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  • American Chemical Society  (23.699)
  • American Geophysical Union  (4.618)
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2005-2009
  • 1995-1999  (29.224)
  • 1980-1984
  • 1930-1934
  • 1998  (29.224)
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  • 2005-2009
  • 1995-1999  (29.224)
  • 1980-1984
  • 1930-1934
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  • 1
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SIGNALING COMPLEXES:Biophysical Constraints on Intracellular Communication (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 59-75 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract This review surveys the kinds of protein complex that participate in cell communication and identifies, where possible, general principles by which they form and act. It also advances the notion that biophysical constraints imposed by macromolecular crowding and diffusion have had a controlling influence on the evolution of cell signaling pathways. Complexes associated with the bacterial aspartate receptor, with eucaryotic tyrosine kinase receptors, with T-cell receptors, and with focal contacts are examined together with proteins that serve as adaptors, anchors, and scaffolds for signaling complexes. The importance of diffusion in controlling the numbers and locations of signaling complexes is discussed, as is the special role played by membranes in signaling pathways.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.59
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  • 2
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    STRUCTURE, DYNAMICS, AND FUNCTION OF CHROMATIN IN VITRO (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 285-327 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The substrates for the essential biological processes of transcription, replication, recombination, DNA repair, and cell division are not naked DNA; rather, they are protein-DNA complexes known as chromatin, in one or another stage of a hierarchical series of compactions. These are exciting times for students of chromatin. New studies provide incontrovertible evidence linking chromatin structure to function. Exceptional progress has been made in studies of the structure of chromatin subunits. Surprising new dynamic properties have been discovered. And, much progress has been made in dissecting the functional roles of specific chromatin proteins and domains. This review focuses on in vitro studies of chromatin structure, dynamics, and function.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.285
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  • 3
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    INHIBITORS OF HIV-1 PROTEASE: A Major Success of Structure-Assisted Drug Design1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 249-284 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Retroviral protease (PR) from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was identified over a decade ago as a potential target for structure-based drug design. This effort was very successful. Four drugs are already approved, and others are undergoing clinical trials. The techniques utilized in this remarkable example of structure-assisted drug design included crystallography, NMR, computational studies, and advanced chemical synthesis. The development of these drugs is discussed in detail. Other approaches to designing HIV-1 PR inhibitors, based on the concepts of symmetry and on the replacement of a water molecule that had been found tetrahedrally coordinated between the enzyme and the inhibitors, are also discussed. The emergence of drug-induced mutations of HIV-1 PR leads to rapid loss of potency of the existing drugs and to the need to continue the development process. The structural basis of drug resistance and the ways of overcoming this phenomenon are mentioned.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.249
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  • 4
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SIMULATION OF PROKARYOTIC GENETIC CIRCUITS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 199-224 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Biochemical and genetic approaches have identified the molecular mechanisms of many genetic reactions, particularly in bacteria. Now a comparably detailed understanding is needed of how groupings of genes and related protein reactions interact to orchestrate cellular functions over the cell cycle, to implement preprogrammed cellular development, or to dynamically change a cell's processes and structures in response to environmental signals. Simulations using realistic, molecular-level models of genetic mechanisms and of signal transduction networks are needed to analyze dynamic behavior of multigene systems, to predict behavior of mutant circuits, and to identify the design principles applicable to design of genetic regulatory circuits. When the underlying design rules for regulatory circuits are understood, it will be far easier to recognize common circuit motifs, to identify functions of individual proteins in regulation, and to redesign circuits for altered functions.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.199
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  • 5
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CYTOCHROME C OXIDASE: Structure and Spectroscopy (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 329-356 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the respiratory chains of mitochondria and aerobic bacteria, catalyzes electron transfer from cytochrome c to molecular oxygen, reducing the latter to water. Electron transfer is coupled to proton translocation across the membrane, resulting in a proton and charge gradient that is then employed by the F0F1-ATPase to synthesize ATP. Over the last years, substantial progress has been made in our understanding of the structure and function of this enzyme. Spectroscopic techniques such as EPR, absorbance and resonance Raman spectroscopy, in combination with site-directed mutagenesis work, have been successfully applied to elucidate the nature of the cofactors and their ligands, to identify key residues involved in proton transfer, and to gain insight into the catalytic cycle and the structures of its intermediates. Recently, the crystal structures of a bacterial and a mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase have been determined. In this review, we provide an overview of the crystal structures, summarize recent spectroscopic work, and combine structural and spectroscopic data in discussing mechanistic aspects of the enzyme. For the latter, we focus on the structure of the oxygen intermediates, proton-transfer pathways, and the much-debated issue of how electron transfer in the enzyme might be coupled to proton translocation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.329
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  • 6
