ALBERT

Notes: Argues that there are real misunderstandings about survivors' reactions and their abilities to act rationally and altruistically immediately in the aftermath of a disaster. Illustrates, with case histories from the Thorpe Park fire, a BA jumbo incident, the Paddington rail crash and others. People can and do act rationally, fearlessly and selflessly after major incidents, often reducing loss of life, introducing some sense of order and beginning the real job of rescue and care for the injured.

Notes: Literature on natural risks typically examines either biophysical process characteristics or human pre- or post-disaster activities. This paper takes a somewhat different track; first, it argues that also natural disasters are socially constructed and, therefore, second, it resets the framework in which disaster management has to be placed. While most researchers usually focus on risk assessment it is suggested that the concept of vulnerability can provide a vehicle to explore a contextual approach to the reduction of losses due to natural hazards. In a brief overview the conceptualization of vulnerability is presented. Since precise measurement of uncertainties and exact prediction of damages is hardly feasible, a conceptual approach in vulnerability assessment is proposed. Qualities that determine potential damage are identified and characteristics described. It is suggested that, even without assessing risk exactly, vulnerability reduction decreases damages and losses.

Notes: Notes the recent increase in interstate shipments of hazardous materials, by road, in Malaysia following rapid expansion in the manufacturing sector. Although there has been no major accident involving transportation of hazardous materials, the high rate of road accidents has raised great concerns concerning motor vehicles carrying hazardous goods and petroleum products. Determines the emergency preparedness and response plans of the transportation companies. Data were obtained from management and drivers, and the results revealed that the companies did not have a proper management system of safe transportation, had inadequate training of personnel, and the transport vehicles were not provided with appropriate tools and equipment for emergency response during mishaps. The drivers lacked general awareness and principal knowledge of hazardous material emergency response. Suggests that there is an urgent need to stipulate legal requirements for hazardous material transportation in Malaysia.

Notes: Editors or senior journalists within a sample of 21 leading UK newspapers were questioned about their opinions of the quality of the information about foreign (especially Third World) catastrophes supplied to them by the major disaster relief charities (Oxfam, Save the Children, ActionAid, etc.). The study also examined the procedures employed by journalists when searching for information about disasters, the major sources of information other than disaster relief organisations to which they referred, and their perceptions of what makes a story about a foreign disaster "newsworthy". Additionally, the respondents discussed their reactions to the allegation that newspapers' portrayals of the victims of Third World disasters stereotype, demean and patronise the communities involved. Briefly compares journalistic perspectives on these matters with those of the fund-raising managers in a sample of seven major disaster relief charities.

Notes: From a systems perspective, vulnerability can be defined as the relationship between a purposive system and its environment, where that environment varies over time. Which environmental perturbations are significant therefore depends upon the objectives of the system as only those perturbations that can inhibit the achievement of these objectives are significant. That system must decide whether to adjust in advance to each potential perturbation or to rely upon a recovery path when that perturbation occurs. In each case, it must then decide upon the adjustment or recovery path to adopt. In particular, the basic resources available to a household are time and energy where the rates at which these can be directly or indirectly, through earning income, converted to consumption are crucial. Perturbations can reduce the energy available as well as reduce the efficiencies with which time and energy can be converted to income.

Notes: Purpose - This article aims to show how communities with severe river flooding can develop sustainable flood plans that remediate environmental problems caused by previous river straightening and other structural flood controls. Design/methodology/approach - The article builds on a case study of the nationally recognized Napa River Flood Protection Project (USA), which incorporates an ecological living river strategy and builds on strong community participation to restore a river and its floodplain. After discussing the drawbacks of structural flood control measures, and especially of river straightening, reviews the contents of the Napa Flood Project and the public participation process necessary for its design, approval and implementation. Findings - The key lessons learned from Napa's flood project are that: undoing past structural works is difficult but feasible; ecological criteria can and should be used to design modern flood projects; involvement of a wide and diverse group of stakeholders is crucial to developing and implementing an environmentally sustainable flood management project; and the US Army Corps of Engineers can work with communities and depart from its typical, structural flood control approaches. Research limitations/implications - Information on straightened rivers is extremely limited. Furthermore, this study focuses on flood planning for US rivers, and may therefore be less useful elsewhere in the world where the frequency of river straightening may differ. Originality/value - This case study provides a critique on river straightening, which is a poorly documented but fairly frequent approach to flood control. This article helps to fill gaps in the knowledge of how communities can, and are, addressing environmental concerns associated with flood controls and river straightening.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to investigate the safety practices in some selected agro-allied industries in south-western Nigeria with a view to analysing the degree of safety awareness; adequacy of safety equipment; extent of enforcing safety rules; effectiveness of safety-related activities and economics of safety programme. Design/methodology/approach - A case study method of investigation, field study guidelines and binary variable were used and information gathered from 36 industries was documented. The data collected were analysed using mean, percentage and standard mathematical models. The analyses carried out on the data gathered are presented on the following: occurrence of accidents, causes of accidents, damages resulting from accidents, accident prevention activities and economic implications. Findings - Three classes of accidents are identified as fatal, serious, and minor. The results showed that minor accident has the highest frequency of occurrence of 304, while fatal accident has the least frequency of occurrence of 17. However, serious accident has the greatest economic implication, accounting for annual average loss of $4.97 millions. Also, nine causes of accidents are identified, out of which faulty equipment is common to all industries. And eight accident prevention activities are identified, amongst which standard operating procedure, good housekeeping and on-the-job training are commonly being practised, while provision of safety handbook and policy is least practised. Originality/value - This paper has described the safety practices in 15 agro-allied industries with an organised safety programme in South Western Nigeria. The study has investigated the extent of enforcement of safety rules; safety awareness; and economic implication of accidents from this sector for the national economy.

Notes: Purpose - The following conceptual exposition is presented in light of the growing number of scholars who indicate need for a comprehensive and coherent approach to disaster reduction, while practitioners seem to be continually faced with dynamic and seemingly contradictory goals and strategies. Design/methodology/approach - This article reviews arguments from an assorted collection of literature in order to increase theoretical understanding of disasters and attempts to integrate various concepts, paradigms and policy proposals. Findings - The discussion points out the strengths and weaknesses of alternative viewpoints about disasters, and suggests that a broad conceptualization of vulnerability may be best suited to assimilate findings for academia and simplify policy guidance for professionals in the field. Research limitations/implications - Because this is a cursory exploration of the casting of vulnerability management in terms of liability reduction and capacity building, additional research on the matter will undoubtedly be needed. Nonetheless, it is hoped that this article may pull together diverse academic frameworks, in order to avert recurring mistakes among those designing and implementing policy. Originality/value - By updating the author's prior work in this area with additional considerations regarding the natural hazards, civil defense, risk management and homeland security schools, this article may be useful for scholars and practitioners interested in reversing the trend of more frequent and intense disasters.

Notes: Particularly since the 11 September terrorist attacks in the USA, much attention has been given to the development and implementation of incident management systems (IMS). The IMS is a tool for marshalling pre-identified and pre-assembled resources to respond to an emergency or disaster. IMS is particularly useful when personnel and resources from many agencies and jurisdictions are required to manage large incidents successfully. While many IMS have been devised over the years, their use remains intermittent. This paper traces the evolution of IMS, reviews how it can be integrated into jurisdictional emergency and disaster management, and specifies the structures that are used in most incident management systems at the municipal level.

Notes: With regard to their utility in predicting the adoption of household hazard preparations, traditional approaches to public education directed at increasing awareness and/or risk perception have proven ineffective. Discusses reasons why this may have occurred from public education, vulnerability analysis, and community resilience perspectives and outlines strategies for enhancing preparedness. Describes a model of resilience to hazard effects that has been tested in different communities and for different hazards (toxic waste, environmental degradation and volcanic hazards). Drawing upon the health education literature, introduces a model for promoting the adoption on preparatory behaviour. Discusses links between these models, and the need for their implementation within a community development framework.

Notes: Recently, a powerful earthquake of the magnitude of 6.9 on the Richter Scale that rocked the western Indian state of Gujarat has caused extensive damage to life and property. Apart from human misery, it has devastated the state physically, socially and economically. Discusses some issues which emerged from this disaster on search and rescue, relief and rehabilitation, scientific and technical, communication and earthquake preparedness. Also describes the lessons learned from this disaster in managing future earthquakes in India and also in other parts of the world as well.

