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  • Articles  (3,204)
  • Society of Petroleum Engineers  (2,800)
  • Annual Reviews
  • PANGAEA
  • 1995-1999  (1,954)
  • 1980-1984  (1,250)
  • Geosciences  (3,155)
  • Technology  (49)
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  • Articles  (3,204)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 235-256 
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 2
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 119-142 
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 3
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 169-213 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 4
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 375-408 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 5
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 337-374 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 6
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 65-87 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 7
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 53-80 
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of suspected planet-forming disks provide estimates of protoplanetary disk masses, surface temperatures, and the rate at which mass is infalling onto the disks. Analyses of primitive meteorites and comets and their components constrain the solar nebula's temperature at the locations and times where those components were formed. Theoretical models of disks undergoing the accretion of mass from an infalling cloud envelope predict disk temperatures in good agreement with these constraints: a moderately warm (500-1500 K) inner disk, surrounded by a cool (50-150 K) outer disk. These models have important implications for the depletion of volatiles in the inner Solar System, for mechanisms of disk evolution, and for the orbital distances at which terrestrial and gas giant planets form.
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  • 8
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 451-478 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 9
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 63-87 
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent advances in computational physics allow numerical simulation of three-dimensional complex flows through arbitrarily complex geometries. Moreover, new technology for noninvasive imaging provides detailed three-dimensional tomographic reconstructions of porous rocks with a resolution approaching one micron. These two innovations are leading to new understanding of how the microscopic complexity of natural porous media influences fluid transport at a larger, macroscopic scale. This review describes new insights concerning single-phase and multiphase porous flow derived from numerical simulation. In particular, results concerning scaling relations between macroscopic parameters, the scale dependence of transport properties, and viscous coupling in multicomponent flow are emphasized.
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  • 10
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 59-80 
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 11
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 65-93 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 12
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 169-190 
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  • 13
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 205-230 
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  • 14
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 47-72 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The dimensions, composition, and stiffness of the airway wall are important determinants of airway cross-sectional area during dynamic collapse in a forced expiration or when airway smooth muscle is constricted. Under these circumstances, airway caliber is determined by an interaction between the forces acting to open the airway (parenchymal tension and wall stiffness) and those acting to close it (smooth-muscle force and surface tension at the inner gas-liquid interface). Experimental measurements and theoretical models of the airway tube law (relationship between cross-sectional area and transmural pressure) are presented. Data are presented for the elastic properties of the wall tissue. Simulations of airway constriction in normal and asthmatic airways are discussed. To the extent possible, comparisons are presented between the various models and existing experimental data.
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  • 15
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 1-18 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Richard Skalak (1923-1997) played a leadership role in the formative decades of the discipline of biomedical engineering through his technical contributions in biomechanics, his educational influence on students, and his service to many developing societies and journals. But always, the distinguishing marks of his involvement with any activity or person were his generosity, respect and tolerance for others, integrity, and curiosity. These very qualities are what first brought him as a traditional engineer trained in engineering mechanics into the young field of biomedical engineering in the 1960s, and they are what led him to new approaches to cellular and molecular engineering, tissue engineering, and orthopedic biomechanics. His technical papers and lectures on blood cell mechanics, pulmonary circulation, dental implants, and tissue growth were models of clarity and often pointed the way to new areas of exploration, while his personal writings offer advice on life, academic organizations, and the pursuit of significant work. He would be deeply appreciative that this first volume of the Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering is dedicated to his memory.
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  • 16
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 19-46 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Because of an aging population and increased occurrence of sports-related injuries, musculoskeletal disorders have become one of the major health concerns in the United States. Current treatments, although fairly successful, do not provide the optimum therapy. These treatments typically rely on donor tissues obtained either from the patient or from another source. The former raises the issue of supply, whereas the latter poses the risk of rejection and disease transfer. This has prompted orthopedic surgeons and scientists to look for viable alternatives. In recent years, tissue engineering has gained increasing support as a method to treat orthopedic disorders. Because it uses principles of engineering, biology, and chemistry, tissue engineering may provide a more effective approach to the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders than traditional methods. This chapter presents a review of current methods and new tissue-engineering techniques for the treatment of disorders affecting bone, ligament, and cartilage.
