ALBERT

Notes: X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns from nominally β-SiC specimens often differ from those expected for the cubic crystal structure. These differences include the presence of additional peaks, enhanced background intensities, peak broadening, changes in relative peak heights, and shifts in peak positions. It has long been recognized that they are due to the presence of stacking faults, and models relating the experimental observations to stacking fault population have continued to evolve. The presence and relative magnitude of these features vary among different β-SiC specimens. In this work, computer simulations were used to show that the variations are closely related to differences in the type and spatial distribution of stacking faults in each specimen. In these simulations, stacking sequences were generated using a selectively activated 1-D Ising model with a Boltzmann-type probability function for specifying errors, which allows a wide variety of fault configurations to be generated. Direct correlations between different features in the XRD data to the underlying fault population are demonstrated, which are discussed in this paper. It is also shown that this computer model is general, in the sense that many of the models presented in prior work can be interpreted as limiting cases of it.

Notes: The advent of National Vocational Qualifications represents an important change in British Government policy from attempting to secure appropriate training inputs to a system driven by the aim of stimulating the attainment of learning outcomes assessed against national standards. This article presents a case study of the implications of this policy for intermediate skills in engineering, a major industry subject to rapid technological change.

Notes: This article examines the relationship between technology, entrepreneurial human capital and company performance in a sample of textile and clothing SMEs in Great Britain. General conclusions suggest that firms with a computer network are more likely to have a formal management team. Networked firms appear to be larger: smaller companies are making increasing use of computer networks.

Notes: This article examines two issues: first how Japanese companies recruit, train and utilise engineers in their UK transplants; secondly, how technology transfer between British and Japanese engineers is affected by career structures. It draws on questionnaire responses from 88 companies and interviews at a small number of sites.

Notes: From the 1980s, the paper and board industry in Britain, in response to the pressures of strong foreign competition, sought the fuller utilisation of new and existing technology through changing work practices. This particularly involved the extensive introduction of annualised hours arrangements with national bargaining arrangements playing a major role in their introduction.

Notes: Research that questions the general validity of flexible specialisation can be supplemented by an example that is, paradoxically, frequently used as a supporting example: ceramic tile production. This article examines some comparative evidence and concludes that support is illusory and all too often based on the same weak original data, while there are actually more robust indications of moves towards classical mass production.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article:Expertise and Innovation: Information Technology Strategies in the Financial Services SectorEthics of Information ManagementAcquiring, Adapting and Developing Technologies: Lessons from the Japanese ExperienceTeleworking ExplainedTime Pioneers: Flexible Working Time and New LifestylesThe Future of Industrial RelationsEnterprise Without UnionsThe Electronic Eye: the rise of surveillance societyManaging Production—Engineering Change and StabilityBusiness Reengineering: The Survival GuideISO 9000—Quality Systems Handbook

Notes: This article argues that studies of the introduction of new technology have tended to ignore the contributions of pre-Braverman approaches. However, in some cases, they have implicitly rediscovered the findings of an older industrial sociology.

Notes: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) for communication between different corporate computer systems was expected to transform relationships between firms. However, this detailed study of three sectors of the UK publishing industry—the book trade; the magazine and newspaper trade; and newsprint supply to newspapers—found that EDI developed in a slow and incremental manner. This calls into question the radical visions of proponents of business network redesign.

Notes: This article examines job knowledge and skill in clerical work drawing on five case studies from the area of credit management. The cognitive, social and ‘tacit’ skills necessary for clerical effectiveness in this sector are identified and examined. Feminist approaches to skills analysis are used to examine how and why this type of work is under-valued.

Notes: Utilising a typology based on the previous occupational background of owner-managers within technology-based organizations, this article analyses the previous management and technical experiences of a sample of technical entrepreneurs in the UK. Overall, the study concludes that management and technical experience will differ according to occupational background, which may have implications for support provided to small technology-based firms.

Notes: This article explores management's strategic decision making in relation to Total Quality Management (TQM). It demonstrates that management's strategies are fraught with politics and power relations, which influence the ‘choice’ of strategy and the way in which such strategies are ‘implemented’. Hence, management's strategic decision making may not be planned and rational, and their behaviour is often contradictory which may undermine TQM or render its outcomes uncertain and contestable.

Notes: This article examines the role which elite MNC employers play in the process of qualification inflation within the Irish Republic. While these employers do not contribute towards inflation across technical occupations the tendency to select the most qualified within individual occupations has led to the emergence of a ‘graduate barrier’ between technicians and engineers/scientists.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article:Enriching Production: Perspectives on Volvo's Uddevalla Plant as an Alternative to Lean Production Ake Sandberg (Ed.)Breaking from Taylorism: Changing Forms of Work in the Automobile Industry Ulrich Jurgens, Thomas Malsch and Knuth Dohse Cambridge University Press

Notes: This article takes the view that BPR in the dominant form in which it is presently characterised, is a re-expression of industrial age classical administration. As such it is oblivious of organization as a political entity or as a set of ‘human resources' . What is needed is a new model of BPR for the information age.

Notes: Here the author examines continuities and tensions between the discourses of Business Process Re-engineering and Human Resource Management. Addressing their respective assumptions and claims, especially with regard to the organization of ‘human resources', critical attention is focused upon their shared advocacy of employee empowerment and strong leadership from senior managers.

Notes: This article examines the hype surrounding BPR from a historical, theoretical and empirical perspective. It delineates three ways in which politics are critical to understanding BPR and uses findings on BPR practice, including from case study work and a 1994/5 UK survey conducted by the authors, to locate and explain BPR's appeal and also the less radical outcomes of BPR practice.

Notes: Capitalism is currently undergoing an epochal change. The associated corporate change is sticky for reasons of institutional inertia. Business process re-engineering is a corporate response which should be understood in technical, social and political terms. Core elements of BPR are identified, illustrated, and critiqued, partly through a BPR case researched by the authors.