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE USE OF 2H, 13C, 15N MULTIDIMENSIONAL NMR GTO STUDY THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF PROTEINS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 357-406 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract During the past thirty years, deuterium labeling has been used to improve the resolution and sensitivity of protein NMR spectra used in a wide variety of applications. Most recently, the combination of triple resonance experiments and 2H, 13C, 15N labeled samples has been critical to the solution structure determination of several proteins with molecular weights on the order of 30 kDa. Here we review the developments in isotopic labeling strategies, NMR pulse sequences, and structure-determination protocols that have facilitated this advance and hold promise for future NMR-based structural studies of even larger systems. As well, we detail recent progress in the use of solution 2H NMR methods to probe the dynamics of protein sidechains.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.357
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  • 7
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC STRUCTURES OF THE HAMMERHEAD RIBOZYME: Relationship to Ribozyme Folding and Catalysis (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 475-502 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The hammerhead ribozyme is a small catalytic RNA that cleaves a target phosphodiester bond in a reaction dependent on divalent metal ions. Crystal structures of the hammerhead reveal the tertiary fold of an enzymatic "ground state" of the molecule; however, they do not clarify the catalytic mechanism of the ribozyme, presumably because a significant conformational rearrangement is required to reach an enzymatic transition state. The structural domains seen in the hammerhead can be related to sequence or structural motifs in transfer and ribosomal RNAs, suggesting that they represent tertiary building blocks that will be found in large, complex RNAs.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.475
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  • 8
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PLECKSTRIN HOMOLOGY DOMAINS: A Common Fold with Diverse Functions (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 503-528 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Pleckstrin homology (PH) motifs are approximately 100 amino-acid residues long and have been identified in nearly 100 different eukaryotic proteins, many of which participate in cell signaling and cytoskeletal regulation. Despite minimal sequence homology, the three-dimensional structures are remarkably conserved. This review gives an overview of the PH domain architecture and examines the best-studied examples in an attempt to understand their function.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.503
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  • 9
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SIGNALING TO THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 305-338 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The actin cytoskeleton is a highly dynamic network composed of actin polymers and a large variety of associated proteins. The main functions of the actin cytoskeleton are to mediate cell motility and cell shape changes during the cell cycle and in response to extracellular stimuli, to organize the cytoplasm, and to generate mechanical forces within the cell. The reshaping and functions of the actin cytoskeleton are regulated by signaling pathways. Here we broadly review the actin cytoskeleton and the signaling pathways that regulate it. We place heavy emphasis on the yeast actin cytoskeleton.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.305
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  • 10
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MITOCHONDRIAL DYNAMICS IN YEAST (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 265-303 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Proteins that control mitochondrial dynamics in yeast are being identified at a rapid pace. These proteins include cytoskeletal elements that regulate organelle distribution and inheritance and several outer membrane proteins that are required to maintain the branched, mitochondrial reticulum. Interestingly, three of the high molecular weight GTPases encoded by the yeast genome are required for mitochondrial integrity and are potential regulators of mitochondrial branching, distribution, and membrane fusion. The recent finding that mtDNA mixing is restricted in the mitochondrial matrix has stimulated the hunt for the molecular machinery that anchors mitochondrial nucleoids in the organelle. Considering that many aspects of mitochondrial structure and behavior are strikingly similar in different cell types, the functional analyses of these yeast proteins should provide general insights into the mechanisms governing mitochondrial dynamics in all eukaryotes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.265
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  • 11
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FROM THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM TO THE NUCLEUS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 459-485 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Cells respond to an accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by increasing transcription of genes encoding ER resident proteins. The information is transmitted from the ER lumen to the nucleus by an intracellular signaling pathway called the unfolded protein response (UPR). Recent work has shown that this signaling pathway utilizes several novel mechanisms, including translational attenuation and a regulated mRNA splicing step. In this review we aim to integrate these recent advances with current knowledge about maintenance of ER composition and abundance.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.459
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  • 12
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    TYPE Ia SUPERNOVAE AND THE HUBBLE CONSTANT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 17-55 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The focus of this review is the work that has been done during the 1990s on using Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) to measure the Hubble constant (H0). SNe Ia are well suited for measuring H0. A straightforward maximum-light color criterion can weed out the minority of observed events that are either intrinsically subluminous or substantially extinguished by dust, leaving a majority subsample that has observational absolute-magnitude dispersions of less than sigmaobs (MB) =sigmaobs (MV) = 0.3 mag. Correlations between absolute magnitude and one or more distance-independent SN Ia or parent-galaxy observables can be used to further standardize the absolute magnitudes to better than 0.2 mag. The absolute magnitudes can be calibrated in two independent ways: empirically, using Cepheid-based distances to parent galaxies of SNe Ia, and physically, by light curve and spectrum fitting. At present the empirical and physical calibrations are in agreement at MB=MV=-19.4 or -19.5. Various ways that have been used to match Cepheid-calibrated SNe Ia or physical models to SNe Ia that have been observed out in the Hubble flow have given values of H0 distributed throughout the range of 54-67 km s-1 Mpc-1. Astronomers who want a consensus value of H0 from SNe Ia with conservative errors could, for now, use 60 +- 10 km s-1 Mpc-1.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.17