Notes: This study examines the causes of flood disasters in Jianghan Plain, China and provides practical solutions to mitigate them. Results from this study indicate that both historical archives and more recent recorded data point to an increasing frequency in flood disasters since 1961. Furthermore, damage and losses from flood disasters have also increased significantly in the region. By analyzing the physical geographic factors and human activities, this study found that the main causative factors contributing to increasing flood disasters are landform/topography, climate elements, reduced drainage capacity of rivers in contrast to increased flood discharge, and human activities. Finally, the study examines various practical solutions to mitigate flood disasters in the Jianghan Plain.

Notes: The scientific world has for a long time worked with linear tools to explain complex non-linear phenomena. Also non-linear relationships were transformed to linear in order to be handled. This was so despite the fact that nature has been giving us examples showing that the real world was complex, dynamic and non-linear. This was so until developments in computer science provided the calculating means to the theory of complexity. Today, the theory of complexity is applied to many sciences and to disaster management as well. The application of complexity theory is attempted from a disaster management point of view. As the first attempt to incorporate management science into marine disaster prevention was the so-called International Safety Management Code of the International Maritime Organization in 1998, we will attempt to connect the theory of complexity to the ISM code. The ISM code, being a safety standard, has been based on good management and organization rulesl. However, ISM code was accused of increasing the bureaucracy of the system with a result that no substance work could be done at the end. Moreover, a need has now emerged, i.e. to establish a "particular ISM code man" among the crewmen on board all ships. On the other hand, modern complexity management suggests more flat hierarchies where information travels faster, and this is something needed in a marine disaster.

Notes: Fundamental to disaster readiness planning is developing training strategies to compensate for the limited opportunities available for acquiring actual disaster response experience. With regard to communication, decision making and integrated emergency management response, the need to develop mental models capable of reconciling knowledge of multiple goals with the collective expertise of those responding represents a significant challenge for training. This paper explores the utility of the assessment centre as a developmental resource capable of achieving this goal. In addition to providing multiple, expertly evaluated simulations to facilitate the development and practice of specific skills, the ability of assessment centre methodology to promote tacit knowledge and self-efficacy renders it an appropriate vehicle for developing the mental models that underpin the core disaster management competencies of situational awareness and naturalistic and team decision making.

Notes: A recent question from the research literature is addressed: to what extent does the behavioral response to the natural and technological disaster model apply to terrorist events involving a weapon of mass destruction (WMD)? Earlier work argued that the literature is applicable. Anecdotal evidence and preliminary content analysis findings from the aftermath of the terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 demonstrate the salience of the model to terrorism.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to review research findings on the effects of a variety of disasters, including the events of 9/11, on the general public and members of organizations. Design/methodology/approach - A literature search was undertaken. Three areas were targeted: impact on public attitudes and morale, on organizations and human resource management, and on organizational resilience. Findings - Four conclusions were drawn. First, disasters such as 9/11 have immediate negative effects on emotions and behaviors. Second, with the passage of time these effects dissipate for most people. Third, organizations directly affected by 9/11 immediately stopped functioning. Fourth, fortunately many of these firms bounced back surprisingly quickly. Research limitations/implications - Relatively little research has been conducted on the effects of 9/11, limiting our understanding of it. Practical implications - The people in these resilient firms, those more directly affected by the terrorist attacks, made the difference. Human resource management practices and cultural values already in place were the key factors in bringing about a speedy recovery. These factors can also be developed in other organizations as a precaution. Originality/value - This paper explores important yet still under-researched areas of management and organizational responses to terrorism.

Notes: Health is a human right and remains so under all circumstances. It becomes, however, particularly vulnerable in emergency and disaster situations, and even in efficient and well-meaning relief operations the health rights of victims usually get overlooked, if not downtrodden. Five international conventions or instruments that underpin this right and guide the disaster responder to respect it are put forward for more efficient and more humanitarian disaster management.

Notes: Literature of trauma in the workplace after an organizationalcatastrophe often focuses on various aspects of a critical incidentwhere data are more readily available because of organizational "pressurepoints" - public relations, technology and the financial impact of adisaster on a corporation. Highlights the fact that external publicrarely express concern or even interest in the mental health of workersin an organization perceived as being responsible for a catastrophe.Provides results from recently published studies that reveal workersexperience some trauma after a critical incident, ranging from milddepression, to the onset of manic disease, to suicidal thoughts.Scrutinizes the impact on departmental and organizational morale,production and sustainability of key projects to comprehend theorganizational behaviour dimension of critical incidents in anappropriate context. Overviews the relationship of organizationalbehaviour to crisis management and analyses the impact of trauma uponworkers at one department of large oil exploration company operating inAlaska. Reaches beyond anecdotal surveys to include an analysis ofemployee turnover in the immediate department of that company after fourworkers had been badly injured in a serious industrial accident. Resultssuggest attention must be paid to stress and trauma by employees whowitness organizational catastrophes.

Notes: Monitoring air, water and soil contamination by means of animals,plants, fungi and bacteria is increasingly in demand for assessingenvironmental quality, environmental impacts, and health and safety. Itis essential that environmental monitoring by bioassays is crediblybased on standardized procedures and on substantial scientific evidencewhich should include background measurements to establish baseline data.Cites case studies involving the use of organisms for monitoring heavymetals and radionuclides in order to demonstrate such proceduralpre-requisites in environmental surveillance.

Notes: Assumes acceptance of the argument that, as the world has become amere village owing to modern communications systems, trading patternsand the like, it is no longer possible for any individual, community orstate to seek to pull down the blinds and ignore what is happening inother parts of the world. This is not merely an ethical issue –although believes that the morality of caring is much in need of anuplift, both in British society and elsewhere - it is a pragmaticand political necessity. Confines discussion to looking at conflicts atthe levels where they involve communities or whole states, rather thanindividuals alone.

Notes: Based on the experience of five years of work in the midst of theongoing civil war in Afghanistan, outlines a number of ideas aboutinvolving communities in measures to provide emergency relief or supportrehabilitation, in order to encourage and assist an indigenous processof social and physical recovery.

Notes: Reports on research carried out under the aegis of the EuropeanCommunity as part of the Step Programme. Researchers from the followinguniversities contributed: Berlin (Germany), Grenoble (France), Lancaster(Great Britain), Liège (Belgium), and The Catholic University(Milan, Italy). Aims to evaluate public perception of individuals andorganizations as informers in situations where there is a high levelindustrial risk. Discusses the following: the clarity of communication,the degree of professionalism of the information sources, the extent towhich the message attributed to each of the important informers wascredible. Treats this as a comparative study under the terms of Article8 of the Seveso Directive which invites public authorities, as well asso-called "risk" industries, to keep the population informedof the potential dangers to which they are exposed as a result ofindustrial activity.

Notes: Examines the relationship between sources and functions of supportin the context of an evolving stressful event - the Gulf War. Datawere obtained through questionnaires filled out by 261 parents sampledthroughout comprehensive schools located in two different areas ofIsrael (damaged and undamaged by missile attacks). Respondents assessedthe extent of support received from a list of sources, designated threepreferred sources, and rated the amount of informational, instrumentaland/or emotional support provided by these referred sources, at threedifferent periods of the event: waiting, impact and recovery. Findingsindicate that different sources of support, fulfilling differentfunctions, were utilized over the course of the event, and that changesin sources and functions were related to the changing circumstances ofthe war. Gives empirical validation to the concept of matching theevolution of a stressful event to specific uses of social support.Considers implications for social work practice.

Notes: The terms "sheltering" and "housing" areused in a variety of unclear and inconsistent ways in the disasterliterature. Proposes a differentiation among emergency sheltering,temporary sheltering, temporary housing and permanent housing. Indicateshow they are paid differential attention in American disaster planningand gives specific observations about the four patterns, notingespecially how they differ from one another. Suggests there will be afuture increase in problems in all the patterns, and that it is not yetfully established to what extent these patterns are applicable in alltypes of societies.

Notes: Discusses the results of evaluations of flood forecasting, warningand response systems in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.Reveals that in England and Wales flood warning systems oftenunderperform. Despite technical sophistication and their elevation tohigh priority in central government's flood defence strategy,arrangements for flood warnings are now under considerable stressbecause of lack of agreement over organizational roles andresponsibilities. Legal ambiguities, funding difficulties andideological positions lie behind these problems. Flood warning systemsare developing in Scotland, and there is now a "fledgling"system in Northern Ireland, but both lag behind England and Wales.Examines implications for the future.