Notes: This article examines the emergence of BPR from the literature on the strategic use of IT. Two case studies of BPR are then presented. Analysis of this material suggests that there is a tension between strategic re-orientation and cost-saving in many BPR projects which is difficult to resolve. This tension is explored further using a historical analysis of ‘frameworks' of computing.

Notes: This article explores the relevance of ideas emerging from business process re-engineering (BPR) for the information systems profession. The marginal role of this profession in conceiving and leading organizational change is examined. Against this background, current interest in BPR is seen as reasserting the challenge of incorporating an active engagement with organizational design into professional practices.

Notes: This article looks at the experiences, warts and all of BPR at The Post Office. In so doing it also reflects upon the nature of good practice.

Notes: Here the author examines the extent of BPR practice across UK government, reaching conclusions about overcoming impediments which arise in organizational change processes.

Notes: The world economy is currently stuck in a ‘long wave’ downswing, due largely to the mismatch of a new technological 'style’ with established institutions. The article sketches the effects on the level and pattern of employment and discusses the reforms which will be needed to escape from the downswing.

Notes: Here the authors examine the unions' experience of building-related sickness among their members and argue that we can no longer treat the built working environment as a neutral factor when analysing the labour process.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:Tools for Change and Progress: A Socio-Technical Approach to Business Process Re-engineering Enid Mumfordm, Geert Jan BeekmanReengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution Michael Hammer and James ChampyThe Essence of Business Process Re-Engineering Joe Peppard, Philip RowlandSoftware Assistance for Business Re-Engineering K Spurr, P Layzell, N Richards (Eds.)Re-Engineering the Networked Enterprise Y Jayachandra with Raul Medina-More Gita J Melkote Fernando FloresReengineering Information Technology: Success Through Empowerment Stephen, Baxter, David LisburnManagers Divided: Organisation Politics and Information Technology Management David Knights, Fergus MurrayBusiness Process Reengineering: Breakpoint Strategies for Market Dominance Henry J. Johansson, Patrick McHugh, A. John Pendlebury & William A. Wheeler IIIBeyond Business Process Reengineering: Towards the Holonic Enterprise Patrick McHugh, Giorgio Merli & William A. Wheeler III

Notes: This article examines the introduction of centralized processing. It looks at the multiple objectives underlying the initiative and how these were managed in implementation. Drawing on empirical data gathered at three similar sites a comparative analysis of the outcomes of centralization is presented and the variances are explained.

Notes: There are conflicting tendencies among recent developments in bargaining and participation at the workplace level in Europe. While there is an emphasis on decentralisation of bargaining structures in many countries, there is considerable variance. Similarly, there is a diversity of approaches to both direct and indirect forms of participation. Despite attempts by the European Community to integrate policies on these matters among member countries, external influences such as the globalisation of economies and technologies are leading to diverse outcomes.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:The Volvo Experience: alternatives to lean production in the Swedish auto industry Christian BerggrenPrices, Quality and Trust Mari SakoTechnology and Innovation in the International Economy Charles Cooper, EditorHi-Tech For Industrial Development: Lessons from the Brazilian Experience in Electronics and Automation Hubert Schmitz Jose Cassiolato (eds)Development, Technology and Flexibility: Brazil Faces the Industrial Divide Joao Carlos Ferraz Howard Rush Ian MilesTelecommunications and Politics: the decentralised alternative Andrew DaviesTelecommunications Services: negotiating structural and technological change B. Bolton et al., EditorsIn Search of Management Tony J. WatsonOther publications received

Notes: This article identifies three models that imply different views of the ‘impact’ of the use of computer based information systems for managers' work. Using case study evidence it argues that the ‘impact’ is not a stable and predictable outcome but a non-linear ongoing process that changes and evolves over time.

Notes: Everyone is aware of the federal income tax. What many do not realize is that federal estate tax may have a bigger impact than the income tax. While the income tax decreases take-home pay, the estate tax threatens job creation, business growth, and family harmony. This article examines the impact of the federal estate taxes and reviews several studies which indicate that the estate tax has a deleterious impact on capital accumulation, business growth, job creation, and federal tax revenues.

Notes: Closely held businesses differ from their publicly held counterparts in the relative importance assigned to planning for estate taxes. When faced with the prospect of an estate taxes liability, owners of closely held businesses may alter their investment behavior. This essay presents a simple model of the investment decision in a closely held business. While finance theory prescribes that firms maximize their value through funding capital projects with positive net present values, this model suggests that the presence of estate taxes may induce the firm to reject projects which, if funded, would add value to the firm. Further, the propensity to pass on value-adding projects increases with both the estate tax rate and the age of the business owner.

Notes: This paper questions the effectiveness of economic development policies and programs which fail to differentiate family from non-family enterprises in the UK small and medium-sized firms sector. Published evidence is reviewed and findings from workshops and interviews with 10 Scottish family enterprises demonstrate that family enterprises differ, and in some economically significant ways, from non-family enterprises. It is suggested that the lack of provision for family enterprises hinders their business activity. The aim is to begin an argument for recognition of a “family business sector” in the UK in order to promote business activity in this economically significant group of firms, and to achieve a better payoff for governments from investment in economic development in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Notes: Family business studies have focused on succession because of the incidence of family business failure and the importance of family businesses within the US economy. This study furthers the understanding of family business failure by making the distinction between succession planning (the management task of transitioning leadership) and estate planning (the task of transitioning financial assets and managing federal estate tax obligations) and using this distinction to better understand family business discontinuance. This study of 749 heirs of failed family businesses demonstrates that inadequate estate planning is more often associated-with family business failure than is poor succession planning.

Notes: Although family-owned and managed firms are the predominant form of business organization in the world today, little systematic research exists on these companies. This paper builds upon insights found in the emerging literature on these enterprises and upon our own observations to provide a conceptual frame-work to better understand these complex organizations. We introduce the concept of the Bivalent Attributes–a unique, inherent feature of an organization that is the source of both advantages and disadvantages–to explain the dynamics of the family firm.