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  • 17
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 103-127 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The successful application and optimization of cell transplantation will require quantitative engineering design and analysis of cells and materials in which relevant biological processes remain complex and incompletely defined. This report primarily reviews the engineering and material considerations in islet cell transplantation, including established biological constraints and biohybrid devices for cell delivery, as well as available barrier materials and the associated processing strategies directed at the control of solute transport, barrier permeability, and host responses at the biological-material interface. Also described are current areas of investigation with particular promise as enabling technologies for accelerating the clinical effectiveness of islet cell transplantation.
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  • 18
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 129-152 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Hematopoietic cell culture, or ex vivo expansion of hematopoietic cells, is an enabling technology with many potential applications in bone-marrow transplantation, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and the production of blood products. Hematopoietic cultures are complex, with many different cell types at different stages of development present at any given point in time and never in steady state. Moreover, these cells interact strongly with each other and the environment through cytokines (growth factors) and adhesion molecules, as well as through their metabolism. Despite these significant challenges, cell products produced in bioreactors have shown promise in recent phase 1 clinical trials.
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  • 19
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 153-175 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract By maintaining a near normal (70-120 mg/dL) glucose concentration, diabetic patients can drastically reduce the likelihood of the occurrence of diabetes complications. In the near future, subcutaneously implanted electrochemical glucose sensors will be available to provide frequent or continuous information on which timely treatment decisions, such as insulin injection or glucose source intake, can be based, as well as timely alarm signals. The currently engineered devices are of three types: (a) innocuous microsensors, with actively mass-transporting areas 〈10-3 cm2, replaced twice a week by the patient; (b) self-contained, surgeon-implanted, transmitter-containing packages of 〉1 cm2 area, operating for 〉100 days; and (c) devices transporting subcutaneous fluid to an external sensor, based on implanted microfiltration or microdialysis fibers or on iontophoretic transport of the subcutaneous fluid through the skin.
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  • 20
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 241-263 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Extraordinary advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to the development of a vast number of therapeutic anti-cancer agents. To reach cancer cells in a tumor, a blood-borne therapeutic molecule, particle, or cell must make its way into the blood vessels of the tumor and across the vessel wall into the interstitium, which it then must migrate through. Unfortunately, tumors often develop in ways that hinder these steps. The goal of research in this area is to analyze each of these steps experimentally and theoretically and integrate the resulting information into a unified theoretical framework. This paradigm of analysis and synthesis has fostered a better understanding of physiological barriers in solid tumors and aided in the development of novel strategies to exploit and/or overcome these barriers for improved cancer detection and treatment.
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  • 21
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 177-209 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Historically, electronic devices such as pacemakers and neuromuscular stimulators have been surgically implanted into animals and humans. A new class of implants made possible by advances in monolithic electronic design and implant packaging is small enough to be implanted by percutaneous injection through large-gauge hypodermic needles and does not require surgical implantation. Among these, commercially available implants, known as radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, are used for livestock, pet, laboratory animal, and endangered-species identification. The RFID tag is a subminiature glass capsule containing a solenoidal coil and an integrated circuit. Acting as the implanted half of a transcutaneous magnetic link, the RFID tag is powered by and communicates with an extracorporeal magnetic reader. The tag transmits a unique identification code that serves the function of identifying the animal. Millions of RFID tags have been sold since the early 1980s. Based on the success of the RFID tags, research laboratories have developed injectable medical implants, known as micromodules. One type of micromodule, the microstimulator, is designed for use in functional-neuromuscular stimulation. Each microstimulator is uniquely addressable and could comprise one channel of a multichannel functional-neuromuscular stimulation system. Using bidirectional telemetry and commands, from a single extracorporeal transmitter, as many as 256 microstimulators could form the hardware basis for a complex functional-neuromuscular stimulation feedback-control system. Uses include stimulation of paralyzed muscle, therapeutic functional-neuromuscular stimulation, and neuromodulatory functions such as laryngeal stimulation and sleep apnea.
