha-actinin binding to actin, while a unique Z filament may bind to capZ and regulate barbed end capping. For the free portion of the thin filament, we evaluate possibilities that thin filament components (e.g. nebulin or the tropomyosin/troponin polymer) determine thin filament lengths by binding directly to tropomodulin and regulating pointed end capping, or alternatively, that myosin thick filaments, together with titin, determine filament length by indirectly regulating tropomodulin's capping activity.
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    TYPE Ia SUPERNOVAE AND THE HUBBLE CONSTANT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 17-55 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The focus of this review is the work that has been done during the 1990s on using Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) to measure the Hubble constant (H0). SNe Ia are well suited for measuring H0. A straightforward maximum-light color criterion can weed out the minority of observed events that are either intrinsically subluminous or substantially extinguished by dust, leaving a majority subsample that has observational absolute-magnitude dispersions of less than sigmaobs (MB) =sigmaobs (MV) = 0.3 mag. Correlations between absolute magnitude and one or more distance-independent SN Ia or parent-galaxy observables can be used to further standardize the absolute magnitudes to better than 0.2 mag. The absolute magnitudes can be calibrated in two independent ways: empirically, using Cepheid-based distances to parent galaxies of SNe Ia, and physically, by light curve and spectrum fitting. At present the empirical and physical calibrations are in agreement at MB=MV=-19.4 or -19.5. Various ways that have been used to match Cepheid-calibrated SNe Ia or physical models to SNe Ia that have been observed out in the Hubble flow have given values of H0 distributed throughout the range of 54-67 km s-1 Mpc-1. Astronomers who want a consensus value of H0 from SNe Ia with conservative errors could, for now, use 60 +- 10 km s-1 Mpc-1.
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    DETECTION OF EXTRASOLAR GIANT PLANETS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 57-97 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Eight extrasolar planet candidates have now been identified, all revealed by Keplerian Doppler shifts in their host stars. The masses (m sin i) lie between 0.5 and 7 MJUP, and the semimajor axes are less than 2.1 astronomical units (AU). Doppler detectability favors high masses and small orbits, and improvements will render Saturn masses detectable within a few years. The substellar mass function (dN/dM) for companions is roughly flat from 70 down to 10 MJUP, but it exhibits a sharp increase for masses below 5 MJUP. For three of these companions (47 UMa, rho Crb, and 55 Cnc), their circular orbits must be primordial (not tidally induced), indicating formation in a disk, as presumed for Solar System planets. Eccentric orbits may be explained by gravitational perturbations, either by companion stars, other planets, or disk resonances. The detections imply that ~6% of solar-type stars have giant planets within 2 AU. The small orbits (a〈 2 AU) imply that the planets formed either in situ, without the benefit of ice grains, or suffered inward migration. Orbital decay within 1 Myr in disks appears inevitable and may shape the planet mass distribution. The observed stability of spectral line shapes suggests that nonradial stellar oscillations do not affect the planet detections.
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    FIRST RESULTS FROM HIPPARCOS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 99-129 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract After recalling the principle of the Hipparcos mission and of the data reduction, the main statistical features of the final Hipparcos and Tycho catalogues are presented. The results, characterized by accuracies in annual proper motions and parallaxes of the order of one milliarcsecond have been already widely used for astrophysical investigations described in this review. In the field of galactic kinematics, new results were obtained in the analysis of the motions of nearby stars, the evolution of OB associations, and the modeling of the Gould Belt. An important result is that, on average, stars are farther apart than previously thought. Among the consequences is a reconciliation between the ages of the Universe and globular clusters. In particular, the evolutionary sequences of metal-poor stars need to be reassessed. The HR diagram is now extended to the giant horizontal branch and A stars in the main sequence. The Hyades are seen for the first time in three dimensions, allowing a detailed description of their dynamics. Some unexplained inconsistencies between the HR diagrams of open clusters were found. Other results in galactic dynamics, open clusters, variable stars, unseen companions of stars, and the post-Newtonian parameters gamma are also presented.
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    RADIO EMISSION FROM SOLAR FLARES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 131-188 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Radio emission from solar flares offers a number of unique diagnostic tools to address long-standing questions about energy release, plasma heating, particle acceleration, and particle transport in magnetized plasmas. At millimeter and centimeter wavelengths, incoherent gyrosynchrotron emission from electrons with energies of tens of kilo electron volts to several mega electron volts plays a dominant role. These electrons carry a significant fraction of the energy released during the impulsive phase of flares. At decimeter and meter wavelengths, coherent plasma radiation can play a dominant role. Particularly important are type III and type III-like radio bursts, which are due to upward- and downward-directed beams of nonthermal electrons, presumed to originate in the energy release site. With the launch of Yohkoh and the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, the relationship between radio emission and energetic photon emissions has been clarified. In this review, recent progress on our Dunderstanding of radio emission from impulsive flares and its relation to X-ray emission is discussed, as well as energy release in flare-like phenomena (microflares, nanoflares) and their bearing on coronal heating.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.131
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    THE ROLE OF THE FHIT/FRA3B LOCUS IN CANCER (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 7-31 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Common fragile sites form gaps at characteristic chromosome bands in metaphases from normal cells after aphidicolin induction. The distribution of common fragile sites parallels the positions of neoplasia-associated chromosomal rearrangements, prompting the proposal that fragility disposes to chromosomal rearrangements. Implicit in this hypothesis is that genes at fragile sites are altered by chromosome rearrangement and thus contribute to neoplastic growth. Chromosome band 3p14.2, encompassing the most inducible common fragile region, FRA3B, has been cloned and the FHIT gene, straddling FRA3B, characterized. The gene is inactivated by deletions in cancer-derived cell lines and primary tumors and Fhit protein is absent or reduced in lung, stomach, kidney, and cervical carcinomas, consistent with function as a tumor suppressor. FRA3B thus fulfills the prophecy that fragile site alterations contribute to the neoplastic process through inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene.