Notes: Evacuation is commonly used to mitigate the ill effects of avariety of disaster agents. It is important that authorities gain anaccurate understanding of the circumstances under which citizens willevacuate. Tests the efficacy of evacuation message clarity andfrequency, authority type, the accuracy of past warnings, and the impactof the presence of children in the home as viable variables in effectingan evacuation response. Finds the evacuation response was more likely tooccur if the potential victim was ordered to do so, if the potentialvictim was contacted frequently (more than once) by the proper authority(as perceived by the potential victim), if past warnings were perceivedas being accurate, and dependent children were in the home. Interviewsrespondents from 83 households in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, USA, after amajor fire emergency threatened residents of three neighbourhoodscontiguous to the site.

Notes: Addresses the issue of the structure and function of the communityemergency operations centre (EOC). There is some confusion among someemergency responders and particularly among public officials regardingthe role and function of the EOC. In part this emerges because many EOCsat different levels operate in conjunction with any given disaster. Itis argued that the community EOC is best seen as an over-archingorganization into which information from more specialized EOCs –such as those operated by fire and police departments - flows, andfrom which the overall response to the disaster is directed. There isalso a tendency to define the functions of the community EOC narrowly.Such definitions typically understate the importance of such activitiesas damage assessment and public information, and consequently leave theresponsibility for these and related critical functions somewhatambiguous. Seeks to achieve an explicit definition of the range andcontent of disaster responsibilities associated with the community EOCand thereby to clarify and contribute more to effective community-widedisaster response.

Notes: Describes the use of schema theory to conceptualize how disaster experience can undermine well-being and operational performance and discusses how this approach provides a basis for the development of preparatory strategies for promoting worker wellbeing and response effectiveness. Defines specific characteristics of the disaster experience - disaster stressors. Discusses their role in mediating disaster impact and their potential for facilitating the identification of high risk situations, training needs analysis and disaster simulation design. Also discusses selection, training and operational practices in relation to aspects of the disaster experience that elicit a positive and adaptive response.

Notes: Crises are hitting our industries with alarming regularity. Yet the word crisis is usually used with little thought to its meaning. Examines the various meanings which have been proposed by authors in the field of crisis management, and contends that for a situation to develop into a crisis three elements must be present: a triggering event causing significant change or having the potential to cause significant change; the perceived inability to cope with this change; and a threat to the existence of the foundation of the organization.

Notes: The recognition that disaster workers may be victimized as a consequence of fulfilling their disaster relief role has resulted in the development of several interventions to assist their recovery. Psychological debriefing is a prominent support resource. Uses recent concerns over the effectiveness of debriefing to frame a discussion of the nature of recovery and the longer-term determinants of its effectiveness. Focuses on the role of social, psychological, familial and organizational factors as determinants of the quality of recovery. Discusses the implications of these factors for the design and delivery of support resources for disaster workers.

Notes: The significance of operational human errors in shipping safety has widely been recognized. The accumulation of many shipboard operations on the bridge of the ship demands that a high level of efficiency must be ensured. Discusses the efficiency of the interface which depends on the success of incorporating the human factor in the engineering systems of ship control. At the time of diminishing crew quality, the bridge operator's confidence, competence and communication capability must be in co-ordination with the technology provided by these systems. Suggests that the areas of limitation in the bridge-operator interface must be identified and the course of action for optimizing this critical relationship for safety must be determined.

Notes: In the USA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides support to State and local governments in fulfilment of their responsibilities for preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation of disasters. One method FEMA has used to support State and local emergency communication functions was to sign and implement a Memorandum of Understanding with the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) for amateur radio operators to provide electronic communications for State and local governments in disasters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has licensed more than 600,000 amateur radio operators in the USA. The national organization of amateur radio operators called the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) was formed in 1914. More than 80,000 of these amateurs have registered their availability for emergency communications in disasters in the ARRL's Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES). Amateur radio operators have been providing communications in natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes and earthquakes since 1910. Since amateur radio operation was prohibited during the years of both World Wars I and II, FEMA has sponsored a new branch of the amateur service called Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES). RACES operators are authorized to operate if the President invokes his War Emergency Powers while all other amateur operation would be silenced. Examines the role of amateur radio in providing emergency electronic communications for disaster management and explores future contributions.

Notes: Discusses the background of the First Internet Disaster Conference. Debates the advantages and disadvantages of Internet conferencing, and covers the lessons learnt and experiences gained from this conference.

Notes: The date of 19 April 1995 will be remembered as a day on which a tragic event took place in Oklahoma. Argues that we need to go beyond a mere reading of the passionate convictions, the "rational" rhetoric and ideological arguments in trying to understand this act of terrorism and the aftermath reactions. In highly emotionally charged and anxiety-producing environments of social conflict, one can also expect to encounter a number of psychodynamic processes - such as projection, projective identification, splitting, idealization, stereotyping, narcissistic desire for the ego (group) ideal, denial and other defence mechanisms. Presents a representative text from the reporting of the Oklahoma bombing and its aftermath which is then read through the conceptual lenses of psychoanalytic theory. Highlights issues and behaviours that seem typically to arise in such disaster situations.

Notes: Describes a study of trends in the use of keywords (risk, hazard and crisis) in the media having accessed a large commercial on-line database for this purpose. Allowing for several assumptions, finds mainly rising trends in the usage of each of the keywords, and in the proportion of articles classified under related categories (insolvency, terrorism, environment/ecology, and air transport crash).

Notes: As the end of the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction approaches it is necessary to review what is known about global responses to catastrophes. Discusses four major weaknesses of the relief and mitigation community that are frequently identified in the disaster studies literature: the violation of human rights, a low degree of relief co-ordination, difficulties and drawbacks of providing aid, and dilemmas of development. Offers possible solutions for these challenges and also highlights the implications of the findings for research and application. Gives direction to both academics and practitioners who are interested in disaster relief and prevention around the world.

Notes: Proposes the establishment of a management information system (MIS) for the promotion of safety in shipping. Considers the information technology in shipping to be the combination of satellite systems and computers onboard and ashore. In this combination, which enables the provision of an optimum selection and management of data for automatic or human decision making, the role of satcoms is information transfer and that of computers is information processing. Acknowledges the importance of the human factor in shipping safety. Human decisions affecting shipping safety often depend on the quantity and quality of the available information. In the proposed MIS the need to improve the limited ability of humans to receive, store, process and interpret information, which is usually vast and complex, is acknowledged and fulfilled. Among the available maritime satcom systems and computer services, the proposal reveals those services which satisfy the criteria of useful, interactive, flexible, fast, reliable and low-cost transfer and management of information in support of safety-oriented decision making in shipping operations. The proposed MIS integrates the information resources of shipping office(s), the ship(s) and the maritime-related industry as a whole and provides the shipping company with the capability to document, monitor and control the safety-critical aspect of "technical reliability" towards promotion of safety in shipping and compliance with the International Safety Management Code.

Notes: Suggests that sources of data on human failure, particularly case studies of specific disasters, have not been able to offer a generalized theory. Suggests that this can best be effected at the level of middle range theory based on analysis of the comparative structure of a workplace organization. Offers an adaptation of an approach from anthropology and cultural theory, that supplies four distinct, exclusive and archetypal workplace structures. Each is associated with a distinct cluster of sustaining and justifying values and attitudes that are manifest as four associated patterns of behaviours. Particular attention is directed at the normal kinds of workplace deviance, including sabotage, shown to be typical of each of the four archetypes. Their incumbent attitudes to risk are delineated, as are their typical patterns of industrial relationships.

Notes: This paper reports on the findings of a survey of organisational responses to the 1995 eruptions at Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand. The survey identified co-ordination, communication, training and management issues that had implications for the quality and effectiveness of an integrated organisational response to hazard impacts. This paper explores the implications of organisational structure and social (professional) identity for developing and sustaining integrated emergency management capability. It also discusses the implications of decision-making processes and group dynamics for response effectiveness. These issues are used to illustrate the nature and origin of the problems observed in the survey and to define strategies for their resolution and for promoting effective inter-organisational relationships and integrated emergency management capability.

Notes: So much attention is devoted to the cost of industrial disasters in financial terms and to the technologies that fail at times, that it is possible to lose sight of the fact that disasters involve people, individually and in societal groups. Although awareness and concern about the human factor in industrial disaster has grown considerably over the last 15-20 years, many continue to see human error in a very narrow perspective. People, however, play a key role in causing disasters, must cope with them when they occur, and bear the consequences in their aftermath. Consideration of the human factor in industrial disaster has focused primarily on input in causing disasters. Two additional phases of human involvement in industrial disaster, their coping and their reaction to the outcome, must be included. At every stage of its occurrence, industrial disaster is truly about people and their behaviour.