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  • 22
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 299-329 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The cardiovascular system is an internal flow loop with multiple branches circulating a complex liquid. The hallmarks of blood flow in arteries are pulsatility and branches, which cause wall stresses to be cyclical and nonuniform. Normal arterial flow is laminar, with secondary flows generated at curves and branches. Arteries can adapt to and modify hemodynamic conditions, and unusual hemodynamic conditions may cause an abnormal biological response. Velocity profile skewing can create pockets in which the wall shear stress is low and oscillates in direction. Atherosclerosis tends to localize to these sites and creates a narrowing of the artery lumen-a stenosis. Plaque rupture or endothelial injury can stimulate thrombosis, which can block blood flow to heart or brain tissues, causing a heart attack or stroke. The small lumen and elevated shear rate in a stenosis create conditions that accelerate platelet accumulation and occlusion. The relationship between thrombosis and fluid mechanics is complex, especially in the post-stenotic flow field. New convection models have been developed to predict clinical occlusion from platelet thrombosis in diseased arteries. Future hemodynamic studies should address the complex mechanics of flow-induced, large-scale wall motion and convection of semisolid particles and cells in flowing blood.
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  • 23
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 463-503 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Ionic and molecular transfer among cells occurs by a variety of transport processes operative at different length scales. Cell membrane permeability and electrical conductance derive from channel proteins producing pores at the molecular (ultrastructural) scale. Intracellular mobility involves the dynamics of motion through the complex ultrastructure of the cytoplasm. These phenomena unite in the larger-scale (microscopic) process of gross intercellular transfer. When such movement occurs among sufficiently many cells, it in turn begins to reflect their average collective (macroscopic) behavior as bulk tissue. This article surveys selected aspects of intercellular and intracellular transport, with emphasis on detailed mechanistic theory, experimental probes of cellular permeability, and systematic transcendence from small to large length scales.
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  • 24
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 427-461 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Blood clots form under hemodynamic conditions and can obstruct flow during angina, acute myocardial infarction, stroke, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, peripheral thrombosis, or dialysis access graft thrombosis. Therapies to remove these clots through enzymatic and/or mechanical approaches require consideration of the biochemistry and structure of blood clots in conjunction with local transport phenomena. Because blood clots are porous objects exposed to local hemodynamic forces, pressure-driven interstitial permeation often controls drug penetration and the overall lysis rate of an occlusive thrombus. Reaction engineering and transport phenomena provide a framework to relate dosage of a given agent to potential outcomes. The design and testing of thrombolytic agents and the design of therapies must account for (a) the binding, catalytic, and systemic clearance properties of the therapeutic enzyme; (b) the dose and delivery regimen; (c) the biochemical and structural aspects of the thrombotic occlusion; (d) the prevailing hemodynamics and anatomical location of the thrombus; and (e) therapeutic constraints and risks of side effects. These principles also impact the design and analysis of local delivery devices.
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 559-588 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Since the introduction of medical ultrasound in the 1950s, modern diagnostic ultrasound has progressed to see many major diagnostic tools come into widespread clinical use, such as B-mode imaging, color-flow imaging, and spectral Doppler. New applications, such as panoramic imaging, three-dimensional imaging, and quantitative imaging, are now beginning to be offered on some commercial ultrasound machines and are expected to grow in popularity. In this review, we focus on the various algorithms, their processing requirements, and the challenges of these ultrasound modes. Whereas the older, mature B and color-flow modes could be systolically implemented using hardwired components and boards, new applications, such as three-dimensional imaging and image feature extraction, are being implemented more by using programmable processors. This trend toward programmable ultrasound machines will continue, because the programmable approach offers the advantages of quick implementation of new applications without any additional hardware and the flexibility to adapt to the changing requirements of these dynamic new applications.
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 649-678 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Much of the recent rapid progress in large-scale genomic sequencing has been driven by the dramatic improvements both in the area of biological protocols and in the availability of improved laboratory instrumentation and automation platforms. We discuss recent developments in the area of bioinstrumentation that are contributing to the current revolution in genetic analysis. Examples of systems for laboratory automation are described together with specific single-purpose instruments. Emphasis is placed on those tools that are contributing significantly to the scale-up of genomic mapping and sequencing efforts. In addition, we present a selection of more advanced measurement techniques and instrumentation developments that are likely to contribute significantly to future advances in sequencing and genome analysis.