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    NONSEGMENTED NEGATIVE-STRAND RNA VIRUSES: Genetics and Manipulation of Viral Genomes (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 123-162 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Protocols to recover negative-strand RNA viruses entirely from cDNA have been established in recent years, opening up this virus group to the detailed analysis of molecular genetics and virus biology. The unique gene-expression strategy of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses, which involves replication of ribonucleoprotein complexes and sequential synthesis of free mRNAs, has also allowed the use of these viruses to express heterologous sequences. There are advantages in terms of easy manipulation of constructs, high capacity for foreign sequences, genetically stable expression, and the possibility of adjusting expression levels. Fascinating prospects for biomedical applications and transient gene therapy are offered by chimeric virus vectors carrying novel envelope protein genes and targeted to defined host cells.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.123
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    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF BACTERIOCIN EVOLUTION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 255-278 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Microorganisms are engaged in a never-ending arms race. One consequence of this intense competition is the diversity of antimicrobial compounds that most species of bacteria produce. Surprisingly, little attention has been paid to the evolution of such extraordinary diversity. One class of antimicrobials, the bacteriocins, has received increasing attention because of the high levels of bacteriocin diversity observed and the use of bacteriocins as preservatives in the food industry and as antibiotics in the human health industry. However, little effort has been focused on evolutionary questions, such as what are the phylogenetic relationships among these toxins, what mechanisms are involved in their evolution, and how do microorganisms respond to such an arsenal of weapons? The focus of this review is to provide a detailed picture of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the process of bacteriocin diversification.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.255
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    RECOMBINATION AND RECOMBINATION-DEPENDENT DNA REPLICATION IN BACTERIOPHAGE T4 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 379-413 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract General recombination is essential for growth of phage T4, because origin initiation of DNA replication is inactivated during development, and recombination-dependent initiation is necessary for continuing DNA replication. The requirement of recombination for T4 growth has apparently been a driving force to acquire and maintain multiple recombination mechanisms. This requirement makes this phage an excellent model to analyze several recombination mechanisms that appear redundant under optimal growth conditions but become essential under other conditions, or at different stages of the developmental program. The most important substrate for wild-type T4 recombination is single-stranded DNA generated by incomplete replication of natural or artificial chromosomal ends, or by nucleolytic degradation from induced breaks, or nicks. Recombination circumvents the further erosion of such ends. There are multiple proteins and multiple pathways to initiate formation of recombinants (by single-strand annealing or by strand invasion) and to convert recombinational intermediates into final recombinants ("cut and paste" or "cut and package"), or to initiate extensive DNA replication by "join-copy" or "join-cut-copy" mechanisms. Most T4 recombination is asymmetrical, favoring the initiation of replication. In wild-type T4 these pathways are integrated with physiological changes of other DNA transactions: mainly replication, transcription, and packaging. DNA replication and packaging enzymes participate in recombination, and recombination intermediates supply substrates for replication and packaging. The replicative recombination pathways are also important for transmission of intron DNA to intronless genomes ("homing"), and are implicated in horizontal transfer of foreign genes during evolution of the T-even phages. When horizontal transfer involves heteroduplex formation and repair, it is intrinsically mutagenic and contributes to generation of species barriers between phages.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.379
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    ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE: Genetic Studies and Transgenic Models (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 461-493 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Recent advances in a variety of areas of research, particularly in genetics and in transgenic (Tg)/gene targeting approaches, have had a substantial impact on our understanding of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related disorders. After briefly reviewing the progress that has been made in diagnostic assessments of patients with senile dementia and in investigations of the neuropathology of AD, we discuss some of the genes/proteins that are causative or risk factors for this disease, including those encoding amyloid precursor protein, presenilin 1 and 2, and apolipoprotein E. In addition, we comment on several potential new candidate loci/genes. Subsequently, we review selected recent reports of analyses of a variety of lines of Tg mice that show several neuropathological features of AD, including Abeta-amyloid deposits and dystrophic neurites. Finally, we discuss the several important issues in future investigations of Tg mice, with particular emphasis on the influences of genetic strains on phenotype, especially behavior, and strategies for making new models of neurodegenerative disorders. We believe that investigations of these Tg models will (a) enhance understanding of the relationships between impaired performance on memory tasks and the pathological/biochemical abnormalities in brain, (b) help to clarify pathogenic mechanisms in vivo, (c) lead to identification of new therapeutic targets, and (d) allow testing of new treatment strategies first in mice and then, if successful, in humans with AD.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.461
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    THE CRITICAL ROLE OF CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATIONS IN HUMAN LEUKEMIAS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 495-519 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Many chromosome abnormalities, especially translocations or inversions, are closely associated with a particular morphologic or phenotypic subtype of leukemia, lymphoma, or sarcoma. Cloning the genes at the breakpoints of these rearrangements has had a major impact on our understanding of the molecular biology of cancer. One such gene is MLL (myeloid-lymphoid or mixed lineage leukemia) located at chromosome band 11q23. The target gene(s) of MLL is unknown at present, but because of its homology to the trithorax gene in Drosophila as well as experimental data from mice, it appears to be involved in maintaining the function of some of the homeobox genes. Most genes involved in translocations have homologs in other organisms. Comparison of the functions of these genes in human cells with their function in other systems has enriched our understanding of their role in cell biology.