Notes: Abstract— This paper examines the application of the Jk, L and M integrals, in complex-variable form, to the Boussinesq wedge. The wedge is symmetrical and subjected to a point couple and point forces at the apex of the wedge. In the case of a point couple acting at the wedge apex the Jy, L and M integrals are found to vanish for all wedge angles whereas Jx displays a 1/r3 path-dependence; where r is a radial dimension measured from the wedge apex. When the wedge is subjected to point forces at the wedge apex then Jx and Jy are 1/r path-dependent whereas L and M are path-independent.The property that the L and M integrals are path-independent for the Boussinesq wedge is applied to the problem of determining the modes I and II stress intensity factors for a corner-loaded edge crack in a half-plane subjected to both normal and parallel point forces to the free surface of the half-plane.

Notes: Abstract— Fatigue tests were performed on thin-walled tubular specimens of S45C steel under tension-compression, pure torsion, in-phase and out-of-phase axial-torsional loadings. The relationship between cracking behaviour and stress components on the crack plane was investigated. Measurement of microcrack density showed that microcracking was governed predominantly by the shear stress amplitude acting on the crack plane for all loading conditions. The failure crack was formed by coalescence of many cracks initiated near the maximum shear planes. The cracks grew turning their orientation to the direction perpendicular to the maximum normal stress. The transition of crack orientation occurred at relatively longer crack lengths at a higher stress ratio. The crack growth behaviour for all loading modes can be correlated using an equivalent strain intensity parameter based on shear and normal strains on the crack plane.

Notes: Abstract— A ductile medium strength steel has been modelled by means of the Gurson model, and been used to investigate the effect of crack tip constraint in several fracture mechanics specimens. Both numerical and experimental results have been obtained, in the course of the crack extension process, for single edge notch bending specimens with different crack length-to-width ratios. The geometries with the shorter cracks always exhibited higher J values at initiation and steeper J crack growth resistance curves, and these results have been explained in terms of the stress and strain fields and damage development in the region ahead of the crack tip.

Notes: Abstract— It is shown that autofrettage at low temperatures is superior to autofrettage at room temperature in enhancing the fatigue resistance of thick-walled tubes against pulsating internal pressure. The physical reason is based on the well-known temperature dependence of the mechanical behaviour of metals and alloys which generally exhibit an enhancement of both the yield stress and strain hardening behaviour at lower temperatures. As a consequence, significantly larger compressive residual hoop stresses can be introduced during pressurization at low temperatures than at room temperature. Experimental data obtained on thick-walled tubes of the metastable austenitic stainless steel AISI 304 L which were subjected to pulsating internal pressure at room temperature after autofrettage at temperatures between-110°C and room temperature are presented. These data demonstrate convincingly the advantages offered by low-temperature autofrettage in enhancing both the fatigue life in the finite-life region and the fatigue endurance limit in comparison with autofrettage at room temperature. In conclusion, some specific materials requirements for optimum low-temperature autofrettage performance are discussed.

Notes: Abstract— A new single-specimen testing method, the normalization method with the so-called LMN calibration function, based on the load separation principle and function calibrations from an individual test record, was used to construct J-R curves directly from load versus load-line displacement records without any additional on-line crack-length monitoring equipment. The research was done on CT-specimens of a glassy polymer PVC at different crosshead speeds ranging from 0.01 to 50 mm/min. The J-R curves evaluated from the normalization method are in good agreement with those from the conventional multiple-specimen testing method in the whole range of the tested crosshead speeds. The results demonstrated the applicability of the normalization method for developing J-R curves at different crosshead speeds in PVC. The crack initiation J-integral values, J0.2, showed a two-regime dependence on the crosshead speeds in the tested crosshead speed range.

Notes: Abstract— Biaxial fatigue tests were conducted on a high strength spring steel using hour-glass shaped smooth specimens. Four types of loading system were employed, i.e. (a) fully reversed cyclic torsion, (b) uniaxial push—pull, (c) fully reversed torsion with a superimposed axial static tension or compression stress, and (d) uniaxial push—pull with a superimposed static torque, to evaluate the effects of mean stress on the cyclic stress—strain response and short fatigue crack growth behaviour. Experimental results indicate that a biaxial mean stress has no apparent influence on the stress—strain response in torsion, however a superimposed tensile mean stress was detrimental to torsional fatigue strength. Similarly a superimposed static shear stress reduced the push—pull fatigue lifetime. A compressive mean stress was seen to be beneficial to torsion fatigue life. The role of mean stress on fatigue lifetime, under mixed mode loading, was investigated through experimental observations and theoretical analyses of short crack initiation and propagation. Using a plastic replication technique the effects of biaxial mean stress on both Stage I (mode II) and Stage II (mode I) short cracks were evaluated and analysed in detail. A two stage biaxial short fatigue crack growth model incorporating the influence of mean stress was subsequently developed and applied to correlate data of crack growth rate and fatigue life.

Notes: Abstract— The development of fatigue damage in Co45Ni specimens during push—pull and reversed torsion tests, performed inside a scanning electron microscope, was observed and the different stress states compared. It appeared that transgranular crack initiation and development is delayed and intergranular crack initiation promoted under torsional loading. This was explained in terms of reduced surface distortion at the emergence of persistent slip bands (PSBs) and smaller compatibility stresses at the PSB-matrix interfaces. The influence of the mechanical strength of grain boundaries on the difference between tensile and torsional fatigue lives is discussed.