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  • 27
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 415-457 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 133-153 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 205-243 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 337-357 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 445-488 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 327-353 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 409-440 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 1-10 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 99-132 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 215-240 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 329-358 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 461-494 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 61-82 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 179-204 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 411-443 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 215-249 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 409-449 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 15-40 
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    Notes: Abstract Although the temperature at the top of the lower mantle is well constrained by phase equilibrium data for the transformation of transition zone minerals to the denser perovskite polymorphs, the temperature distribution in the lower mantle is poorly known. Models depend strongly on the assumptions of the amount of internal heating and the viscosity profile. New melting data on iron to pressures of the outer core (2 Mbar) and the observed strong decrease of eutectic melting depression in the Fe-FeO-FeS system with increasing pressure, however, tightly constrain the temperature at the inner-core boundary to slightly less than 5000 K. This estimate can be reconciled with all recent static melting measurements on iron and lays within the uncertainty of shock temperature measurements. The resulting temperature at the core-mantle boundary of about 4000 K then requires a large temperature gradient at the bottom of the lower mantle of about 1500 K. Recent findings of the very high melting temperatures of the major lower-mantle materials Mg-Si-perovskite and magnesiowustite indicate that this increase in temperature does not cause melting in the lower mantle.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 225-262 
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    Notes: Abstract Changes of the isotopic composition of water within the water cycle provide a recognizable signature, relating such water to the different phases of the cycle. The isotope fractionations that accompany the evaporation from the ocean and other surface waters and the reverse process of rain formation account for the most notable changes. As a result, meteoric waters are depleted in the heavy isotopic species of H and O relative to ocean waters, whereas waters in evaporative systems such as lakes, plants, and soilwaters are relatively enriched. During the passage through the aquifers, the isotope composition of water is essentially a conservative property at ambient temperatures, but at elevated temperatures, interaction with the rock matrix may perturb the isotope composition. These changes of the isotope composition in atmospheric waters, surface water, soil, and groundwaters, as well as in the biosphere, are applied in the characterization of hydrological system as well as indicators of paleo-climatological conditions in proxy materials in climatic archives, such as ice, lake sediments, or organic materials.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 385-432 
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    Notes: Abstract Seismic anisotropy beneath continents is analyzed from shear-wave splitting recorded at more than 300 continental seismic stations. Anisotropy is found to be a ubiquitous property that is due to mantle deformation from past and present orogenic activity. The observed coherence with crustal deformation implies that the mantle plays a major, if not dominant, role in orogenies. No evidence is found for a continental asthenospheric decoupling zone, suggesting that continents are coupled to general mantle circulation.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 81-110 
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    Notes: Abstract Pahoehoe lava flows are common in every basaltic province, and their submarine variants, pillow lavas and sheet flows, cover the bulk of the Earth. Pahoehoe flows are emplaced by inflation-the injection of molten lava underneath a solidified crust. Only in the past few years has an understanding of the inflation process and the ability to recognize ancient inflated lava flows been achieved. All large terrestrial basaltic flow fields studied to date, including flood basalts, were emplaced as thermally efficient, inflated, compound pahoehoe sheet flows. This leads us to propose that this is the standard way of emplacing large lavas (the SWELL hypothesis). The atmospheric impact of such flood basalt eruptions could have been protracted and severe, providing a plausible link between flood basalt eruptions and mass extinctions.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 189-218 
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    Notes: Abstract Noble gas isotopic ratios in mantle-derived samples require variability in the time-integrated ratio of volatile to lithophile elements in the Earth. Documentation of mantle 3He/4He variability is becoming increasingly complete, but for the heavier noble gases, the picture is still partly clouded by the effects of atmospheric contamination of mantle samples. Nevertheless, clear variations in mantle Ne, Ar, and Xe isotopic ratios exist, are apparently correlated with 3He/4He, and may be the product of varying degrees of mantle degassing. However, uncertainties in noble gas geochemical behavior and several conflicting observations leave open other possibilities. Recent Ne isotopic data are particularly important because they require that the atmosphere has not been closed to exchange with space. Derivation of much of the atmosphere from a source other than degassing of the mantle is a strong possibility that complicates efforts to model the geochemical evolution of the Earth.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 19-53 