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    GENETIC COUNSELING: Clinical and Ethical Challenges1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 547-559 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract After explaining the origin, nature, and goals of genetic counseling, we consider the impact of the Human Genome Project on its practice. In light of the availability of presymptomatic tests for late-onset disorders and the possibility of preventive behavior or treatment, we examine the apparent conflict between nondirectiveness and directiveness in genetic counseling. We discuss views of genetic counselors, medical geneticists, and counselees on specific issues, and document gender differences in attitudes toward genetic ties to offspring. Because genetic discrimination and unequal access to genetic services are likely to increase with advances in genetics, we conclude that efforts of genetic counselors to adhere to the principle of justice or equity in their practice cannot be successful without governmental and public support, as well as support from researchers and colleagues in health care.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.547
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    EPITOPE TAGGING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 601-618 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Epitope tagging is a recombinant DNA method by which a protein encoded by a cloned gene is made immunoreactive to a known antibody. This review discusses the major advantages and limitations of epitope tagging and describes a number of recent applications. Major areas of application include monitoring protein expression, localizing proteins at the cellular and subcellular levels, and protein purification, as well as the analysis of protein topology, dynamics and interactions. Recently the method has also found use in transgenic and gene therapy studies and in the emerging fields of functional genomics and proteomics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.601
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    ALTERNATIVE SPLICING OF PRE-mRNA: Developmental Consequences and Mechanisms of Regulation (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 279-305 
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    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Alternative splicing of pre-mRNAs is a powerful and versatile regulatory mechanism that can effect quantitative control of gene expression and functional diversification of proteins. It contributes to major developmental decisions and also to fine tuning of gene function. Genetic and biochemical approaches have identified cis-acting regulatory elements and trans-acting factors that control alternative splicing of specific pre-mRNAs. Both approaches are contributing to an understanding of their mode of action. Some alternative splicing decisions are controlled by specific factors whose expression is highly restricted during development, but others may be controlled by more modest variations in the levels of general factors acting cooperatively or antagonistically. Certain factors play active roles in both constitutive splicing and regulation of alternative splicing. Cooperative and antagonistic effects integrated at regulatory elements are likely to be important for specificity and for finely tuned differences in cell-type-specific alternative splicing patterns.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.279
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    AQUAPORIN-2 AND -3: Representatives of Two Subgroups of the Aquaporin Family Colocalized in the Kidney Collecting Duct (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 199-220 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Since the molecular identification of the first aquaporin in 1992, the number of proteins known to belong to this family has been rapidly increasing. These members may be separated into two subgroups based on gene structure, sequence homology, and function. Regulation of the water permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney is essential for urinary concentration. Aquaporin-2 and -3, which are representative of these subgroups, are colocalized in the collecting ducts. Understanding these subgroups will elucidate the differences between aquaporin-2 and -3. Aquaporin-2 is a vasopressin-regulated water channel located in the apical membrane, and aquaporin-3 is a constitutive water channel located in the basolateral membrane. In contrast to aquaporin-3, which appears to be less well regulated, many studies have now identified multiple regulational mechanisms at the gene, protein, and cell levels for aquaporin-2, thus reflecting its physiological importance. Evidence of the participation of aquaporin-2 in the pathophysiology of water-balance disorders is accumulating.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.199
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    ROLE OF TIGHT JUNCTIONS IN ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING CELL POLARITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 161-177 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The tight junction (TJ) is not randomly located on the cell membrane, but occupies a precise position at the outermost edge of the intercellular space and, therefore, is itself considered a polarized structure. This article reviews the most common experimental approaches for studying this relationship. We then discuss three main topics. (a) The mechanisms of polarization that operate regardless of the presence of TJs: We explore a variety of polarization mechanisms that operate at stages of the cell cycle in which TJs may be already established. (b) TJs and polarity as partners in highly dynamic processes: Polarity and TJs are steady state situations that may be drastically changed by a variety of signaling events. (c) Polarized distribution of membrane molecules that depend on TJs: This refers to molecules (mainly lipids) whose polarized distribution, although not the direct result of TJs, depends on these structures to maintain such distribution.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.161
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    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF PROSTAGLANDIN TRANSPORT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 221-242 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Despite the fact that prostaglandins (PGs) have low intrinsic permeabilities across the plasma membrane, they must cross it twice: first upon release from the cytosol into the blood, and again upon cellular uptake prior to oxidation. Until recently, there were no cloned carriers that transported PGs. PGT is a broadly-expressed, 12-membrane-spanning domain integral membrane protein. When heterologously expressed in HeLa cells or Xenopus oocytes, it catalyzes the rapid, specific, and high-affinity uptake of PGE2, PGF2alpha, PGD2, 8-iso-PGF2alpha, and thromboxane B2. Functional studies indicate that PGT transports its substrate as the charged anion. The PGT substrate specificity and inhibitor profile match remarkably well with earlier in situ studies on the metabolic clearance of PGs by rat lung. Because PGT expression is especially high in this tissue, it is likely that PGT mediates the membrane step in PG clearance by the pulmonary circulation. Evidence is presented that PGT may play additional roles in other tissues and that there may be additional PG transporters yet to be identified molecularly.
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    FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF ORGANIC SOLUTE CHANNELS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 719-739 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Membrane channels provide routes for the rapid, passive movement of solutes across plasma and intracellular membranes. It is generally assumed that the major physiological role of membrane channels is to transport inorganic ions for processes such as transepithelial salt absorption and secretion, cell volume regulation, signal transduction, and control of membrane electrical properties. Increasing evidence indicates, however, that channels play an important role in organic solute transport in a wide variety of cell types and organisms. Some of the major physiological roles of organic solute channels include uptake of nutrients, excretion of metabolic waste products, volume-regulatory organic osmolyte transport, and control of mitochondrial metabolism. This article reviews the functions and characteristics of channels that participate in the transport and regulation of both charged and electroneutral organic solutes.
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    MISSION ARCHAEOLOGY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 25-62 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract "Mission archaeology" is a novel conjunction of terms devised to focus attention on an archaeology of mission sites, and thereby on the light that can be shed on the process of the Christianization of the Americas by examining the material culture of missions. Discussion centers on a summary of mission research in the Spanish-occupied territories of North America and Mayan Mesoamerica. I then draw conclusions from these data, and from anthropological and historical analyses of mission encounters, to suggest where mission studies should be headed and the role that archaeology can play in expanding our knowledge of the mission transformation.
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    WITTGENSTEIN AND ANTHROPOLOGY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 171-195 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This essay explores the theme of Wittgenstein as a philosopher of culture. The primary text on which the essay is based is Philosophical Investigations; it treats Stanley Cavell's work as a major guide for the understanding and reception of Wittgenstein into anthropology. Some Wittgensteinian themes explored in the essay are the idea of culture as capability, horizontal and vertical limits to forms of life, concepts of everyday life in the face of skepticism, and the complexity of the inner in relation to questions of belief and pain. While an attempt has been made to relate these ideas to ethnographic descriptions, the emphasis in this essay is on the question of how anthropology may receive Wittgenstein.
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    LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND ENVIRONMENT: My Early Years (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. xiii 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: In this brief account of my childhood introduction to anthropology and the subsequent ways I began acquiring a more intimate and analytical understanding of languages, cultures, societies, and impinging relevant surroundings, I acknowledge my indebtedness to the people and institutions that have facilitated this enduring process and note how informal influences and associations-some from nonanthropological domains-may be of invaluable assistance to the field-oriented ethnologist. First educated in public schools on eastern Long Island, I went for my undergraduate and graduate work to Berkeley and Yale, respectively. Since then, I have been on the anthropology faculties at Columbia (1954-1962) and Yale (1962 to the present). Since World War II, my principal ethnographic, linguistic, and ecological field sites have been on Mindoro (Hanunoo) and Luzon (Ifugao), in the Philippines.
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    MULTIPLE MODERNITIES: Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism in a Globalizing Age (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 83-104 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The late twentieth century has seen far-reaching changes in the translocal cultural regimes known as world religions. This review examines the politics and meanings of recent changes in three such religions: Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. It highlights the nature of the forces reshaping religious meanings and authority, the processes promoting conversion and standardization, and the implications of these religious refigurations for our understanding of late modernity itself. Though modernity is multiple and every tradition unique, this review suggests that all contemporary religions confront a similar structural predicament, related to the globalization of mass societies and the porous pluralism of late modernity.