Notes: Abstract— A Fourier series approach is proposed to calculate stress intensity factors using weight functions for semi-elliptical surface cracks in flat plates subjected to two-dimensional stress distributions. The weight functions were derived from reference stress intensity factors obtained by three-dimensional finite element analyses. The close form weight functions derived are suitable for the calculation of stress intensity factors for semi-elliptical surface cracks in flat plates under two-dimensional stress distributions with the crack aspect ratio in the range of 0.1 ≤a/c≤ 1 and relative depth in the range of 0 ≤a/t≤ 0.8. Solutions were verified using several two-dimensional non-linear stress distributions; the maximum difference being 6%.

Notes: Abstract— A conventional finite element method may show a weakness when determining the hot spot stress distributions in the brace/chord intersection region of offshore tubular joints. This is because the chosen element displacement functions do not implicitly satisfy the conditions which prevail on the free surfaces. A procedure has been proposed to modify the conventional finite element method so as to allow the hot spot stresses, which occur at the free boundary of the weld toe of tubular joints, to be determined with improved accuracy. The results obtained by this modified method are compared with both an experimental and a traditional finite element solution. The comparison shows that the modified solution is in better agreement with the experimental data as compared with the traditional solution.

Notes: Abstract— Simple extensions to the standard deep notch bend test procedure are suggested to allow the collection of data relevant to the energy dissipation rate, D, crack opening angle, COA, and J, all for arbitrarily large amounts of growth in extensive plasticity. The methods of analysis are detailed for real elastic-plastic behaviour of a high strength low-hardening type metal with a view to encouraging use on a wider range of materials. A proposal is made, and equations given, that the particular version of J used for an R-curve derived from the area under the loading diagram, should correspond to the value of the far-field integral, Jff.The relationship between the global measure of COA that emerges from D and the local crack tip opening angle, CTOA, as used in computational studies, is established. Transferability of CTOA data is examined in the light of effects of size and configuration. An explicit rule of the form CTOA √G =f (material and configuration) is proposed for the modelling of ductile growth in finite element studies. It is applied to a set of data in the literature, for the variation of CTOA with size in the deep notch bend test and for the configurations, bending, double edge and centre cracked tension.

Notes: Abstract— In this investigation the Electron Channelling Contrast (ECC) technique in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was applied to reveal the dislocation structures in the vicinity of surface fatigue cracks in comparison to those of cyclically-deformed recrystallized polycrystalline copper. The plastic zone around a fatigue crack was found to consist of an innermost region containing cells, followed by a region containing dense veins and PSBs, surrounded by a structure of loose veins, bundles and loop patches typical of the cyclically deformed matrix. A relation between plastic strain amplitude values deduced from cyclic stress-strain investigations and the dislocation structures near fatigue cracks are given. Typical regions of damage accumulation were identified and plastic strain contours for surface fatigue cracks established. The essentially non-destructive ECC technique is particularly suited to identify the changes in mesoscopic dislocation structures from surface layers to the interior of specimens over large specimen areas.

Notes: Abstract— The propagation behaviour of fatigue cracks emanating from pre-cracks was numerically simulated to evaluate the development of crack closure with crack growth. The crack opening stress intensity factor at the threshold was approximated as a function of the applied stress and the amount of crack extension. Pre-cracked specimens of a medium-carbon steel with a small surface crack and a single-edge crack were fatigued to investigate experimentally the initiation and propagation of cracks from pre-cracks. Crack closure was dynamically measured by using an interferometric strain/displacement gauge. The threshold condition of crack initiation from pre-cracks was given by a constant value of the effective stress intensity range which was equal to the threshold value for long cracks. The cyclic R-curve was constructed in terms of the threshold value of the maximum stress intensity factor as a function of crack extension approximated on the basis of the experimental and numerical results. The cyclic R-curve method was used to predict the fatigue thresholds of pre-cracked specimens. The predicted values of the fatigue limits for crack initiation and fracture, and the length of non-propagating cracks agreed very well with the experimental results.

Notes: Abstract— A basic study was performed on the evolution of three-dimensional shapes of small surface fatigue cracks during fatigue, and the effect of this evolution on small-crack growth behavior of a titanium-base alloy. Specifically, the nature and the magnitude of variations in crack aspect ratio, a/c (a is the crack depth and c is the half-surface crack length), during cyclic crack growth and its impact on growth rates have been studied. Experiments were performed on naturally initiated micro-cracks in a microstructure consisting of equiaxed primary-α2 phase in a Widmanstätten (transformed β) matrix. Several cracks under stress ratio (R) levels of 0.1 and −1, were studied. A specialized experimental system, consisting of a laser interferometer (to measure precisely the small-crack surface displacements), and a photo microscope (to automatically and continuously photograph the fatigue micro-cracks) was employed in the study. Apparent aspect ratios of surface cracks were calculated from the compliance response and the surface crack length data as a function of fatigue cycles. These data enabled accurate calculations of growth rates at the surface crack tip as well as the tip at depth in the bulk over the entire crack growth period, thus giving an insight into the crack growth process. Measurements of closure levels of small cracks were also performed and were used to partly account for the differences in growth rates. In the comparisons of small-crack growth data with the large-crack data, surface growth rates correlated relatively well with the large-crack data. Growth rates at depth exhibited large variations due to the irregularity of crack fronts at this location, and these rates deviated significantly from the large-crack behavior. Additionally, these growth rates varied between different cracks. An attempt was made to rationalize these observations in terms of the effects of inhomogeneities present in the microstructure.

Notes: Abstract— A new technique, known as crack modelling, is used here to predict fatigue failure in a crankshaft component. The technique uses a linear elastic finite element (FE) analysis to derive a stress intensity factor (K) for the component under load. The novel feature of the technique is that K is calculated without introducing a crack into a component; the stress field around the maximum stress point is examined and compared to that for a standard centre-cracked plate. The fatigue limit for a crankshaft was successfully predicted, when compared to experimental data. The only material parameter required for this prediction was the threshold stress intensity range, ΔKth.