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    Notes: Abstract Mixed-layer clay minerals are intermediate products of reactions involving pure end-member clays. They come from natural environments ranging from surface to low-grade metamorphic and hydrothermal conditions. Most often mixed layering is essentially two component, but more complicated interstratifications have also been documented. Variable tendency to form regular 1:1 interstratifications has been observed and explanations of this phenomenon have been proposed. Mixed-layer clays are either di- or trioctahedral; di/trioctahedral interstratifications are rare. Most mixed-layer clays contain smectite or vermiculte as a swelling component. Exceptions are all trioctahedral: serpentine/chlorite in low-temperature environments, and mica/chlorite and talc/chlorite at high temperatures. Solid state transformation and dissolution/crystallization are the two mechanisms responsible for the formation of different mixed-layer clays. In general, the weathering reactions that produce mixed layering are reversals of the corresponding high-temperature reactions, but the reaction paths are quite different. Weathering reactions alter smectite into kaolinite via mixed-layer kaolinite/smectite. Illite, chlorite, and micas react into mixed-layer clays involving vermiculite layer, then into vermiculite, and finally smectite. Interstratifications of smectite and glauconite, serpentine and chlorite, and smectite and talc are characteristic of early diagenesis and indicative of sedimentary environments. Three reactions involving mixed-layer clays-smectite to illite, smectite to chlorite, and serpentine/chlorite to chlorite-proceed gradually during burial diagenesis and are used for reconstructing maximum burial conditions, illite/smectite being the most useful tool. Rectorite, tosudite, talc/chlorite, and mica/chlorite are mixed-layer minerals indicative of temperatures higher than diagenetic, characteristic of low-temperature metamorphism or hydrothermal alteration.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 359-384 
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    Notes: Abstract In this paper, an overview is presented of coupled processes linking thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) effects in fractured rocks. A formulation is first presented to show the linkage mathematically, which can be used as a basis for numerical solutions and for further developments. Two simple examples of hydromechanical (HM) and thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) coupled processes are discussed to convey physical insight into such couplings. Finally, three large-scale, long-term experiments currently under way are described. These are being conducted specifically to study coupled processes in situ.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 75-113 
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    Notes: Abstract The Chicxulub crater ejecta stratigraphy is reviewed, in the context of the stratigraphy of underlying and overlying rock sequences. The ejecta sequence is regionally grouped in (a) thick polymict and monomict breccia sequences inside the crater and within 300 km from the rim of the crater known from drill holes in and close to the breater, and exposures near the border of Yucatan and Belize; (b) Gulf of Mexico region, 〈2500 m from the crater, with up to 9 m thick, complex, tsunami-wave influenced, tektite-bearing sequences in shallow marine (〈500 m deep) environments and tektite bearing, decimeter thick gravity-flow deposits in deep water sites; (c) an intermediate region between 2500 and 4000 km from the crater where centimeter thick, tektite-bearing layers occur, and (d) a global distal region with a millimeter thin ejecta layer. The distal ejecta layer is characterized by sub-millimeter sized microkrystites, often rich in Ni-rich spinels and (altered) clinopyroxene. Wherever present, the ejecta layers mark exactly the sudden mass-mortality horizon of the K/T boundary. What exactly caused the mass mortality is still uncertain, but it appears the main event leading to the K/T mass extinctions.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 489-525 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 407-424 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 527-558 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 449-484 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 61-108 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 221-233 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 355-376 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 441-457 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 11-41 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 133-163 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 241-268 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23 (1995), S. 1-10 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 1-13 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 41-62 