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    MODELING THE GENETIC ARCHITECTURE OF MODERN POPULATIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 153-169 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This article summarizes recent genetic evidence about the population history of our species. There is a congruence of evidence from different systems showing that the genetic effective size of humans is about 10,000 reproducing adults. We discuss how the magnitude and fluctuation of this number over time is important for evaluating competing hypotheses about the nature of human evolution during the Pleistocene. The differences in estimates of effective size derived from high mutation rate and low mutation rate genetic systems allow us to trace broad-scale changes in population size. The ultimate goal is to produce a comprehensive history of our own gene pool and its spread and differentiation over the world. The genetic evidence should also complement archaeological evidence of our past by revealing aspects of our history that are not readily visible from the archaeological record, such as whether hominid populations in the Pleistocene were different species.
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    EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES: The Third Epidemiologic Transition (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 247-271 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract We use an expanded framework of multiple epidemiologic transitions to review the issues of re/emerging infection. The first epidemiologic transition was associated with a rise in infectious diseases that accompanied the Neolithic Revolution. The second epidemiologic transition involved the shift from infectious to chronic disease mortality associated with industrialization. The recent resurgence of infectious disease mortality marks a third epidemiologic transition characterized by newly emerging, re- emerging, and antibiotic resistant pathogens in the context of an accelerated globalization of human disease ecologies. These transitions illustrate recurring sociohistorical and ecological themes in human-disease relationships from the Paleolithic Age to the present day.
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    CULTURE IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES? (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 301-328 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Cultural primatology is hypothesized on the basis of social learning of group-specific behavior by nonhuman primates, especially in nature. Scholars ask different questions in testing this idea: what? (anthropologists), how? (psychologists), and why? (zoologists). Most evidence comes from five genera: Cebus (capuchin monkeys), Macaca (macaque monkeys), Gorilla (gorilla), Pongo (orangutan), and Pan (chimpanzees). Two species especially, Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), show innovation, dissemination, standardization, durability, diffusion, and tradition in both subsistence and nonsubsistence activities, as revealed by decades of longitudinal study.
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    COMING TO TERMS WITH HUMAN VARIATION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 273-300 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Genetics has become the major tool of the life sciences. This is driven partly by technology, and partly by the belief that genes are the ultimate units of biomedical or evolutionary information. The search for variation associated with disease has motivated the Human Genome Project to construct a detailed road map of the entire set of human genetic material, and some additional form of globally representative human genome diversity resource has been proposed for the anthropological purposes of reconstructing human population history. Any such resource raises complex societal and ethical issues as well as scientific ones. However, the amount and complexity of genetic variation has frustrated hopes for simple genetic answers to important biomedical or anthropological questions, and a consequent converging of these differing interests suggests that developing a genetic variation resource will be important in many disciplines.
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    THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SYMBOLS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 329-346 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Why should archaeologists deal with symbols and how can they do so? This article outlines three major traditions archaeologists have followed in conceptualizing symbols, each with its own preferred topics of study, understanding of power and social relations, and epistemology. These include the processual view of symbols as tokens that represent reality, the structuralist view of symbols as mental girders framing a cultural reality, and the postmodern view of symbols as arbitrary fragments incorporated into phenomenological experience. The primary conclusions are that (a) any serious consideration of ancient society requires us to deal with its symbols; (b) human symbolism is so diverse (it includes cognitive structures; ritual icons; identities such as gender, prestige, and ethnicity; technological knowledge; and political ideologies) that multiple approaches are needed to deal adequately with it; and (c) a major problem in the archaeology of symbols is understanding how varied kinds of symbols relate to each other.
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    EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF HUMAN REPRODUCTION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 347-374 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Evolutionary ecology of human reproduction is defined as the application of natural selection theory to the study of human reproductive strategies and decision-making in an ecological context. The basic Darwinian assumption is that humans-like all other organisms-are designed to maximize their inclusive fitness within the ecological constraints to which they are exposed. Life history theory, which identifies trade-off problems in reproductive investment, and evolutionary physiology and psychology, which analyzes the adaptive mechanisms regulating reproduction, are two crucial tools of evolutionary reproductive ecology. Advanced empirical insights have been obtained mainly with respect to the ecology of fecundity, fertility, child-care strategies, and differential parental investment. Much less is known about the ecology of nepotism and the postgenerative life span. The following three theoretical aspects, which are not well understood, belong to the desiderata of future improvement in evolutionary human reproductive ecology: (a) the significance of and the interactions between different levels of adaptability (genetic, ontogenetic, and contextual) for the adaptive solution of reproductive problems; (b) the dialectics of constraints and adaptive choices in reproductive decisions; and (c) the dynamics of demographic change.
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    RECENT ADVANCES IN METHOD AND THEORY IN PALEODEMOGRAPHY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 375-399 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Current methods in skeletal biology have improved significantly our ability to estimate the demographic parameters of extinct populations. Gross morphological and histological age indicators have been developed and tested in a variety of contexts, revealing great variation in the levels of accuracy of age prediction of each indicator. Primary attention is given here to the best-performing hard-tissue indicators of age and to composite methods of recovering the age and sex distribution of a cemetery. It is becoming increasingly apparent that some cemetaries should not be used for demographic reconstruction. Such collections have no bearing on the feasibility of paleodemographic research. Our review concludes with discussions about the role of comparing modern mortality patterns to those of paleodemography, and the issue and impact of departures from stationary demographic conditions during prehistoric times.
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    CONTEMPORARY TRANSFORMATIONS OF LOCAL LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 401-426 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract An emergent focus of linguistic anthropological research is discernible in the investigation of the causes and consequences of contact of local language communities with forces of the wider polities in which they have become incorporated. This focus can be sketched by surveying a number of its component conceptual approaches, such as anthropological linguistics, ethnography of communication, variationist sociolinguistics, and the sociology and politics of languages. Its consideration of language as a total cultural fact is outlined by reference to studies that differentially emphasize language structure, entextualization/contextualization of language, and language ideology.