Notes: Presents the status of public policy on protecting ports and ships and describes Greek law and practice regarding combating ship fires. Also "best practices" are identified with regard to preventing and suppressing fires on ships. Authors believe that a neglected topic is the protection of the port sea environment, a problem which made ESPO (European Sea Ports Organisation) create a code of practice for protecting the port environment and DG VII to implement it but are these sufficient for the protection of ports and ships?

Notes: This article presents the status of public policy on title's matters and makes recommendation thereto. Describes Greek law and practice combating ship fires. Also "best practices" are identified with regard to preventing and suppressing fires on ships. Ship fires are thought to be by the authors an important topic. The authors also believe that an equally important, but neglected topic, is the protection of the port sea environment. This problem made the ESPO (European Sea Ports Organisation) produce a code of practice for protecting port environments and DG VII to support that. But are these sufficient for the protection of ports and ships?

Notes: Increasingly, land is a scarce resource which is much sought after in Penang Island, Malaysia. This is because Penang is largely made up of steep topography and much of the lowland areas are already developed. Penang is one of the many rapidly industrialising states in Malaysia with a largely urban populace. In recent decades, efforts at industrialisation and the development of other economic sectors have been intensified, leading to greater urbanisation and greater pressures on land. Although land reclamation has eased the pressures somewhat, it is not enough to satisfy the high demand for land on the island. As such, developers have turned to the remaining hill land on the island. Many hills and their environs are already being developed and many hill projects are in the pipe line. This has led to many environmental problems such as deforestation, decimation of water catchments, destruction of endangered fauna and flora, soil erosion, landslides, water pollution, sedimentation and downstream flooding. Some of these problems have been exacerbated and turned into disasters due to the extremely fragile and sensitive nature of hill ecosystems. Despite such problems, the State Government has decided to lift the freeze on development of hill land since January 1998, and this has effectively opened up all hill land for development on the island. Therefore, hill land needs to be protected and conserved by other means and this study recommends the adoption of a policy of "No development in all ecologically and environmentally sensitive areas", the setting up of a Hill Land Technical Committee (HLTC) to manage all developments pertaining to hill land and to gazette all hill land in the State, and the use of state-of-the-art remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to monitor and control development activities on hill land in Penang.

Notes: In Britain in 1945, the politics of peace steered reconstructiontowards a static socio-economic base from which stemmed many laterplanning and social problems. Britain had emerged from six years of wareconomically weakened but with a clear social vision, an effectiveadministration and fully evolved plans for the transition from war topeace. The social vision including the ideal of full employment and theright to a local job and a local home. This placed the economy in aspatial stranglehold and denied it the flexibility needed to adapt tochanging global conditions. Draws on the British experience to suggestthat the understandable desire to replace in situ what has beendestroyed is doomed to fail and can prejudice the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs.

Notes: Owing to the nature of their funding, hardly any NGO projects inAfghanistan have been long term or geared to the future development ofthe country. "Donor fatigue" and the fact that much of theprevious aid was politically motivated, has led NGOs to begin toquestion the value of their existing work and to consider whether andhow they might do more to promote peace and longterm reconstruction anddevelopment. In an attempt to address some of the questions, theNorwegian Church Aid, the Norwegian Refugee Council and Oxfam jointlysupported the organization of a workshop aimed at exploring the role ofNGOs in peace building. Based on the findings of that workshop, as wellas on A. Strand's five years of field experience.

Notes: Presents the Mohonk Criteria for Humanitarian Assistance inComplex Emergencies, produced by the Task Force on Ethical and LegalIssues in Humanitarian Assistance, convened by the Program onHumanitarian Assistance at the World Conference on Religion and Peace,as guidelines for co-operative relationships between political,humanitarian and military actors in complex humanitarian emergenciescreated by armed conflict.

Notes: The Year 2000 (Y2K) problem threatens the effective functioning of all Information Technology-enabled organizations. This paper illustrates the Y2K preparedness at Firstlogic, a software company in Wisconsin, USA. At Firstlogic, products have been tested for Y2K compliance, solutions have been suggested for non-compliant systems, resources have been allocated to modify or replace affected systems, and relevant legal issues have been addressed to protect the company from Y2K-related lawsuits.

Notes: This paper examines the sources of stress likely to be encountered by emergency managers when responding to a disaster. Stressors relating to environmental (e.g. time pressure, level of risk, heat), organisational (e.g. bureaucracy, appropriateness of information, decision support and management systems) and operational (e.g. incident command, decision making, interagency liaison, team and media management) demands are considered. The mediating role of personality and transient states of physical (e.g. fitness and fatigue) and psychological (e.g. high levels of occupational stress) states are reviewed in terms of their influence on stress, judgement and decision making. Strategies for identifying which of these potential stress factors can be controlled or reduced and for training emergency managers to deal with the others are discussed.

Notes: In the following case, the identification of a burn victim was aided by examination of the soft tissue areas on the alveolar surfaces, the sites of recent dental extractions and the evaluation of the degree of healing of these extraction sites. A review of the ante-mortem radiographs and dental records of a suspected person who might be the burn victim revealed a history of recent extractions at the sites noted on the burn victim. This information in addition to the routine odontologic forensic landmarks aided in concluding a positive identification of the burn victim.

Notes: Disaster inquiries regularly contain a sad litany of what went wrong, procedures bypassed and ignored, and undue risks taken. It is clear in many of these cases that there were individuals in the know, who may have spoken up, but been over-ruled or silenced. Some more persistent individuals decide to speak up external to the organisation, and hence become whistleblowers. Their efforts, although virtually by definition in the public interest, have not always been well received, certainly by their employers, and the agencies to whom they resorted, while pleased to have received their information, have invariably not reciprocated by offering employment protection, or even upholding confidentiality. Disaster case studies are presented involving a variety of industries from the nuclear power to the petroleum, aircraft, space and oil industries. The stresses on the whistleblower are indicated, one being the controversy remaining over their role, with opposition from some business leaders. The law offers first line protection, although experience in the USA suggests that this is insufficient in itself. In the more unified and compact jurisdiction of the UK, new legislation, coupled with political will, seems likely to produce a more effective regime. Organisations need to internalise whistleblowing as part of their natural systems and procedures, and codes of practice assist in this regard, as long as they are more than window-dressing. Countries less advanced in their thinking and legislation are more at risk and, given the global consequences of the likes of an environmental disaster, need to be regarded as international pariahs.

Notes: The assumption of an automatic link between disaster exposure and pathological outcomes is increasingly being questioned. Recognition of the possibility of positive reactions and growth outcomes in this context necessitates the development of alternative models and, in particular, the accommodation of the resilience construct in research and intervention agenda. Reviews possible vulnerability and resilience factors and adopts a risk management framework to outline its potential for modelling the complex relationships between these variables and both growth and distress outcomes. Resilience and vulnerability is discussed at dispositional, cognitive and organisational levels. The paradigm developed here focuses attention on facilitating recovery and growth in professionals for whom disaster work and its consequences is an occupational reality.

Notes: The relentless onslaught of computers and communications technologies has recently descended on the healthcare industry. Fortunately, however, the utilization of technologies in healthcare delivery and administration could not be timelier because of the need to control escalating health costs. While the proliferation of information and communication technologies in healthcare, referred to as health management information systems (HMIS), is certainly long overdue in healthcare organizations (HCOs), it is important to recognize and be prepared for the vulnerabilities of these technologies to natural, technological, and man-made disasters. This paper describes how HCOs have justifiably become dependent on HMIS and how these organizations may proactively plan for disasters which can impact on HMIS. A phased approach, referred to as the disaster recovery and business continuity (DRBC) planning model, is presented in the paper as an approach to develop and implement business continuity plans in HCOs.

Notes: With the emergence of biological weapons of mass destruction as potential tools of terrorism, Presidential Decision Directive 39 initiated US plans to enhance mitigation and response activity. Anecdotal information suggests many of the likely behavioral and organizational response challenges are not being addressed. The current paper applies the disaster research literature to identify the likely behavioral and organizational response challenges a community or nation would encounter in a bio-terrorist attack on a metropolitan area. Mitigation and response planning, it is argued, would be enhanced if these likely challenges were actually taken into account.