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    Notes: Abstract Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in understanding the rheological properties of partially molten mantle rocks. Laboratory experiments demonstrate that a few percent of melt can have an unexpectedly large effect on viscosity both in the diffusional creep regime and in the dislocation creep regime. In both cases, the enhancement in creep rate is much larger than anticipated based on deformation models because melt wets at least a fraction of the grain boundaries. For diffusion creep, the wetted interfaces provide a rapid diffusion path that is not included in analyses based on melt distribution in isotropic melt-crystal systems. For dislocation creep, two points require consideration. First, even without a melt phase present, fine-grained samples deformed in the dislocation creep field flow a factor of ~10 faster than coarse-grained rocks due to contributions from grain boundary mechanisms to the deformation process. Second, melt has only a small effect on creep rate for coarse-grained rocks but has a relatively large effect for fine-grained samples. Thus, because olivine has only a limited number of slip systems, grain boundaries contribute significantly to deformation of fine-grained rocks in the dislocation creep regime, provided that deformation occurs near the transition between diffusional creep and dislocation creep. Based on laboratory measurements, this transition is expected to occur at a grain size of about 6 mm for a differential stress of 0.1 MPa. Therefore, under mantle conditions, even a few percent melt should reduce the viscosity by as much as a factor of 10. A broad range of problems related to deformation beneath mid-ocean ridges and in the mantle wedge above subducting slabs can now be addressed using experimentally determined rheologies for partially molten mantle rocks.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 24 (1996), S. 89-123 
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    Notes: Abstract Earth-based stellar occultations probe the temperature, pressure, and number-density profiles of planetary atmospheres in the microbar range with a vertical resolution of a few kilometers. Depending on the occultation data available for a given body and other information, the technique also allows determination of local density variations, extinction by aerosols and molecules, rotation period and zonal winds, atmospheric composition, and the temporal and spatial variability of an atmosphere. A brief quantitative description of the interaction of starlight with a planetary atmosphere is presented, and observational techniques are discussed. Observational results through 1995 are presented for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Titan, Neptune, Triton, Pluto, and Charon.
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 1-21 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 23-51 
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    Notes: Abstract We review recent developments in the study of volcanism and tectonics on Venus. Venus's crust is basaltic, dry, and probably about 30 km thick. The mantle convects, giving rise to plumes, and has a similar composition and mean temperature (~1300oC), but a higher viscosity (~1020 Pa s), than that of the Earth. Inferred melt generation rates constrain the lithospheric thickness to between 80 and 200 km. The elastic thickness of the lithosphere is about 30 km on average. The present-day lack of plate tectonics may be due to strong faults and the high viscosity of the mantle. Most of the differences between Earth and Venus processes can be explained by the absence of water. Venus underwent a global resurfacing event 300-600 Ma ago, the cause and nature of which remains uncertain. The present-day surface heat flux on Venus is about half the likely radiogenic heat generation rate, which suggests that Venus has been heating up since the resurfacing event.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 219-253 
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    Notes: Abstract For technical reasons, the general circulation of the ocean has historically been treated as a steady, laminar flow field. The recent availability of extremely high-accuracy and high-precision satellite altimetry has provided a graphic demonstration that the ocean is actually a rapidly time-evolving turbulent flow field. To render the observations quantitatively useful for oceanographic purposes has required order of magnitude improvements in a number of fields, including orbit dynamics, gravity field estimation, and atmospheric variability. With five years of very high-quality data now available, the nature of oceanic variability on all space and time scales is emerging, including new findings about such diverse and important phenomena as mixing coefficients, the frequency/wavenumber spectrum, and turbulent cascades. Because the surface elevation is both a cause and consequence of motions deep within the water column, oceanographers soon will be able to provide general circulation numerical models tested against and then combined with the altimeter data. These will be complete three-dimensional time-evolving estimates of the ocean circulation, permitting greatly improved estimates of oceanic heat, carbon, and other property fluxes.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 423-500 
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    Notes: Abstract The Re-Os isotope sytem, based on the long-lived beta- transition of 187Re to 187Os, has matured to wide use in cosmochemistry and high-temperature geochemistry. The siderophilic/chalcophilic behavior of Re and Os is different from that of the elements that comprise most other long-lived radiogenic isotope systems. Magmatic iron meteorites (IIIAB, IIAB, IVA, and IVB) have Re-Os isochrons that indicate asteroidal core crystallization within the first 10-40 million years of Solar System evolution. Rocks from Earth's convecting mantle show generally chondritic Re/Os evolution throughout Earth history that is explained by the addition of highly siderophile elements to the mantle after core formation via late accretion. Oceanic basalts have Os-isotope systematics that improve the detailed geological interpretation of extant mantle components. Some portions of ancient subcontinental lithospheric mantle are severely depleted in Re and have correspondingly subchondritic 187Os/188Os, indicating long-term isolation from the convecting mantle during the Archean-Proterozoic. Magmatic ore deposits have differences in initial Os isotopic composition traceable to the crustal vs mantle sources of the platinum-group elements and base metals.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26 (1998), S. 697-747 