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    GLOBALIZATION AND THE FUTURE OF CULTURE AREAS: Melanesianist Anthropology in Transition (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 427-449 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract In the last decade, anthropology has faced challenges to its self-definition associated both with new worldly circumstances and scholarly trends inside and outside the discipline. Recent interest in globalization has provoked discussion concerning what anthropology should be about, how it might be done, and what its relationships are to other bodies of literature and knowledge practices. Unsettling questions have been raised about working concepts of culture, ethnography, the field, fieldwork, and comparative analysis. Extending the rethinking of "place" in anthropology begun by Appadurai, I consider the future of "culture areas" as discursive frameworks for organizing disciplinary practices. Some characteristics of anthropological regionalism are located by contrasting them to interdisciplinary area studies, insofar as globalization poses apparently similar challenges to each. Because of its iconic disciplinary status as an exemplar of "real" anthropology, Melanesianist ethnography is given extended consideration as a particularly interesting case.
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    CURRENT ISSUES IN LINGUISTIC TAXONOMY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 451-472 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The genealogical classification of languages has been the subject of investigation for more than two centuries, and progress continues to be made in deepening our understanding of language change, both in theoretical terms and in the study of specific language families. In recent years, as in the past, many new proposals of linguistic relationships have been constructed, some promising to various degrees and others clearly untenable. The debate about specific recent proposals is part of the healthy process needed to evaluate proposed relationships, discard those that prove incorrect, and refine those of merit. Rather than evaluating the relative linguistic "distance" between potentially related languages, with temporal distance leading to some point where we cannot distinguish real relationships from chance similarities, we propose a scale of easy to difficult relationships in which temporal distance is only one factor that makes some relationships more recognizable than others.
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    LEGAL, ETHICAL, AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN HUMAN GENOME RESEARCH (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 473-502 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract In the past several decades, biological sciences have been revolutionized by their increased understanding of how life works at the molecular level. In what ways, and to what extent, will this scientific revolution affect the human societies within which the science is situated? The legal, ethical, and social implications of research in human genetics have been discussed in depth, particularly in the context of the Human Genome Project and, to a lesser extent, the proposed Human Genome Diversity Project. Both projects could have significant effects on society, the former largely at the level of individuals or families and the latter primarily at the level of ethnic groups or nations. These effects can be grouped in six broad categories: identity, prediction, history, manipulation, ownership and control, and destiny.
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    THE POLITICS AND POETICS OF DANCE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 503-532 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Since the mid-1980s, there has been an explosion of dance studies as scholars from a variety of disciplines have turned their attention to dance. Anthropologists have played a critical role in this new dance scholarship, contributing comparative analyses, critiquing colonial and ethnocentric categories, and situating studies of dance and movement within broader frameworks of embodiment and the politics of culture. This review highlights ethnographic and historical studies that foreground dance and other structured movement systems in the making of colonial cultures; the constitution of gender, ethnic and national identities; the formation of discourses of exoticization; and the production of social bodies. Several works that employ innovative approaches to the study of dance and movement are explored in detail.
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    STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS AND THE ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF PRESOLAR GRAINS FROM PRIMITIVE METEORITES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 147-188 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Primitive meteorites contain grains of stardust that originated from stellar outflows and supernova ejecta prior to the formation of the Solar System. The study of these grains in the laboratory provide new information on stellar evolution, nucleosynthesis, mixing in supernovae, galactic evolution, and the age of the galaxy. Grains whose isotopically anomalous compositions indicate a stellar origin include diamond, silicon carbide, graphite, corundum, and silicon nitride. Most silicon carbide and corundum come from red giant and asymptotic giant branch stars (low-mass stars at the end of their evolution), and carry the isotopic signatures of H burning in the core and later of H and He burning in thin shells. Diamond carries a supernova isotopic signature in its Xe, and low-density graphite and silicon nitride, as well as a subgroup of silicon carbide, show evidence for a supernova origin in the form of extinct 44Ti and large 28Si excesses.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.147
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    EARLY HISTORY OF ARTHROPOD AND VASCULAR PLANT ASSOCIATIONS1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 329-377 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Although research on modern plant-arthropod associations is one of the cornerstones of biodiversity studies, very little of that interest has percolated down to the fossil record. Much of this neglect is attributable to dismissal of Paleozoic plant-arthropod interactions as being dominated by detritivory, with substantive herbivory not emerging until the Mesozoic. Recent examination of associations from some of the earliest terrestrial communities indicates that herbivory probably extends to the Early Devonian, in the form of spore feeding and piercing-and-sucking. External feeding on pinnule margins and the intimate and intricate association of galling are documented from the Middle and Late Pennsylvanian, respectively. During the Early Permian, the range of external foliage feeding extended to hole feeding and skeletonization and was characterized by the preferential targeting of certain seed plants. At the close of the Paleozoic, surface fluid feeding was established, but there is inconclusive evidence for mutualistic relationships between insect pollinivores and seed plants. These data are gleaned from the largely separate trace-fossil records of gut contents, coprolites, and plant damage and the body-fossil records of plant reproductive and vegetative structures, insect mouthparts, and ovipositors. While these discoveries accentuate the potential for identifying particular associations, the greatest theoretical demand is to establish the spectrum and level of intensity for the emergence of insect herbivory in a range of environments during the Pennsylvanian and Permian.
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    ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE CRETACEOUS FLOWERING PLANT RADIATION1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 379-421 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The first flowering plant fossils occur as rare, undiverse pollen grains in the Early Cretaceous (Valanginian-Hauterivian). Angiosperms diversified slowly during the Barremian-Aptian but rapidly during the Albian-Cenomanian. By the end of the Cretaceous, at least half of the living angiosperm orders were present, and angiosperms were greater than 70% of terrestrial plant species globally. The rapid diversification of the group, and its dominance in modern vegetation, has led to the idea that the Cretaceous radiation of angiosperms also represents their rise to vegetational dominance. Paleoecological data cast a different light on the Cretaceous radiation of angiosperms. Analyses of sedimentary environments indicate that angiosperms not only originated in unstable habitats but remained centered there through most of the Cretaceous. Morphology of leaves, seeds, and wood is consistent with the status of most Cretaceous angiosperms as herbs to small trees with early successional strategy. The diversification of flowering plants in the Cretaceous represents the evolution of a highly speciose clade of weeds but not necessarily a major change in global vegetation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.379
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    LABORATORY-DERIVED FRICTION LAWS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO SEISMIC FAULTING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 643-696 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper reviews rock friction and the frictional properties of earthquake faults. The basis for rate- and state-dependent friction laws is reviewed. The friction state variable is discussed, including its interpretation as a measure of average asperity contact time and porosity within granular fault gouge. Data are summarized showing that friction evolves even during truly stationary contact, and the connection between modern friction laws and the concept of "static" friction is discussed. Measurements of frictional healing, as evidenced by increasing static friction during quasistationary contact, are reviewed, as are their implications for fault healing. Shear localization in fault gouge is discussed, and the relationship between microstructures and friction is reviewed. These data indicate differences in the behavior of bare rock surfaces as compared to shear within granular fault gouge that can be attributed to dilation within fault gouge. Physical models for the characteristic friction distance are discussed and related to the problem of scaling this parameter to seismic faults. Earthquake afterslip, its relation to laboratory friction data, and the inverse correlation between afterslip and shallow coseismic slip are discussed in the context of a model for afterslip. Recent observations of the absence of afterslip are predicted by the model.