Notes: Explains that while some non-governmental organization (NGO) managers report that international staff are more difficult to manage than national staff, others report the opposite. Such different perceptions stem from different expectations of staff from different cultures. Describes a study in which NGO managers working in field programmes were surveyed on their perceptions of the differences between national and international staff. International staff were regarded by respondents as being: more likely to act on their own initiative; less likely to need close supervision; and more demanding of themselves and of others. Those reporting that international staff were more difficult to manage were more likely to have more than five years' work experience in developing countries. This may be explained by managers adapting to the culture in which they work. Such a cultural adaptation on the part of managers may in turn explain why relief workers often report that they are dissatisfied with their managers.

Notes: For many years there has been increasing concern about the effects of human error in complex system safety and reliability. This concern has been increased owing to accidents such as Chernobyl, Bhopal, Herald of Free Enterprise, Three Mile Island and the Kegworth air disaster. In the vast majority of these accidents, human error has played a critical role in the events precipitating the accident. Such accidents can in theory be predicted and prevented by risk assessment, in particular assessing the human contribution to risk. However, the collection of human-error data has proved a difficult field for the past 30 years, and yet industry would benefit from the existence of a robust human-error database. Provides therefore a brief historical résumé of past human-error databases, and discusses data collection and the inherent problems associated with data-collection schemes. Goes on to outline a human-error database currently being developed at Birmingham University, and presents information on regularly quantified human-error types. Finally, gives a general synopsis of the research and provides a selection of real human-error data points.

Notes: Investigates the effects of earthquakes in the Victoria region of Australia. Looks at how they can be predicted by the use of seismology, and how this information can be used to protect buildings from major damage. Examines a system developed by the Seismology Research Centre, Bundoora, Australia, to provide alarm, damage scenario and response information after moderate or large earthquakes.

Notes: Malaysia is an ex-colonial, newly-industrialising country, with a sustained high economic growth rate averaging eight per cent GDP per annum over the past ten years. Within such a rapidly booming economy, the pace of social, economic and political change is fast, as is the pace of technological change. Other things being equal, these are the changes in which environmental hazards can be magnified. As a result of rapid economic development, physical systems are disturbed and changed. For example, the modification of the hydrological cycle due to deforestation, urbanisation, development of hill slopes and other human land use have given rise to increased risks of landslides. In recent years, the collapse of a block of luxury condominiums in Kuala Lumpur, the Genting Highland and Pos Dipang landslide tragedies as well as other landslide disasters have caused substantial loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. Combined with intensive development of hill slopes and hill land for housing, recreation, tourism, agriculture, highway and dam construction, and other human induced land use changes, the exposure and vulnerability of human populations to landslide hazards have also increased. Other reasons, largely structural, such as persistent poverty, low residential and occupational mobility, and landlessness, manifested in illegal squatting and farming on hill slopes and foothills have also contributed to increased vulnerability of large communities to landslide hazards in many parts of the country. As Malaysia pushes ahead to meet its target of becoming a fully industrialised country by the year 2020, further environmental degradation is expected to occur. Notwithstanding other aspects of environmental degradation, the occurrence of landslide hazards is expected to become a common feature of Malaysian life.

Notes: This paper describes the phenomenon of tsunamis within the European Seas and explains how tsunami research has developed during the last 40 years as a response to a large tsunami which occurred in the Aegean Sea region of Greece in 1956. The paper states that specific tsunami hazard maps have been established for particular coastal areas of Greece and that these maps and any associated disaster management plans have been developed as a tool to mitigate the effects of future tsunamis in the region. The author provides the results of new investigations of the effects of a past tsunami in Greece and shows that the magnitude of this event has been overestimated. The results imply that revisions of the urban hazard maps and associated disaster preparedness plans should be considered.

Notes: The emergence of biological weapons of mass destruction as likely terrorist means of reigning terror on domestic urban populations is outlined. The dimensions of such a possible future catastrophe are described. The lack of preparedness to mitigate and respond to such an event is noted and it is argued that the disaster research literature should be consulted as a guide to help develop effective mitigation and response plans.

Notes: As information systems (IS) become indispensable, EDP disaster recovery has to become an essential IS function. In this paper, after discussing the criticality of sound planning for information systems disaster recovery in banks, the approach to contingency planning adopted by Banca Commerciale Italiana, one of the largest banks of Italy, is presented. The most crucial point of the whole decision-making process was the selection of the most reliable layout configuration. Hence, the steps and the simulation methodology followed to such a purpose are illustrated. Finally the benefits and pitfalls of the solution adopted in Banca Commerciale Italiana are discussed.

Notes: While natural disasters cannot be prevented, measures need to be taken to reduce the extent of damage, especially in a vast country like India with a huge population base and scarce facilities. Proper physical planning is an important tool, which one should utilize to regulate urban development as per the extent of damage anticipated. The article is a brief account of a study done on the city of Patna, in Bihar, a flood-affected city of India, where strategies were developed to link the process of urban planning to the risk and damage of flooding in the area.

Notes: The area of disaster studies is plagued by dubious statistical data and widespread conceptual disagreements. This is the major focus of discussion in the paper. We detail the limitations in much of the numerical data that are both specifically and generally used in discussions of disasters. Factors that are responsible for this, including inadequate conceptualizations about disasters are discussed. We also show that there is not much consensus by researchers and others about many of the most central concepts used such as "disaster", "hazards," "risk," etc. In our call for more reliable statistics and more relevant concepts, we provide examples and suggestions of how this could be done.

Notes: The study's focal point is the obvious parameter that we all have in most of our relationships, which is the unknown parameter. What is it that we do not know? In other words, the process of relationship building on the market often suffers from certain events or "dark horses" that are difficult to handle in long-term relationships. Such events often illuminate themselves through questions like why, what, who, and so on, when we examine firms. Examples of situations where unpredicted events appear and destroy relationships are given in the paper. The paper ends with a discussion, and some suggestions, on how to solve the problem of "dark horses".

Notes: The core business of fire-fighting organizations is typically seen as emergency response. For a range of reasons, however, fire-fighting organizations face increasing pressures to develop new capabilities. In the midst of multiple changes, individual organizations need to develop strategic plans that allow them not only to change the organization, but also to develop the capabilities of its personnel. This paper considers the case of one large Australian fire-fighting organization's attempts to develop new in-house educational practices. These attempts can be seen retrospectively to build on previous cultural practices without causing industrial revolt, and at the same time to encourage aspiring middle managers to respond to emerging corporate goals.

Notes: Is a holistic approach to the disaster problem required? Seeks to answer this question by examining the 1997-1998 El Niño disasters in Peru. Explores the key factors that contributed to the disaster and highlights the subsequent effects and response operations. Discusses the need for a theory of disaster management that takes into account all types of hazards, numerous variables from the physical and social environments, as well as each phase of emergency management.

Notes: Governments of all political complexions seek economic advantage through supporting high profile projects in the field of high technology. "High tech" becomes a mantra, comprising activities with a wide range of possible outcomes, inevitably demanding large investments, and promising high rewards. It is a relative term and every generation defines its "leading edge" projects in a similar way; although the substantive technology differs, building on the learning previously achieved and assimilated into the paradigm of "normal science". Some of these projects work, but many do not: some end in spectacular and catastrophic failure. The resulting disasters are subsequently ascribed to exogenous causes, such as "Acts of God", or are explained as due to the inherently risky consequence of working at the frontiers of new technology and of the dangerous but none the less essential choices made at the political level, without which "progress" would not be achieved. Politicians, technologists and managers bear specific and local responsibilities for the failure of systems on their watch but it is arguably the failure of the academic theorists of disaster to contribute in a more socially engaged way that most supports the ability of society not to hear the messages it wishes to evade.

Notes: The intelligence and security services are working closely with law enforcement agencies to counteract the activities of organized criminal syndicates and international terrorist organizations. Intelligence work is expected to become more broad based in the future and experts from the private sector will work more closely with personnel from the public sector. A number of long-term workable partnership arrangements will be formed based on trustworthy behaviour. A greater commitment to disaster management and recovery should witness a greater emphasis on business continuity planning, and this should result in more robust corporate security systems being developed and installed.

Notes: Discusses the nature of disaster and the future of emergency management. After exploring differing historical perspectives of disaster, puts forth a model of vulnerability and highlights the plethora of factors that contribute to calamitous events. Introduces the concept of invulnerable development as a method of vulnerability management and compares it to other terms that have been proposed as guides for future disaster policy. The central argument to be made is that vulnerability is, or should be, the key concept for disaster scholarship and reduction.