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    Notes: Abstract Ocean floor structures with horizontal scales of 10 to a few hundred kilometers and vertical scales of 100 m or more generate sea surface gravity anomalies observable with satellite altimetry. Prior to 1990, altimeter data resolved only tectonic lineaments, some seamounts, and some aspects of mid-ocean ridge structure. New altimeter data available since mid-1995 resolve 10-km-scale structures over nearly all the world's oceans. These data are the basis of new global bathymetric maps and have been interpreted as exhibiting complexities in the sea floor spreading process including ridge jumps, propagating rifts, and variations in magma supply. This chapter reviews the satellite altimetry technique and its resolution of tectonic structures, gives examples of intriguing tectonic phenomena, and shows that structures as small as abyssal hills are partially resolved. A new result obtained here is that the amplitude of the fine-scale (10-80 km) roughness of old ocean floor is spreading-rate dependent in the same way that it is at mid-ocean ridges, suggesting that fine-scale tectonic fabric is generated nearly exclusively by ridge-axis processes.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 55-73 
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    Notes: Abstract Once disregarded as noise, scattered seismic waves are finding increasing application in subsurface imaging. This sea change is driven by the increasing density and quality of seismic recordings and advances in waveform modeling which, together, are allowing seismologists to exploit their unique properties. In addition to extensive application in the energy exploration industry, seismic scattering is now used to characterize heterogeneity in the lower continental crust and subcrustal lithosphere, to examine the relationship between crustal structure and seismogenesis, and to probe the plumbing of active volcanoes. In each application, the study of seismic scattering brings wavelength-scale structure into sharper focus and characterizes the short scale-length fabric of geology.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 287-312 
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    Notes: Abstract The region of the solar system immediately beyond Neptune's orbit is densely populated with small bodies. This region, known as the Kuiper Belt, consists of objects that may predate Neptune, the orbits of which provide a fossil record of processes operative in the young solar system. The Kuiper Belt contains some of the Solar System's most primitive, least thermally processed matter. It is probably the source of the short-period comets and Centaurs, and may also supply collisionally generated interplanetary dust. I discuss the properties of the Kuiper Belt and provide an overview of the outstanding scientific issues.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 149-182 
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    Notes: Abstract Orbitally induced increase in northern summer insolation after growth of a large ice sheet triggered deglaciation and associated global warming. Ice-albedo, sea-level, and greenhouse-gas feedbacks, together with tropical warming from weakening winds in response to polar amplification of warming, caused regional-to-global (near-) synchronization of deglaciation. Effects were larger at orbital rather than millennial frequencies because ice sheets and carbon dioxide vary slowly. Ice-sheet-linked changes in freshwater delivery to the North Atlantic, and possibly free oscillations in the climate system, forced millennial climate oscillations associated with changes in North Atlantic deep water (NADW) flow. The North Atlantic typically operates in one of three modes: modern, glacial, and Heinrich. Deglaciation occurred from a glacial-mode ocean that, in comparison to modern, had shallower depth of penetration of NADW formed further south, causing strong northern cooling and the widespread cold, dry, and windy conditions associated with the glacial maximum and the cold phases of the millennial Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations. The glacial mode was punctuated by meltwater-forced Heinrich conditions that caused only small additional cooling at high northern latitudes, but greatly reduced the formation of NADW and triggered an oceanic "seesaw" that warmed some high-latitude southern regions centered in the South Atlantic.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 417-462 
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    Notes: Abstract Cenozoic extension in the western United States presents a complex interrelation of extension, volcanism, and plate boundary tectonics that defeats simple notions of "active" or "passive" rifting. Forces driving extension can originate at plate boundaries, through basal traction, basal normal forces, or from buoyancy forces internal to the crust and lithospheric mantle. The latter two are most responsible for driving extension where it is observed in the Basin and Range. The complex evolution of the northern Basin and Range probably represents removal or alteration of mantle lithosphere interacting with buoyancy stored in the crust. In contrast, crustal buoyancy forces combined with a divergent plate boundary between about 28 and 16 Ma to drive extension in the southern Basin and Range. The central Basin and Range most likely extended as a result of boundary forces external to itself but arising from buoyancy forces elsewhere in the western United States.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (1999), S. 463-493 