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    SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION IN THE CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS NERVOUS SYSTEM (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1998), S. 279-308 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Caenorhabditis elegans interacts with its environment by sensing chemicals, touch, and temperature; genetic analysis of each of these responses has led to the identification of candidate signaling molecules within sensory neurons. A molecular model for touch sensation has emerged from studies of the mechanosensory response; the receptors and signal transduction mechanisms in olfactory neurons are being elucidated; and an unusual neuroendocrine role for a TGF-beta-related peptide in chemosensory neurons has been discovered. Presynaptic and postsynaptic components of neuronal synapses have been identified in behavioral and pharmacological mutant screens. Mutations have been found in multiple classes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes, excitatory and inhibitory glutamate receptor genes, and candidate gap junction genes, allowing their function to be studied in vivo. Different G-protein signaling pathways have characteristic effects on behavior, neuronal degeneration, and embryonic development.
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    ZINC AND BRAIN INJURY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1998), S. 347-375 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Zinc is an essential catalytic or structural element of many proteins, and a signaling messenger that is released by neural activity at many central excitatory synapses. Growing evidence suggests that zinc may also be a key mediator and modulator of the neuronal death associated with transient global ischemia and sustained seizures, as well as perhaps other neurological disease states. Manipulations aimed at reducing extracellular zinc accumulation, or cellular vulnerability to toxic zinc exposure, may provide a novel therapeutic approach toward ameliorating pathological neuronal death in these settings.
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    THE EPHRINS AND EPH RECEPTORS IN NEURAL DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1998), S. 309-345 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The Eph receptors are the largest known family of receptor tyrosine kinases. Initially all of them were identified as orphan receptors without known ligands, and their specific functions were not well understood. During the past few years, a corresponding family of ligands has been identified, called the ephrins, and specific functions have now been identified in neural development. The ephrins and Eph receptors are implicated as positional labels that may guide the development of neural topographic maps. They have also been implicated in pathway selection by axons, the guidance of cell migration, and the establishment of regional pattern in the nervous system. The ligands are anchored to cell surfaces, and most of the functions so far identified can be interpreted as precise guidance of cell or axon movement. This large family of ligands and receptors may make a major contribution to the accurate spatial patterning of connections and cell position in the nervous system.
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    INDUCIBLE GENE EXPRESSION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF TRANSGENIC MICE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1998), S. 377-405 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Gene function during mammalian development is often studied by making irreversible changes to the genome. This approach has a major drawback in that the function of the gene in question must be deduced from the phenotype of animals that have been deficient for the product of the disrupted gene throughout ontogeny. Compensation for the loss of the gene product could yield an apparently unaltered phenotype. Alternatively, the changes in the regulation of other genes could yield a misleading phenotype. If the genetic manipulation results in embryonic or neonatal lethality, gene function at later stages of development cannot be analyzed. It would thus be highly advantageous if the expression of a particular gene could be restricted both temporally and spatially through the use of an inducible genetic system. This paper describes the various inducible genetic expression systems developed for use in mammalian cells, with particular emphasis on their application in the nervous system of transgenic mice.
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    GENE DISCOVERY IN DROSOPHILA: New Insights for Learning and Memory (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1998), S. 407-444 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Genetic approaches have been used to investigate increasingly complex biological systems. Here we review the current state of genetic analysis of learning and memory in the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster. Emerging findings support two main themes. First, discovery and manipulation of genes involved with behavioral plasticity in genetically accessible systems such as D. melanogaster enables dissection of the biochemical, cellular, anatomical, and behavioral pathways of learning and memory. Second, because core cellular mechanisms of simple forms of learning are evolutionarily conserved, biological pathways discovered in invertebrates are likely to be conserved in vertebrate systems as well.
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    STUDY OF TRILINEAR GAUGE-BOSON COUPLINGS AT THE TEVATRON COLLIDER (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 48 (1998), S. 33-80 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review studies of the trilinear gauge-boson couplings at the Tevatron proton-antiproton collider from data collected by the CDF and DO collaborations during the period 1992-1996. The gauge-boson couplings are a fundamental prediction of the standard model, resulting from the non-Abelian nature of the theory. Therefore, experimental tests of the couplings are of foremost importance. We introduce the experimental results by reviewing the effective Lagrangian formalism, the indirect constraints on the couplings from low-energy experiments, and the expected values of the couplings in theories beyond the standard model. Finally, we consider the prospects for future measurements.
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    PENGUIN DECAYS OF B MESONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 48 (1998), S. 253-306 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Penguin, or loop, decays of B mesons induce effective flavor-changing neutral currents, which are forbidden at tree level in the standard model. These decays give special insight into the CKM matrix and are sensitive to non-standard-model effects. In this review, we give a historical and theoretical introduction to penguins and a description of the various types of penguin processes: electromagnetic, electroweak, and gluonic. We review the experimental searches for penguin decays, including the measurements of the electromagnetic penguins bsgamma and BK*gamma and gluonic penguins BKpi, B+omegaK+ and Beta'K, and their implications for the standard model and new physics. We conclude by exploring the future prospects for penguin physics.
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    MULTIPHONON GIANT RESONANCES IN NUCLEI (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 48 (1998), S. 351-399 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the present knowledge of multiphonon giant resonances in nuclei. Theoretical concepts approaching the intrinsic structure and excitation mechanisms of multiphonon states are discussed. The available experimental results are summarized, including a brief description of applied techniques. This review emphasizes electromagnetic excitations of double dipole resonances. Open questions and possible routes toward a solution are addressed.
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    ELECTROWEAK STUDIES AT Z FACTORIES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 48 (1998), S. 463-504 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Large Electron Positron collider LEP1 at CERN produced tens of millions of Z bosons, and the e+e- linear collider SLC at SLAC has produced Z bosons with its polarized e- beam. Along with the measurements of the top-quark and W-boson masses at the Fermilab Tevatron collider, these Z-factory experiments have tested the standard electroweak theory with unprecedented precision. This chapter reviews the renormalizable gauge theory of the electroweak interactions and its quantum-level tests. Implications of the precision measurements are then studied within the standard model and its extentions.