Notes: Following the marine accident of Erika off the French coast in 1999 shipping administration (and especially the European Union) - in its familiar reactive way - is ready to legislate against tankers of more than 15 years of age, against negligent classification societies and against single-hull tankers. The positive fact is the initiative of the European Parliament and the Council to set up a community framework for cooperation in the field of accidental or deliberate marine pollution. Moreover, the EU fears that all sub-standard tankers will eventually be banned from the USA - due to the gradual enforcement of the Oil Pollution Act 1990 - and will come to European waters to continue their polluting habits. So, Europe is about to legislate its own Oil Pollution Act, on even stricter terms than the USA. Provides a survey of the issues involved by setting down the correct - in the author's opinion - facts about marine accidents, the misunderstanding of which has negated the effectiveness of all measures taken so far against marine accidents.

Notes: Researchers and counsellors have observed a range of stress reactions in emergency service workers even after extreme and putatively traumatic incidents. Various studies have sought to delineate characteristics of incidents or of individuals which account for differences in appraisal and stress reactions. Few studies have examined expectations of stress and stressors in recruits to emergency work. Looks at such expectations in firefighter recruits, measured at the beginning and end of their training program, and compares their predictions with actual ratings from a group of experienced firefighters in the same organization. Most of the recruits already had some familiarity with the emergency environment. Stress ratings for items dealing with other people in the emergency work context increased over training. Discusses the relationships between predictions of stress, training, and task performance.

Notes: Malaysia experiences a major flood event every three years due to the adverse effects of two monsoon seasons a year. Floods have thus become the most significant natural disaster in the country in terms of the population affected, frequency, aerial extent, financial cost and the disruption to socio-economic activities. Many previous flood control measures have had different levels of success but have generally had little effect in reducing the problem. However, it is now understood that it is neither possible nor desirable to control floods completely. Spatial information technology is thus being increasingly recognized as the most effective approach to flood disaster management. This paper reviews the spatial information technology in flood disaster management and its application in Malaysia. Some flood forecasting systems are discussed, along with their shortcomings. The paper discusses the framework of a proposed flood early warning system for the Langat river basin that operationally couples real-time NOAA-AVHRR data for quantitative precipitation forecasting with hydrologically oriented GIS and a MIKE11 hydrodynamic model.

Notes: Describes how the Society for National Integration through Rural Development in India involves the local communities when developing disaster mitigation measures. Shows how participation of the community in resource identification, capabilities, coping mechanisms and vulnerability assessment will be more effective in the planning of a sensible and practical system, more suitable for the needs of the community. Covers contingency planning, community preparedness, task forces (comprising active youths in the ratio of one youth for ten families) and response mechanisms.

Notes: This paper is a part of some on-going research to evaluate environmental compliance by chemical facilities with Title III requirements. The purpose of this paper is to report on a case study in Lake County, Indiana. We evaluate environmental compliance of chemical facilities through the perceptions and opinions of the members of the Lake County Local Emergency Planning Committee. We find that major problems perceived by the local emergency planners are the lack of knowledge of reporting requirements by the small chemical facilities and the difficulty of monitoring these facilities. Recognizing the limitations of this study, we hope that it will help to understand how local communities can effectively encourage facilities to comply with Title III without direct government involvement.

Notes: Purpose - Proposes to analyze known case studies of information systems failure. Design/methodology/approach - Uses the organizational failure diagnosis model. Findings - Finds that there is the need to assess the organization's "health" prior to information systems development and to raise the organization's actual capacity for systems development to the necessary levels for success. Originality/value - Previous studying of these cases has underplayed the role of technical problems as the surface manifestations of deeper-rooted organizational pathologies causing the failure. The usefulness of the organizational failure diagnosis model is shown in recognizing these deeper-rooted issues and a number of suggestions are made for the prevention of failure.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to review the changes made to civil protection in the UK, both legislative and capacity building, that aim to make the UK more resilient. Design/methodology/approach - Reviews the background to changes in UK civil protection and compares these with the work being done by the broader disaster management community on the meaning and development of resilience to a range of threats. Findings - Finds that the UK approach has been deflected by the terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 and is clearly focused on organisational resilience. This top-down approach does not augur well in terms of promoting a more resilient society. The paper also questions if it is time to take a broader view of what constitutes an emergency. Originality/value - The recent changes in UK civil protection are in many ways welcome. But the promotion of more resilient communities requires a bottom-up as opposed to a top-down approach. Government funding is aimed mainly at institutional resilience. This raises the question of how to promote a broader agenda of more resilient societies able to respond to a broad range of threats.

Notes: Purpose - It is observed that the slow onslaught disasters do not normally catch media attention as these often do not result in human casualties. Inadequate media attention results in insufficient rehabilitation support for the victims. The paper aims at highlighting the problem of ground subsidence in the Himalayan terrain together with the hardships of the victims. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is based on the detailed field investigations carried out by the author in the remote Himalayan habitations of Garbyang in Dharchula block of Pithoragarh, Talla Dhumar and Umli-Bhandarigaon in Munsyari block of Pithoragarh and Bagi in Uttarkashi district in the state of Uttaranchal in India. All these habitations are being affected by ground subsidence and the inhabitants of these villages are facing severe resource crisis. Findings - Garbyang village in Central Himalaya is observed to be situated over the varve deposits laid down in the proglacial lake abutting against Chialekh ridge and is witnessing the problem of ground subsidence resulting in the destruction of the once thriving and prosperous habitation. The studies relate the subsidence at Garbyang with the seismicity in the region as also the subsequent toe erosion and downslope mass movement. The other sites discussed in the paper are witnessing the problem of ground subsidence due to the active toe erosion by rivers and streams. Research limitations/implications - There exist no records of the exact date of initiation of the ground subsidence in the investigated areas and these are grossly based on the information provided by the village elders. Originality/value - The article would help in making the disaster managers responsive to the problems the masses are facing due to ground subsidence in this fragile zone and this would result in mustering resources for reducing the hardships of the masses.

Notes: Purpose - To highlight the failure of the tsunami early warning system and the challenges of successfully responding to, and managing a transnational catastrophe of this nature. The paper also highlights unique challenges in the management of this catastrophe and suggests potential strategies for good disaster response and management in this response and beyond. Design/methodology/approach - Primary data collection was by telephone interviews with experts in the South and South-East Asian region, supplemented by a comprehensive literature review of scholarly journals, reports from relief agencies and United Nations situation reports and bulletins amongst others. The scope of the paper is limited to the issue of a warning not been passed onto appropriate authorities in the region, the unique challenges of the relief response and the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the affected communities. Findings - From the study, there is a need for further investigation into the catastrophic warning failure; as reasons proffered by the early warning officials for their inability to pass on a warning to authorities in the affected area appear weak at this stage. The study also found unique geographical, political, economic and social challenges facing the international relief and reconstruction effort. Specifically some of the challenges include the management of the media and information, logistics and coordination, needs and damage assessment, donations and safety and security issues amongst others. In summary, the author found that there is also a need for foreign assistance agencies to be seen to be fair, to build trust and ownership of relief and reconstruction efforts amongst the local populace, as well as use local people as much as possible. Research limitations/implications - The study was conducted only 21 days (three weeks) after the tsunami catastrophe of 26 December 2004, hence it is a snapshot of events in the days immediately after the catastrophe. The relief action is an on-going event and there may be changes as new information emerges from the field. Practical implications - A world wide network of integrated submarine earthquake and tsunami monitoring and early warning system should be set up. Critical warning information in any potential disaster should be shared as inclusively as possible. Relief workers must be seen to be politically and religiously neutral, especially in the civil conflicts of Banda Aceh Indonesia. Finally relief and aid should be given on the basis of sound humanitarian principles such as need, not just on wider economic criteria. Originality/value - The study highlights specific potential challenges which relief organisations must deal with in responding effectively to the disaster, and in assisting to reconstruct the region. The paper proffers specific strategies for effective management of the international assistance effort. Finally, the study adds to the literature on developing countries and is valuable for governments, emergency and relief workers, policy makers in both developed and developing countries.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to initiate a conversation within the disaster community about the applicability of "critical reflection" to the professional work of firefighters. "Critical reflection" is a term commonly used within the nursing and teaching professions. Although it has contested meanings, it generally conveys the sense of purposeful enquiry about one's professional conduct, ethics and decision making. Fire fighting labor is no longer blue collar, and firefighters in western fire fighting agencies require increasingly complex capabilities and accountabilities. Could "critical reflection" be added to post-incident debrief as a core professional capability? Design/methodology/approach - The paper draws on the concept of "critical reflection" as it has been developed within the professional fields of nursing and teaching. It then considers the applicability of and importance of this concept to the professional field of firefighting. Findings - The meanings and applications of "critical reflection" vary, but the inclusion of dialogue about it exists within many nurse and teacher education courses. It can be argued to provide professionals with an opportunity to engage in dialogue about their labor, and thereby scrutinise their professional conduct and the ethical dilemmas of their work. Practical implications - This paper calls for a paradigmatic shift in the approach taken by educators who work with firefighters. It argues that instructional methods based on rote learning, chalk and talk, and show and tell training are insufficient as a means of developing firefighters capable of responding and adapting to the complex demands implicit within increasingly professionalized firefighting labor. Future firefighters will need to be adaptive, reflective and accountable; able to demonstrate discursive and inquisitive capabilities; and engage in reflected actions both on and off the incident ground. Originality/value - High originality. This is the first time the intellectual traditions and debates implicit within "critical reflection" have been linked to the work of firefighters.