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    Notes: Abstract The history of carnivorous mammals is characterized by a series of rise-and-fall patterns of diversification in which declining clades are replaced by phylogenetically distinct but functionally similar clades. Seven such examples from the last 46 million years are described for North America and Eurasia. In three of the seven turnover events, competition with replacement taxa may have driven the decline of formerly dominant taxa. In the remaining four this is less likely because inferred functional similarity was minimal during the interval of temporal overlap between clades. However, competition still may have been important in producing the rise-and-fall pattern through suppression of evolution within replacement taxa; as long as the large carnivore ecospace was filled, the radiation of new taxa into that ecospace was limited, only occurring after the extinction of the incumbents. The apparently inevitable decline of incumbent taxa may reflect the tendency for clades of large carnivorous mammals to produce more specialized species as they mature, leading to increased vulnerability to extinction when environments change.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 1-17 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 95-117 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 191-204 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 303-342 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8 (1980), S. 425-487 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 1-18 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 113-143 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 227-249 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 345-383 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 9 (1981), S. 385-413 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 331-346 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Ventricular fibrillation, a loss of synchronus electrical activity in the heart which leads to hemodynamic collapse, is a leading cause of death. Because of the devastating personal and societal effects of this phenomenon, the automatic cardioverter-defibrillator has been developed for automatic detection and termination of the arrhythmia and is in widespread clinical use. Advances in circuits, leads, waveforms, and signal processing along with increased knowledge of the mechanisms of fibrillation have led to continuing improvements in this device, extending its use to many patients. A device has also been developed for the automatic or semiautomatic treatment of atrial fibrillation, an arrhythmia less life-threatening than ventricular fibrillation, but still a serious health problem. Continued improvement of these devices and the development of qualitatively new approaches hold great promise for exciting therapeutic advances in this area.
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 401-425 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Microfabrication uses integrated-circuit manufacturing technology supplemented by its own processes to create objects with dimensions in the range of micrometers to millimeters. These objects can have miniature moving parts, stationary structures, or both. Microfabrication has been used for many applications in biology and medicine. These applications fall into four domains: tools for molecular biology and biochemistry, tools for cell biology, medical devices, and biosensors. Microfabricated device structures may provide significantly enhanced function with respect to a conventional device. Sometimes microfabrication can enable devices with novel capabilities. These enhancing and enabling qualities are conferred when microfabrication is used appropriately to address the right types of problems. Herein, we describe microfabrication technology and its application to biology and medicine. We detail several classes of advantages conferred by microfabrication and how these advantages have been used to date.
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 505-534 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Protein crystallization is the most difficult and time-consuming step in the determination of a protein's atomic structure. As X-ray diffraction becomes a commonly available tool in structural biology, the necessity for rational methodologies and protocols to produce single, high-quality protein crystals has come to the forefront. The basics of protein crystallization conform to the classical understanding of crystallization of small molecules. Understanding the effect of solution variables such as pH, temperature, pressure, and ionicity on protein solubility allows the proper evaluation of the degree of supersaturation present in protein crystallization experiments. Physicochemical measurements such as laser light scattering, X-ray scattering, X-ray diffraction, and atomic force microscopy provide a clearer picture of protein crystal nucleation and growth. This ever deepening knowledge base is generating rational methods to produce protein crystals as well as means to improve the diffraction quality of such protein crystals. Yet, much remains unclear, and the protein crystallization research community will be quite active for many years to come.
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    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 1 (1999), S. 611-648 
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Transgenic and eugenic animals as small as 30 g can be studied noninvasively by radionuclides with resolutions of 1-2 mm, by MRI with resolution of 100 mum and by light fluorescence and bioluminescence with high sensitivities. The technologies of radionuclide emission, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, optical tomography, optical fluorescence and optical bioluminescence are currently being applied to small-animal studies. These technologies and examples of their applications are reviewed in this chapter.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 109-128 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 297-326 
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 397-408 
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