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    GENETIC ANALYSIS OF OVULE DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 1-24 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ovules are the direct precursors of seeds and thus play central roles in sexual plant reproduction and human nutrition. Extensive classical studies have elucidated the evolutionary trends and developmental processes responsible for the current wide variety of ovule morphologies. Recently, ovules have been perceived as an attractive system for the study of genetic regulation of plant development. More than a dozen regulatory genes have now been identified through isolation of ovule mutants. Characterization of these mutants shows that some aspects of ovule development follow independent pathways, while other processes are interdependent. Some of these mutants have ovules resembling those of putative ancestors of angiosperms and may help in understanding plant evolution. Clones of several of the regulatory genes have been used to determine expression patterns and putative biochemical functions of the gene products. Newly constructed models of genetic regulation of ovule development provide a framework for interpretation of future discoveries.
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    PLANT TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR STUDIES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 127-150 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Major advances have been made in understanding the role of transcription factors in gene expression in yeast, Drosophila, and man. Transcription factor modification, synergistic events, protein-protein interactions, and chromatin structure have been successfully integrated into transcription factor studies in these organisms. While many putative transcription factors have been isolated from plants, most of them are only poorly characterized. This review summarizes examples where molecular biological techniques have been successfully employed to study plant transcription factors. The functional analysis of transcription factors is described as well as techniques for studying the interactions of transcription factors with other proteins and with DNA.
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    ABSCISIC ACID SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 199-222 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays a major role in seed maturation and germination, as well as in adaptation to abiotic environmental stresses. ABA promotes stomatal closure by rapidly altering ion fluxes in guard cells. Other ABA actions involve modifications of gene expression, and the analysis of ABA-responsive promoters has revealed a diversity of potential cis-acting regulatory elements. The nature of the ABA receptor(s) remains unknown. In contrast, combined biophysical, genetic, and molecular approaches have led to considerable progress in the characterization of more downstream signaling elements. In particular, substantial evidence points to the importance of reversible protein phosphorylation and modifications of cytosolic calcium levels and pH as intermediates in ABA signal transduction. Exciting advances are being made in reassembling individual components into minimal ABA signaling cascades at the single-cell level.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.199
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    NUCLEAR CONTROL OF PLASTID AND MITOCHONDRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER PLANTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 453-480 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The nucleus must coordinate organelle biogenesis and function on a cell and tissue-specific basis throughout plant development. The vast majority of plastid and mitochondrial proteins and components involved in organelle biogenesis are encoded by nuclear genes. Molecular characterization of nuclear mutants has illuminated chloroplast development and function. Fewer mutants exist that affect mitochondria, but molecular and biochemical approaches have contributed to a greater understanding of this organelle. Similarities between organelles and prokaryotic regulatory molecules have been found, supporting the prokaryotic origin of chloroplasts and mitochondria. A striking characteristic for both mitochondria and chloroplast is that most regulation is posttranscriptional.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.453
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  • 89
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    HORMONE-INDUCED SIGNALING DURING MOSS DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 501-523 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Understanding how a cell responds to hormonal signals with a new program of cellular differentiation and organization is an important focus of research in developmental biology. In Funaria hygrometrica and Physcomitrella patens, two related species of moss, cytokinin induces the development of a bud during the transition from filamentous to meristematic growth. Within hours of cytokinin perception, a single-celled initial responds with changes in patterns of cell expansion, elongation, and division to begin the process of bud assembly. Bud assembly in moss provides an excellent model for the study of hormone-induced organogenesis because it is a relatively simple, well-defined process. Since buds form in a nonrandom pattern on cells that are not embedded in other tissues, it is possible to predict which cells will respond and where the ensuing changes will take place. In addition, bud assembly is amenable to biochemical, cellular, and molecular biological analyses. This review examines our current understanding of cytokinin-induced bud assembly and the potential underlying mechanisms, reviews the state of genetic analyses in moss, and sets goals for future research with this organism.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.501
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  • 90
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    BIOSYNTHESIS AND FUNCTION OF THE SULFOLIPID SULFOQUINOVOSYL DIACYLGLYCEROL (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 53-75 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The sulfolipid sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol is an abundant sulfur-containing nonphosphorous glycerolipid that is specifically associated with photosynthetic membranes of higher plants, mosses, ferns, algae, and most photosynthetic bacteria. The characteristic structural feature of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol is the unique head group constituent sulfoquinovose, a derivative of glucose in which the 6-hydroxyl is replaced by a sulfonate group. While there is growing evidence for the final assembly of the sulfolipid by the transfer of the sulfoquinovosyl moiety from UDP-sulfoquinovose to the sn-3 position of diacylglycerol, very little is known about the biosynthesis of the precursor UDP-sulfoquinovose. Recently, a number of mutants deficient in sulfolipid biosynthesis and the corresponding sqd genes have become available from different organisms. These provide novel tools to analyze sulfolipid biosynthesis by a combination of molecular and biochemical approaches. Furthermore, the analysis of sulfolipid-deficient mutants has provided novel insights into the function of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol in photosynthetic membranes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.53
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    PROTEIN TARGETING TO THE THYLAKOID MEMBRANE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 97-126 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The assembly of the photosynthetic apparatus at the thylakoid begins with the targeting of proteins from their site of synthesis in the cytoplasm or stroma to the thylakoid membrane. Plastid-encoded proteins are targeted directly to the thylakoid during or after synthesis on plastid ribosomes. Nuclear-encoded proteins undergo a two-step targeting process requiring posttranslational import into the organelle from the cytoplasm and subsequent targeting to the thylakoid membrane. Recent investigations have revealed a single general import machinery at the envelope that mediates the direct transport of preproteins from the cytoplasm to the stroma. In contrast, at least four distinct pathways exist for the targeting of proteins to the thylakoid membrane. At least two of these systems are homologous to translocation systems that operate in bacteria and at the endoplasmic reticulum, indicating that elements of the targeting mechanisms have been conserved from the original prokaryotic endosymbiont.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.97
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    GENETIC CONTROL OF FLOWERING TIME IN ARABIDOPSIS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 345-370 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The timing of the transition from vegetative to reproductive development is of great fundamental and applied interest but is still poorly understood. Recently, molecular-genetic approaches have been used to dissect this process in Arabidopsis. The genetic variation present among a large number of mutants with an early- or late-flowering phenotype, affecting the control of both environmental and endogenous factors that influence the transition to flowering, is described. The genetic, molecular, and physiological analyses have led to identification of different components involved, such as elements of photoperception and the circadian rhythm. Furthermore, elements involved in the signal transduction pathways to flowering have been identified by the cloning of some floral induction genes and their target genes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.345