Notes: Abstract— The effects of bluing, associated with drawing strain, on the fatigue strength of eutectoid steel wires have been investigated. The fatigue limit increases by bluing and the increase is more significant with higher drawing strain. The peak in the fatigue limit with regard to the drawing strain in the wires, at a strain of 2.5, disappears after bluing. On the other hand, in the ferritic steel wires investigated for comparison, the fatigue limit gradually increases with the drawing strain up to 7.7. Furthermore, no appreciable change in the fatigue limit due to bluing is found. Based on the results of hardness tests on fatigue specimens with- and without-bluing, it is deduced that the decrease of the fatigue limit beyond the peak drawing strain in the eutectoid steel wire can partly be attributed to insufficient locking of the high-density dislocations by solute atoms. The effect of relaxation of residual stress during bluing is also briefly discussed.

Notes: Abstract— It is well known that for very short cracks the stress intensity factor K is not a suitable parameter to estimate the stress level over the small but finite Stage II process zone activation region of size rs near the crack tip, within which crack growth events take place. A critical appreciation of the reasons for the limitations on the applicability of ΔK as a fatigue crack propagation (FCP) parameter, when the crack length a is of the same order of magnitude or smaller than the size of the ‘fatigue-fracture activation region’, rs is presented. As an alternative to ΔK the range Δσs of the cyclic normal stress at a point situated at the fixed distance s=rs/2, ahead of the crack tip, inside the fatigue-fracture activation region, is proposed. It is observed that the limitation on the use of ΔK when the crack is short, is mathematical (and not physical) but this inconvenience is easily circumvented if the stress Δσs at the prescribed distance is used instead of ΔK since nowadays Δσs can be obtained numerically by using finite element methods (FEM). It follows that the parameter Δσs is not restricted by the mathematical limitations on ΔK and so it would seem that there is, a priori, no reason why the validity of the parameter Δσs cannot be extended to short cracks. It is shown that if the Paris law is expressed in terms of Δσs (πrrs)½ instead of ΔK the validity of the modified Paris law can be extended to short cracks.A coherent estimate of the value of the fatigue-fracture activation region rs is derived in terms of the fatigue limit ΔσFL obtained from S-N tests and of the threshold value ΔKth obtained from tests on long cracks where both relate to Stage II crack growth that ends in failure, namely, rs= (ΔKth/ΔσFL)2/π. An overall, threshold diagram is presented based on the simple criterion that, for sustained Stage II FCP, Δσs must be greater than ΔσFL. The study is based on a simple continuum mechanics approach and its purpose is the investigation of the suitability of both ΔK and Δσs to characterise the crack driving force that activates complex fracture processes at the microstructure's scale. The investigation pertains to conditions that lead to the ultimate failure of the component at values of Δσs 〉 ΔσFL.

Notes: Abstract— The boundary value problem for an arbitrarily shaped plane crack embedded in a 3D linear elastic solid can be reduced to a governing hyper-singular integral equation. A discretizing procedure based on a triangulation of the crack area has been offered in Part I of this work. The main goal of Part I is to introduce the analytical results for the 18 resulting finite-part integrals defined over a triangular mesh area. The finite-part integrals occur in those triangles where the source point coincides with one of the element nodes. Mostly the source point lies outside of the considered triangle. In these cases the occurring area integrals are regular.The aim of Part II is, therefore, the derivation of the closed form expressions for the relevant 18 regular area integrals. The resulting relations are of algebraic form which can easily be coded in compact form. Their numerical proof by two different methods shows the highest accuracy and, therefore, the correctness of the final solutions. The relevant numerical results are offered in Appendix I.With the formulae provided in Part I and Part II of the paper the determination of the coefficient matrix, necessary for the calculation of COD values from a linear equation system, is precise and needs only minimum computer time.

Notes: Abstract— Circumferentially notched cylindrical specimens are tested in torsion to obtain critical J values from crack resistance curves. The specimens are explosion cladded, half ferrite, half austenite, with the interface perpendicular to the cylinder axis and the circumferential notch at, or parallel to, the interface. Critical J values for crack extension in mode III were found to be a factor 1.1 to 2.1 higher than under comparable mode I loading.

Notes: Abstract— Strength measurements are becoming increasingly important for electroceramics. Bending of specimens small enough to be cut out of small electroceramic components may be one possibility. Therefore the miniaturisation of the 4-point bend-test for ceramic specimens is now being attempted. In this paper the errors in determining the flexural strength arising from the test principle itself, plus the geometry and measuring inaccuracies are calculated and expressed as a function of the outer span length. Contact pressure and a tolerable total measuring inaccuracy determines the dimensions of miniature specimens and fixtures. The possibilities of appropriate specimen preparation are also investigated.Ceramic materials show a volume (i.e. a specimen size) dependence of strength which is described by Weibull's statistical theory. The applicability of the miniature bend-fixtures is demonstrated by measuring this volume effect.

Notes: Abstract— This paper describes a versatile technique for simulating the fatigue growth of a wide range of planar cracks of practical significance. Crack growth is predicted on a step-by-step basis from the Paris law using stress intensity factors calculated by the finite element method. The crack front is defined by a cubic spline curve from a set of nodes. Both the 1/4-node crack opening displacement and the three-dimensional J-integral (energy release rate) methods are used to calculate the stress intensity factors. Automatic remeshing of the finite element model to a new position which defines the new crack front enables the crack propagation to be followed. The accuracy and capability of this finite element simulation technique are demonstrated in this paper by the investigation of various problems of both theoretical and practical interest. These include the shape growth trend of an embedded initially penny-shaped defect and an embedded initially elliptical defect in an infinite body, the growth of a semi-elliptical surface crack in a finite thickness plate under tension and bending, the propagation of an internal crack in a round bar and the shape change of an external surface crack in a pressure vessel.