Notes: The fireworks industry is a dangerous business. Many disasters occur due to manufacturing and use of fireworks. It has been recorded that there have been 15 disasters resulting from fireworks worldwide. Malaysia has experienced such tragedies through a fire and explosion of Bright Sparklers fireworks factory. This paper summarizes the sequence of events which led to the Bright Sparkler disaster and proposes some lessons which could be learned from the experience.

Notes: Civil protection, or emergency preparedness as it is known in the USA, has grown in response to the need to protect populations against natural and technological disasters. Over the past two decades it has partially supplanted civil defence, which is primarily concerned with civilian response to armed aggression. This article traces the evolution of both fields and analyses their often uneasy relationship. It discusses the probable long-term effect of the US terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 on emergency management policies around the world and considers the implications of the probable changes in terms of citizen's rights and expectations in disaster situations. With the new emphasis on anti-terrorism measures, and a new spirit of authoritarianism, civil defense appears to be becoming resurgent at the expense of the more democratic forms of crisis management inherent in modern civil protection arrangements.

Notes: Purpose - Given the widespread lack of homogeneity, consistency and quality control in emergency planning, this paper sets out to offer some suggestions, guidelines and models for the processes of drawing up, testing, revising and utilising an emergency plan. Design/methodology/approach - The paper considers some definitions of the term "standard" and discussing the utility of the concept with respect to emergency planning. The subsequent analysis is based on the application of logical and observational criteria to the process of systematically building a framework on which to base a planning standard. Findings - The paper enumerates 18 principles that can be used to judge the quality of emergency plans. The principles are treated as basic criteria to be used when formulating a standard. Next, the paper reviews existing standards in civil protection, risk management, emergency preparedness and humanitarian relief. After a brief discussion of the consultative process used in preparing an instrument for measuring quality, the paper presents a draft standard for an emergency plan. This is broadly focused on the local authority level and on the generic, "all-hazards" approach. Finally, the paper describes a category-based methodology for applying the standard. Research limitations/implications - Standards may be viewed as unnecessarily restrictive and overly prescriptive. However, they can instead be regarded as a useful means of helping to guarantee the quality, content and relevance of plans. Practical implications - The application of a standard to the emergency planning process will help to make plans more functional and relevant and will ensure that their content is adequate for the task of predisposing resources during emergencies. It will also guarantee compatibility between plans made for different purposes or jurisdictions. Originality/value - As few model standards exist in emergency management and planning, this paper offers one of the first attempts to provide a set of generic, comprehensive guidelines for the process of creating, testing, using and revising plans.

Notes: Purpose - To develop a decision model supporting employee involvement in industrial vulnerability reduction. Design/methodology/approach - A synthesis review of some of the relevant extant literature on technological/industrial vulnerability, and their application within a normative decision-making model (i.e. the "Vroom-Yetton model"). Findings - The insights on vulnerability drawn from the literature are highly amenable to a systematic decision-making model for employee involvement. Various aspects of vulnerability, specifically with regard to substantial, social and temporal dimensions may be included in such a model. Research limitations/implications - New insights about the context-dependent aspects of vulnerability are offered by considering these within a contingency decision model. This suggests that vulnerability categories are not absolute, but have to be assessed in relation to a specific decision-making framework. Practical implications - The developed model provides a way of weighting various dimensions of vulnerability and making more appropriate decisions regarding leadership style in a range of circumstances. Originality/value - While decision models exist for assessing risk in organizations, no contingency model for employee involvement in vulnerability assessment has been presented to date.

Notes: Purpose - Over the past 50 years India has been experiencing rapid population growth, causing the migration of a large part of the population to the cities looking for livelihood. This resulted in massive increments of population in the cities that has led to the increase of pollution. Gujarat, being a highly industrialized state, is a case in point. The systems for treatment and water disposal of this state are highly challenged. The north-western state of Gujarat has no effective systems for treatment or disposal of waste water. The purpose of this article is to address this problem, introducing a geographic information system (GIS) approach to record the characterization, analyze the needs and generate a conceptual GIS database in the state. Design/methodology/approach - This paper outlines the background, suggested methodology for the development of a GIS database pollution dependent control of water pollution in the state of Gujarat in India. The present research is to install a document management system that has been developed in providing organizing chart, sorting, querying and retrieving of key data. A computerized laboratory information system on monitoring of quality of ambient air has been developed. Findings - An integrated GIS database has been generated involving creation of pollutant contours, querying and visualizing the query output in spatial and non-spatial form. Originality/value - The authors have created a complete geo-spatial database for the environmental monitoring for the whole state of Gujarat. They have dealt with nearly 36,000 different files from different sources and put them together to create the database. A computerized laboratory information system on monitoring of quality of ambient air has been developed. Front-end application programs have been developed in Visual Basic and the back-end database to integrate the laboratory data and the existing data in oracle database.

Notes: Purpose - Many villages in the vicinity of the hill township of Mussorie in the Indian Himalayas are witnessing signs of an impending disaster. These villages are witnessing active wastage that might take an heavy toll of human interest during the monsoon season and therefore the paper proposes examining this subject. Design/methodology/approach - A detailed study was undertaken in the area of Mussorie. Findings - It is suggested that a series of prevention and mitigation measures (both structural and non-structural) with the involvement of the local community are required for ruling out the possibility of any mishap in the area. Originality/value - This paper highlights the importance of having a disaster management strategies for the region and involving the community with these.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to present a new approach in viewing the control of safety at crude oil exploration platforms. Design/methodology/approach - The approach utilized in this work is the fusion of artificial neural network and fuzzy logic. The approach is adopted in view of the better presentation of solutions to the safety control problem that neuro-fuzzy exhibits. It is better than the individual application of either artificial neural network or fuzz logic to the problem at hand. The model captures uncertainties and imprecision that are prevalent in the quantification or data gathering stage of safety control measurement. Findings - It was demonstrated that the application of neuro-fuzzy is feasible. The results seem applicable to similar settings with similar system characteristics. Practical implications - Since more confidence is obtained with the use of this more effective tool, there is improvement in decision making based on reliance on the model. Thus, the improved quality of decision made would positively affect lives of workers at the oil platforms or the materials or equipment used for exploration purposes. Originality/value - The work is original in that it is the first time the neuro-fuzzy methodology would be applied to offshore oil platform safety control.

Notes: Purpose - To follow the modern movement of using "positive feedback" to explain companies' behaviour with special focus on historical accidents. Design/methodology/approach - To contribute to the emergence of new complexity theory as applied to management and prove that historical accidents matter, combining and bringing together literature sources. Findings - The concept of unique equilibrium has been seriously disputed - the selection process is shown, as is the path dependent process using probability theory. Practical implications - A location theory as case study is outlined - great for those fond of unique equilibrium. Originality/value - To show another theory, which is dynamic, non-linear, and complex as reality; to apply it to management underlying at the same time the role of historical accidents (random process).