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    MOLECULAR-GENETIC ANALYSIS OF PLANT CYTOCHROME P450-DEPENDENT MONOOXYGENASES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 311-343 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases are a large group of heme-containing enzymes, most of which catalyze NADPH- and O2-dependent hydroxylation reactions. The cloning of plant P450s has been hampered because these membrane-localized proteins are typically present in low abundance and are often unstable to purification. Since the cloning of the first plant P450 gene in 1990, there has been an explosion in the rate at which genes encoding plant P450s have been identified. These successes have largely been the result of advances in purification techniques, as well as the application of alternative methods such as mutant- and PCR-based cloning strategies. The availability of these cloned genes has made possible the analysis of P450 gene regulation and may soon reveal aspects of the evolution of P450s in plants. This new knowledge will significantly improve our understanding of many metabolic pathways and may permit their manipulation in the near future.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.311
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    BRASSINOSTEROIDS: Essential Regulators of Plant Growth and Development (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 427-451 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Brassinosteroids (BRs) are growth-promoting natural products found at low levels in pollen, seeds, and young vegetative tissues throughout the plant kingdom. Detailed studies of BR biosynthesis and metabolism, coupled with the recent identification of BR-insensitive and BR-deficient mutants, has greatly expanded our view of steroids as signals controlling plant growth and development. This review examines the microchemical and molecular genetic analyses that have provided convincing evidence for an essential role of BRs in diverse developmental programs, including cell expansion, vascular differentiation, etiolation, and reproductive development. Recent advances relevant to the molecular mechanisms of BR-regulated gene expression and BR signal transduction are also discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.427
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    EVOLUTION OF LIGHT-REGULATED PLANT PROMOTERS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 525-555 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract In this review, we address the phylogenetic and structural relationships between light-responsive promoter regions from a range of plant genes, that could explain both their common dependence on specific photoreceptor-associated transduction pathways and their functional versatility. The well-known multipartite light-responsive elements (LREs) of flowering plants share sequences very similar to motifs in the promoters of orthologous genes from conifers, ferns, and mosses, whose genes are expressed in absence of light. Therefore, composite LREs have apparently evolved from cis-regulatory units involved in other promoter functions, a notion with significant implications to our understanding of the structural and functional organization of angiosperm LREs.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.525
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    GENES AND ENZYMES OF CAROTENOID BIOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 557-583 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Carotenoids are integral and essential components of the photosynthetic membranes in all plants. Within the past few years, genes encoding nearly all of the enzymes required for the biosynthesis of these indispensable pigments have been identified. This review focuses on recent findings as to the structure and function of these genes and the enzymes they encode. Three topics of current interest are also discussed: the source of isopentenyl pyrophosphate for carotenoid biosynthesis, the progress and possibilities of metabolic engineering of plants to alter carotenoid content and composition, and the compartmentation and association of the carotenogenic enzymes. A speculative schematic model of carotenogenic enzyme complexes is presented to help frame and provoke insightful questions leading to future experimentation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.557
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    MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF CATION TRANSPORT IN PLANTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49 (1998), S. 669-696 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review summarizes current knowledge about genes whose products function in the transport of various cationic macronutrients (K, Ca) and micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) in plants. Such genes have been identified on the basis of function, via complementation of yeast mutants, or on the basis of sequence similarity, via database analysis, degenerate PCR, or low stringency hybridization. Not surprisingly, many of these genes belong to previously described transporter families, including those encoding Shaker-type K+ channels, P-type ATPases, and Nramp proteins. ZIP, a novel cation transporter family first identified in plants, also seems to be ubiquitous; members of this family are found in protozoa, yeast, nematodes, and humans. Emerging information on where in the plant each transporter functions and how each is controlled in response to nutrient availability may allow creation of food crops with enhanced mineral content as well as crops that bioaccumulate or exclude toxic metals.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.669
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    FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT IRON AND STEEL MAKING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 23 (1998), S. 123-205 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-3466
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Techniques for the reduction of the specific energy consumption for iron and steel making are identified and characterized to assess the potential for future energy-efficiency improvement and research and development priorities. Worldwide average specific energy consumption for steel making is estimated to be 24 GJ/tonne. The most energy-efficient process requires 19 GJ/tonne for primary steel and 7 GJ/tonne for secondary steel. Seven specific smelting reduction processes and four groups of near-net-shape casting techniques are described and evaluated. In the longer term, the specific energy consumption for making steel from iron ore can be reduced to 12.5 GJ of primary steel per tonne. A further reduction of up to 2.5 GJ of crude steel per tonne may be achieved when techniques are developed that can recover and apply heat from the hot steel at a high temperature. The specific energy consumption for secondary steel making can be reduced to 3.5 GJ/tonne by energy-efficient melting and shaping techniques.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.123
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    THE O2 BALANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE: A Tool for Studying the Fate of Fossil-Fuel CO2 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 23 (1998), S. 207-223 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-3466
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Carbon dioxide is a radiatively active gas whose atmospheric concentration increase is likely to affect Earth's climate. CO2 is added to the atmosphere by biomass burning and the combustion of fossil fuels. Some added CO2 remains in the atmosphere. However, substantial amounts are taken up by the oceans and land biosphere, attenuating the atmospheric increase. Atmospheric O2 measurements provide one constraint for partitioning uptake rates between the ocean and the land biosphere. Here we review studies of atmospheric O2 concentration variations and discuss their implications for CO2 uptake by the ocean and the land biosphere. We compare estimates of anthropogenic carbon fluxes from O2 studies with estimates from other approaches and examine the contribution of natural ocean carbon fluxes to atmospheric O2 variations.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.207
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    DRINKING WATER IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 23 (1998), S. 253-286 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-3466
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Safe drinking water remains inaccessible for about 1.1 billion people in the world, and the hourly toll from biological contamination of drinking water is 400 deaths of children (below age 5). This paper reviews the general guidelines for drinking water quality and the scale of the global problem. It reviews the various water disinfection technologies that may be applicable to achieve the desired quality of drinking water in developing countries. It then summarizes financing problems that deter extending access to safe drinking water to the unserved population and identifies feasible policy positions for enhancing availability of drinking water in these countries.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253
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