Notes: Abstract— Cold-expansion of fastener holes is now commonly used within the aerospace industry to increase the fatigue endurance of airframes. Although a number of methods of cold expansion are possible, the split-sleeve cold-expansion process is the most widely accepted and is frequently used in the repair and manufacture stages of both military and civil aircraft. In the present work, the redistribution of residual hoop stresses due to the application of constant amplitude fatigue loading at 4% cold-expanded holes has been studied. A modified Sachs method was adopted to evaluate the residual stress profiles and a replication technique was used to quantify crack growth. It was found that the decay of the residual hoop stress profile near the bore of the hole was due to the initiation and growth of small fatigue cracks. Cracks were found to initiate both near and below the fatigue limit, but subsequently arrested so stabilising the overall residual stress profile.

Notes: Abstract— The factors affecting the fatigue strength of nitrided titanium were clarified. The fatigue strength depended strongly on the fracture strength of the compound layer formed on the surface by nitriding. We found a Hall-Petch relationship between the fatigue strength of nitrided titanium and the grain size. The findings indicated that the reduction in the fatigue strength by nitriding results from both the formation of the compound layer possessing low fracture strength and grain growth occurring from ordinary nitriding. Furthermore, low-temperature nitriding (620°C, 24 h) was proposed to suppress grain growth. This treatment method improved not only the wear resistance and the corrosion resistance but also the fatigue strength of titanium.

Notes: This paper is meant to answer the question whether the CMEA countries trade flows have been able to catch up with their trade potential. The gravity equations estimated over a panel of 14 years show that there is a room for an increase in trade, which could compensate for the huge regional trade losses. But, if one takes into account the higher than average transportation costs in East Europe, this potential increase may only he reached through the reduction of these transportation costs and through further liberalisation of regional trade flows. How costly has been the disintegration process? The computation of gross trade destruction (GTD) versus trade creation (TC) minus external trade diversion (ETD) in the framework of the Viner model reflects the decreasing costs of the CMEA break-up: a dramatic trade reorientation has taken place, and it is welfare improving.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMENFASSUNGDieser Artikel untersucht, ob der Aussenhandel der ehemaligen COMECON-Länder sein potentielles Niveau bereits erreicht hat. Ein Gravitltsmodel über einen Zeitraum von 14 Jahren zeigt, dass es noch ein Potential für zusätzlichen internationalen Handel giht, das den Zusammenbruch des regionalen Handels kompensieren könnte. Wenn jedoch die höheren Transportkosten in Mittel- und Osteuropa in Betracht gezogen werden, dürfte dieses Potential nur durch eine Reduzierung dieser Kosten und eine weitergehende Handelsliberalisierung ausgeschöpft werden können. Der Artikel heschäftigt sich ebenfalls mit den Kosten des Zusammenbruchs des COMECON-Handels. Die Berechnung der Bruttohandelszerstörung versus neu entstandenem Handel abzuglich der Handelsahlenkung im Modell von Viner zeigt, dass diese Kosten positiv und ahnehmend sind. Die starke Reorientierung des Aussenhandels hat eine erhöhte Wohlfahrt in der Region zur Folge.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RESUMECet article tente de répondre è la question de savoir si le commerce des pays ex-memhres du CAEM a rattrapé son niveau potentiel. L'équation de gravité estimée sur un panel de 14 ans montre qu'il existe un potentiel d'échanges qui pourrait compenser l'effondrement du commerce régional. Mais la prise en compte des coǔts de transport qui sont plus élevés en Europe de l'Est suggère que ce potentiel ne peut ěre exploité qu' è travers la réduction de ces coǔts en Europe de l'Est et è travers une libéralisation plus poussée des échanges. Le processus de désintégration a t'il été coǔteux? Le calcul de la destruction de commerce (DC) versus création (CC) et destruction extérieure de commerce (DEC) dans le modèle de Viner montre que le coǔt est positif mais décroissant. L'importante réorientation des échanges tend è améliorer le bien-ětre dans la région.

Notes: The paper defines entrepreneurship as about ‘self-competition’, the quest to test self-ability: Can a future self achieve greater goals than what has been so far achieved? Self-competition involves the development of ability and, hence, ex post assessment of ability is uncertain. Such uncertainty occasions either immobilizing anxiety (Buridan's ass) or entrepreneurial action. No such uncertainty surrounds the assessment of risk probability characterizing events such as floods and stock market crashes. An observable prediction of the proposed uncertainty/risk dichotomy is that insurance, which concerns risk, cannot crowd out religion and other belief systems which appeal to uncertainty.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMENFASSUNGIn diesem Papier wird Unternehmertum im Sinne von ‘Selbst-Konkurrenz’ deftniert, als Streben, die eigenen Fähigkeiten unter Beweis zu stellen: Kann das zukünftige Ich höhere Ziele als bisher erreichen?Selbst-Konkurrenz beinhaltet die Entwicklung von Fähigkeiten, und daher ist deren ex post Einschätzung unsicher. Diese Unsicherheit führt entweder zu einer lähmenden Angst (Burdians Esel) oder zu unternehmerischer Aktivität. Im Gegensatz dazu ist die Einschätzung der Risikowahrscheinlichkeit von Überschwemmungen oder Kursschwankungen an der Börse nicht von einer solchen Unsicherheit geprägt. Als beobachtbare Voraussage aus der vorgeschlagenen Unsicher-heit/Risiko-Dichotomie heraus ergibt sich, dass eine dieses Risiko betreffende Versicherung nicht in der Lage ist, Religion und andere Glaubenssysteme, die sich auf Unsicherheit bezichen, zu verdrängen.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RÉSUMÉCe papier définit ľesprit entrepreneur comrne ‘une concurrence de soi’, la quete d'éprouver la capacityé de soi: Est-ce possible qu'un futur-soi puisse achever de plus grands buts qu'il a déjà accomplis? Une concurrence de soi consiste du développcinent de sa capacityé, done, ľévaluation ex past de cette capacityé n'est pas certaine.Une telle incertitude mène à une anxiété paralysante (ľǎne de Buridan) ou àľ action entreprenante. Une incertitude de la sorte n'entoure pas ľévaluation de la probabilityé de risque qui caractérisent les événements tels comme ľ inondation ou la chute de la Bourse. Une prédiction qu'on petit observer de la dichotomie proposée incertitude/risque, c'est que ľ assurance, qui concerne le risque, doit laisser de place aux réligions et aux autres systèmes de croyance qui invoquent ľ incertitude.