Notes: The main objective of this paper is the assessment of the environmental impact due to accidental spills of toxic and flammable liquids on land. Different case studies of possible accidents in the State of Qatar were considered. An EPA-based dispersion model was utilized to estimate the size and location of the dangerous clouds generated by such spills at different elapsed times. Three case studies of possible accidents in the State of Qatar involving gasoline were considered. Due to the transient nature of the dispersion processes in the case studies, the results showed clearly the phenomenon of growth and decay of the generated dangerous clouds. An interface between the dynamic results of the dispersion software and the static data of the Qatar geographical information system (GIS) allowed the immediate identification of the major landmarks affected by the considered accidents. These data would be of great help in developing an emergency evacuation plan for such accidents.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to consider the analysis of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks provided by the US National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the USA from the points of view of behavior analysis and systems analysis. The 9/11 Commission provides a detailed and provocative account of the structural flaws in the US security systems that enabled the 9/11 terrorists to completely subvert efforts to detect and prevent their attack. This paper considers the role of private-sector organizations in prevention of future attacks. Design/methodology/approach - This conceptual/theoretical paper explores how understanding verbal networks and the nature of verbal rules might contribute to understanding the issues involved in re-engineering work cultures in the face of continued terrorist threats. Findings - An understanding of verbal networks and ambiguous communications aids the re-design of management systems and emergency response processes so that adaptive organizational responses to terrorist threats are enabled. Originality/value - Private-sector leaders might conduct behavioral systems analyses and probe the limitations of their operations and seek to detect weak points and create contingencies that sustain more effective security and emergency response repertoires.

Notes: Looks at major disasters and the steps taken to limit the problems whichhave and may occur, by an adequate training resource. Looks inparticular at oil-rig disasters such as Piper Alpha, Ekofisk, AleksanderKjelland and Ocean Ranger all of which had contributory shortcomingsenhanced by management on-and off-shore. Reinforces the concepts that anemergency response or contingency plan must provide the basis foremergency training, and that training for the 1990s will be insimulators.

Notes: Have disasters become more frequent and more severe? We often assumethat they have but a review of the evidence does not support this view,so far as the oil and chemical industries are concerned. In the 1970sthe size of the chemical industry doubled but the number and frequencyof accidents killing five or more people remained constant. However, inthe 1980s, although the frequency remained the same there were moremajor incidents and more people died. Two forgotten, nineteenth centurydisasters, which resulted, like Hillsborough (1989), from the failure ofcrowd control, are described.

Notes: There is sometimes a divergence of opinion between scientists and thegeneral public on the acceptability of the risk associated with anindustrial project. This divergence has sometimes been attributed to alack of understanding of scientific issues on the part of the generalpublic. Attempts to gain acceptance have therefore centred on publiceducation or information campaigns. Scientific assessment of riskconcentrates on the parameters of probability and severity. Thephenomenon of the issue-attention cycle demonstrates, however, thatperceived risk can vary without the probability or severity changing,indicating that there is a third factor which is a major determinant ofperceived or subjective risk. This is the salience of the issue. Thecomplexity of modern society makes it impossible to evaluate all risksobjectively. In everyday life heuristics, or rules of thumb, aretherefore used to evaluate those risks which have the greatest effect inour personal environment. The process of making the public aware of anissue which needs to be evaluated in this way is referred to as "agendasetting".

Notes: Assesses the capability of dealing with all the issues resulting from amajor incident. Looks at some ways to develop and improve managementcapability and success in introducing and working with an IncidentCommand System. This also helps company staff to heighten theirawareness of the importance of safety and environmental protection.

Notes: Draws attention to contextual variables in the development andmanagement of safety cultures. Examines the relationship betweencorporate culture change and safety management and considers theimplications for safety of the manipulation of values and beliefs aspart of corporate motivation. Considers the extent to which thedevelopment of a safety culture is compatible with the development of acorporate culture. Examines the following areas, the pursuit of order,conflict and contradiction, rhetoric and taken-for-granted assumptions,in order to challenge cosmetic approaches to safety management.Indicates the importance of recognizing that some information defiesdata capture and gives attention to the irrational aspects of systems.Isolates issues for management in the perception and promotion of safetyand offers current examples of good practice.

Notes: Coping style has been examined across a variety of stressful encounters,but surprisingly little is known about coping in the emergency ordisaster context. Examines coping strategies and impact of events inemergency workers who generally have not been exposed to major events inthe course of their emergency role. The profile of scores suggests thatemergency workers are problem-focused and are less inclined to assuageproblems through emotion-focused coping, thus supporting the popularnotion of emergency workers as task-oriented and committed to action.Discusses the extent to which this profile may enhance wellbeing andprevent stress symptoms following emergency events.

Notes: Recent experience in many conflict areas has shown thatreconstruction and development assistance can be used to support peaceinitiatives before a final resolution to conflict is achieved. Initself, spot reconstruction will not bring about peace, but it can makea contribution towards reducing the scope of the conflict and providemuch-needed assistance to people who otherwise would be forced to leavetheir homes in search of relief and public welfare. Attempts to definespot reconstruction and outlines the key elements, prerequisites andguidelines for decision making when considering a spot reconstructionprogramme.

Notes: Firefighters completed a questionnaire which examined both positiveand negative reactions following major call-outs. Positive reactionswere more frequently checked than negative ones. Factor analysis ofpositive reactions resulted in four factors, suggesting that positivereactions after a call-out represented more than an increased sense ofgeneral wellbeing. The type of reactions reported were related to thetype of incident attended. Differences in reaction patterns were relatedto self-reported coping style and age of the firefighters.

Notes: When disasters, even natural ones, have a chemical or nucleardimension, scientists play a major role in their management. Presentsthe results of research on Canadian disasters, and includes other casesof disasters that occurred around the world. Discusses the experts' rolein decisions related to the response: how to identify a specificproduct, its impact on health, for example, in a climate of uncertainty;how to justify their methods, to the press, the politicians and thevictims as well as to the public. This "glass-house" workingatmosphere is very different from the one in which they carry out theirroutine analyses. Therefore their ability to communicate and theircredibility are very important aspects of their role.

Notes: Rapid assessment of a community's capacity to continue coping inthe aftermath of disaster could be of great value. Gradations ofcommunity consequences can provide emergency planners with criteria toguide them to realistic needs assessment and are invaluable toresearchers in classifying incidents by intensity. Conventional wisdommight lead us to view impact on community functioning in disasters as acontinuum, ranging from minimal to total collapse. Such a perceptionlacks clear-cut gradation, making administrative judgements difficultand contributing to the squandering of relief resources because of ourinaccurate assessment of the community's incapacity. The precise pointswhere communities cross damage thresholds resulting in the collapse ofinfrastructure appear at first, to vary inexplicably. Carefulconsideration suggests three sets of factors which interface to affectthese thresholds. Taken together, these will raise or lower communitycapacity to cope with adversity. The appropriate level of emergencyrelief could best be determined if we can strengthen our ability toassess rapidly the community's remaining capacity to provide for its ownpopulation. Proposes that this could be accomplished by the scaling ofthree sets of factors: community background, event factors and impactfactors. Although the need for scaling cannot be denied, the specificsof this suggestion will need to be tested to determine theirapplicability.

Notes: Although disasters remain statistically rare events, the lastdecade has seen an increase in the number of major incidents affectingthe UK. Concurrent with this increase have come clinical data, showinghow psycho-social health may be adversely affected by disasters. Aims togive the UK Department of Health a survey of the current provision ofpsycho-social care after disasters at English Regional Health Authoritylevel and to make recommendations regarding good practice in the care ofvictims of trauma by health care professionals. Uses varied methodology.Letters were sent to all the Regional Public Health Departments, askingfor information about the psychological care element within their majorincident plans. Shows that the provision for psycho-social carefollowing a disaster in England is extremely variable and although thereare undoubtedly regions with considerable expertise and interest, thereare also regions where provision appears to be minimal or non-existent.Recommends the provision of specialist traumatic stress services atregional level.

Notes: The response management of the Kobe earthquake in 1995 providespractitioners and theorists of crisis and disaster management with muchto consider. As in other efforts around the world the Kobe responsemanagement appeared slow and less than optimal in performance. Focuseson the effects of magnitude of impact and degree of strategicpreparedness that may affect response. Magnitude of impact is the degreeto which impact damage seems random in occurrence, the size of theimpact area, the severity of impact, the ratio of visible to invisibledamage, the number of major sub-event crises triggered by the impact ofthe event, and the degree of psychological distortion caused by (oraccelerated by) the impact of the event. The degree of strategicpreparedness depends on the degree to which response managers cansuccessfully translate meta-strategic missions and objectives intooperational strategies that are realistic and achievable in any givencrisis or disaster event. Components of strategic preparedness includethe provision of escalation triggers, establishing cascaded priorities,and having and maintaining a dynamic reserve. Planning and preparing forcrises and disasters needs to include cascade strategic priorityprofiles for communities, consideration of cultural features oforganizations and communities in developing plans and preparedness,establishing quantifiable escalation triggers for response management,and developing and maintaining a working dynamic reserve.