Notes: The paper results from interviews held among economists from Central and Eastern Europe. It tries to get an inside view on the profession under communist rule. As expected, the results depend upon period and country under analysis. Poland and Hungary did not lose contact with Western developments, while the Soviet Union and the GDR and also Czechoslovakia after 1968 isolated themselves completely. In Russia there was an own development in the sphere of optimal planning theory. In the GDR strict political control and adherence to dogmatism led to sterility. Reform thinking became stronger in the 1980s, with the exception of the GDR and Russia. The results are corroborated by the personal situation of the individual economist. Asked where they see the lasting contribution of economics under communism, most respondents are rather pessimistic: it is more the abortive practice of Soviet-type central planning which taught a lesson than the theoretical developments of the period.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMENFASSUNGDie Studie ist das Ergebnis von Interviews, die unter Wirtschaftswissenschaftlern aus Mittel- und Osteuropa gehalten wurden. Sie sucht einen Blick von innen auf die Entwicklung einer Wissenschaft unter kommunistischer Herrschaft zu gewinnen. Das Resultat hängt von der jeweiligen Periode und dem jeweiligen Land ab. Polen und Ungarn haben den Kontakt zum Westen nicht verloren. Russland und die DDR, ebenso die CSSR nach 1968, haben sich dagegen vollständig isoliert. Russland kannte eine eigene Entwicklung in der Planungstheorie. In der DDR führten dagegen politische Kontrolle und Dogmatismus zur Sterilität. Mit Ausnahme dieserbeiden Länder wuchs das Reformdenken in den 80er Jahren stetig an. Die Ergebnisse spiegeln sich auch in der persönlichen Situation der einzelnen Wissenschaftler wider. Nach dem bleibenden Beitrag der Ökonomie unter dem Kommunismus befragt, zeigen sich die Antworten eher pessimistisch: nicht die theoretischen Errungenschaften der Periode sind lehrreich, vielmehr aber das abschreckende Beispiel des sowjetischen Zentralplansystems.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RÉSUMÉL' article rend compte des résultats d'interviews réalisés auprès d'économistes des pays de l'Europe Centrale et Orientale. II présente une vision de l'intérieur sur le développement de la science économique sous le régime communiste. Les résultats dépendent de la période et du pays analyses. La Pologne et la Hongrie n'ont jamais perdu le contact avec la science économique occidentale, tandis que la Russie, l'Allemagne de l'Est et, après 1968, la Tchécoslovaquie s'en sont isolés complètement. Avec la théorie de la planification optimale, la Russie a connu son propre développement. En RDA, le contrǒle politique et le dogmatisme ont abouti à une stérilité théorique. À l'éxception de ces deux derniers pays, la pensée réformiste s'est renforcée continument au cours des années 80. Ces résultats se reflètent aussi dans la situation personnelle faite aux économistes. Quant a la contribution durable de la science économique sous le communisme, les réponses sont peu optimistes: ce ne sont pas tellement les développements théoriques qui survivront à la periode soviétique, mais plutöt (‘experience avortée de la planification centrale de type soviétique.

Notes: This paper presents the results of an overlapping-generations experiment on the individual choice between intergenerational transfers and savings. One dominant finding of our experiment is that if savings are possible individuals choose to (gradually) opt out of the intergenerational transfer system. In that case the average individual pay-offs are lower but their distribution among individuals is less volatile. This suggests that risk aversion is a driving force behind the decline of intergenerational transfers. The willingness to give to previous generations does not disappear completely, however. Moreover, the degree of cohesion between successive generations, measured by (lie correlation between current and past transfers does not diminish significantly after the introduction of (he savings option.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMIENEASSUNGDicser Artikcl präsentierl die ErgebnisseeinesOvcrlapping-Generations-Experitnents, indent sich die Tcilnehmer zwisehen tnlergenerationalcn Transfers und Sparen entscheiden mussten. Eines der Hauptergcbnisse besteht darin, dass die Einführung der Mögliehkeit zur individuellen Zukunfts-vorsorge durch Sparen zu einer (allmählichen) Zurückdrängung von intergencrationalen Transfers führt. Im Fall des Sparens isl die durehschnittliche individuclle Auszahlung zwar geringer, dafür aber weniger unsieher. Die Zurückdrangung intergenerationaler Transfers lässt sich dahcr durch Risikoaversion erklären. Dennoch verschwindct die Bereitschaft, an die vorausgehende Generation abzugeben, nicht völlig. Ausserdein vennindert sich die Stärke des Zusatnnienhalts zwisehen aufcinanderlolgcnden Generalionen, getnessen durch die Korrelation zwisehen gegenwärtigen und früheren Transfers, nicht wesentlich durch die Einführung der Mögliehkeit des Sparens.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RÉSUMÉLe papier présente des résultats expérimentaux sur les choix individuels entre transferts inter-génération et épargnc. Un des résultats principaux est que s'il est possible d'épargncr, alors (progressivement) les agents passent du système de transfer! inter-générationnelausystème d'épargne. Dans de cas le payoff moyen des agents est plus faible mais la distribution des payoffs est inoins volatile. Ceei suggère que l'aversion pour le risque est l'une des prineipales causes du déclin des transferts intergénération. Cependant, les transferts inter-génération ne disparaissent pas totalement. De plus, le degré de cohesion entre les génération successives, mesuré par la corrélation entre les transferts présents et passés, ne diminue pas significativemenl apres l'introduction de la possibilityé d'épargncr.

Notes: This paper investigates spatial disparities in unemployment in three Member States of the EU. It attempts to identify the factors responsible for the persistence of regional unemployment disparities in Germany, Italy and the UK during 1984-94. The empirical results indicate that a substantial proportion of the variation in unemployment rates between NUTS2 level regions can be explained by regional disparities in three key variables: unit labour costs, the industry mix and employment density. The findings are consistent with the view that regional unemployment disparities are explained primarily by regional disparities in economic competitiveness.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMENFASSUNODieser Artikel untersucht die räumlichen Unterschiede in der Höhe der Arbeitslosigkeit in drei Mitgliedsstaaten der EU. Er basiert auf dem Versuch, die Faktoren zu bestimmen, die im Zeitraum zwischen 1984 und 1994 für die Persistenz von regionalen Unterschieden der Höhe der Arbeitslosigkeit in Deutschland, Italien und Grossbritannien verantwortlich waren. Die empirischen Ergeb-nisse zeigen, dass ein wesentlicher Teil der Unterschiede in der Höhe der Arbeitslosigkeit zwischen NUTS2 Regionen durch eine regional unterschiedliche Ausprägung von drei wichtigen Variablen erklärt werden kann: Lohnstückkosten, Wirtschaftsstruktur und Zahl der Arbeitsplätze pro Quadratkilometer. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die Ansicht, dass die regional unterschiedlich hohe Arbeitslosigkeit hauptsächlich durch Unterschiede der regionalen Wettbewerbsfähigkeit zu cr-klüren ist.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RÉSUMÉCe document examine les disparités géographiques du chǒmage dans trois États membres de l'Union Européenne. Nous essayerons d'identifier les facteurs responsables de la persistance des disparités en chǒmage régional en Ailemagne, en Italie el au Royaume-Uni pendant la période 1984-94. Les résultats empiriques indiquent qu'une proportion importante de la variation du taux de chǒmage entre les régions de la catégorie NUTS2 peut s'expliquer par des disparités régionales en trois variables prépondérantes: le coǔt unitaire d'emploi, la structure industrielle et la densité d'emploi. Les résultats coïncident avec l'avis que les disparités du chǒmage régional s'expliquent surtout par les disparités régionales en compétitivitééconomique.

Notes: Alvesson Mats (1993): Cultural Perspectives on OrganizationsAtkinson, Anthony B. (ed.) (1993): Alternatives to CapitalismAyres, Robert U. (1994): Information, Entropy, and ProgressBaranzini, Mauro and Geoffrey S. Harcourt (eds.) (1993): The Dynamics ofthe Wealth of NationsCaprio, Gerard; David Folkerts-Landau and Timothy D. Lane (1994): Building Sound Finance in Emerging Market EconomiesCastles, Stephen and Mark J. Miller (1993): The Age of MigrationChow, Peter Y. and Mitchell H. Kellman (1993): Trade – the Engine of Growth in East AsiaCooper, Charles (ed.) (1994): Technology and Innovation in the International EconomyFransman, Martin (1993): The Market and BeyondGalbraith, John Kenneth (1993): A Journey Through Economic TimeHayes, J.P. (1993): Making Trade Policy in the European CommunityHodgson, Geoffrey M.; J. Warren J. Samuels and Marc R. Tool (1994): The Elgar Companion to Institutional and Evolutionary EconomicsHoffmann, Lutz (1993): Warten auf den AufschwungLibecap, Gary D. (1994): Contracting for Property RightsOates, Wallace E. (ed.) (1993): The Economics of the EnvironmentPerelman, Michael (1993): The Pathology of the US. Economy

Notes: Austrian business cycle policy was unconventional but rather successful in the last three decades and especially since the oil crisis. The unconventional conception was developed by trial and error, only ex post it got the name Austro-Keynesianism. Nevertheless it has a theoretical basis, a rather radical interpretation of KEYNES, which bases economic instability on a deep-rooted uncertainty of entrepreneurs. According to this interpretation economic policy tried to stabilize the data most important for entrepreneurial decisions, especially wage increase, exchange rates and investment promotion. This lightened the burden of the traditional instruments of stabilization policy. In addition these instruments were assigned differently: Exchange rate policy was primarily used to stabilize prices in the short run, incomes policy to equilibrate the current account in the medium and longer run, fiscal policy to stabilize employment. While the new assignation proved useful for stabilization policy, some structural problems remained unsolved.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article.Acs, Zoltan J., Bo Carlsson and Charlie Karlsson (1999). Entrepreneurship, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Macroeconomy.Ahiakpor, James C.W. (ed.) (1998). Keynes and the Classics Reconsidered.Arestis, Philip (ed.) (1998). Method, Theory and Policy in Keynes.Cencini, Alvaro (1997). Monetary Theory.Almut Oetjen, M.A.Chomsky, Noam (1999). Profit over People.Erber, Georg, Harald Hagemann and Stephan Seiter (1998). Zukunftsperspektiven Deutschlands un internationalen Wettbewerh.Frey, Bruno S. (1997). Ein neuer Föderalismus für Europa.Gentry, Bradford S. (ed.) (1998). Private Capital Flows and the Environment.Maneschi, Andrea (1998). Comparative Advantage in International Trade.Marimon, Ramon and Andrew Scott (eds.) (1999). Computational Methods for the Study of Dynamic Economics.Menkhoff, Lukas and Beate Reszat (eds.) (1998). Asian Financial Markets.Nell, Edward J. (1998). The General Theory of Transformational Growth.Oates, Wallace E. (ed.) (1998). The Economics of Fiscal Federalism and Local Finance.Storchmann, Karl-Heinz (1999). Das Defizit im öffentlichen Personennahverkehr in Theorie und Empiric.Terres, Paul (1999). Die Logik einer wettbewerblichen Geldordnung.Wittschorek, Peter (Hrsg.) (1999). Agenda 2000.