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  • 13
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    DETECTION OF EXTRASOLAR GIANT PLANETS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 57-97 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Eight extrasolar planet candidates have now been identified, all revealed by Keplerian Doppler shifts in their host stars. The masses (m sin i) lie between 0.5 and 7 MJUP, and the semimajor axes are less than 2.1 astronomical units (AU). Doppler detectability favors high masses and small orbits, and improvements will render Saturn masses detectable within a few years. The substellar mass function (dN/dM) for companions is roughly flat from 70 down to 10 MJUP, but it exhibits a sharp increase for masses below 5 MJUP. For three of these companions (47 UMa, rho Crb, and 55 Cnc), their circular orbits must be primordial (not tidally induced), indicating formation in a disk, as presumed for Solar System planets. Eccentric orbits may be explained by gravitational perturbations, either by companion stars, other planets, or disk resonances. The detections imply that ~6% of solar-type stars have giant planets within 2 AU. The small orbits (a〈 2 AU) imply that the planets formed either in situ, without the benefit of ice grains, or suffered inward migration. Orbital decay within 1 Myr in disks appears inevitable and may shape the planet mass distribution. The observed stability of spectral line shapes suggests that nonradial stellar oscillations do not affect the planet detections.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.57
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  • 14
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE GENETICS OF BREAST CANCER SUSCEPTIBILITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 95-121 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Following the genomic localization and subsequent identification of the breast cancer susceptibility genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, the basic patterns of cancer risk associated with mutations in these genes have been defined. In addition, preliminary insights into the prevalence of mutations and their contributions to cancer incidence have been acquired. Features of breast and other cancers that develop in these genetic syndromes have now been investigated and shown to differ from sporadic versions of the same neoplasms. However, several areas are complex and require further clarification. There remain discrepancies between published cancer risk estimates. Furthermore, there may be variation in cancer risk between different mutations in the same gene and there is preliminary evidence that genetic and nongenetic influences may modify risks. Finally, it is probable that the genes underlying a substantial component of susceptibility to breast cancer remain to be identified.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.95
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  • 15
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE ETHYLENE GAS SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY: A Molecular Perspective (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 227-254 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The gaseous hormone ethylene induces diverse effects in plants throughout their life cycle. Ethylene response is regulated at multiple levels, from hormone synthesis and perception to signal transduction and transcriptional regulation. As more genes in the ethylene response pathway are cloned and characterized, they illustrate the precision with which signaling can be controlled. Wounding, pathogenic attack, flooding, fruit ripening, development, senescence, and ethylene treatment itself induce ethylene production. Ethylene binding to receptors with homology to two-component regulators triggers a kinase cascade that is propagated through the CTR1 Raf-like kinase and other components to the nucleus. Activation of the EIN3 family of nuclear proteins leads to induction of the relevant ethyleneresponsive genes via other transcription factors, eliciting a response appropriate to the original stimulus.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.227
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  • 16
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    EPITOPE TAGGING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 601-618 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Epitope tagging is a recombinant DNA method by which a protein encoded by a cloned gene is made immunoreactive to a known antibody. This review discusses the major advantages and limitations of epitope tagging and describes a number of recent applications. Major areas of application include monitoring protein expression, localizing proteins at the cellular and subcellular levels, and protein purification, as well as the analysis of protein topology, dynamics and interactions. Recently the method has also found use in transgenic and gene therapy studies and in the emerging fields of functional genomics and proteomics.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.601
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  • 17
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE LEPTOTENE-ZYGOTENE TRANSITION OF MEIOSIS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 619-697 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The leptotene/zygotene transition of meiosis, as defined by classical cytological studies, is the period when homologous chromosomes, already being discernible individualized entities, begin to be close together or touching over portions of their lengths. This period also includes the bouquet stage: Chromosome ends, which have already become integral components of the inner nuclear membrane, move into a polarized configuration, along with other nuclear envelope components. Chromosome movements, active or passive, also occur. The detailed nature of interhomologue interactions during this period, with special emphasis on the involvement of chromosome ends, and the overall role for meiosis and recombination of chromosome movement and, especially, the bouquet stage are discussed.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.619
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  • 18
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE STEREOCHEMICAL MECHANISM OF THE COOPERATIVE EFFECTS IN HEMOGLOBIN REVISITED (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 1-34 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract In 1970, Perutz tried to put the allosteric mechanism of hemoglobin, proposed by Monod, Wyman and Changeux in 1965, on a stereochemical basis. He interpreted their two-state model in terms of an equilibrium between two alternative structures, a tense one (T) with low oxygen affinity, constrained by salt-bridges between the C-termini of the four subunits, and a relaxed one (R) lacking these bridges. The equilibrium was thought to be governed primarily by the positions of the iron atoms relative to the porphyrin: out-of-plane in five-coordinated, high-spin deoxyhemoglobin, and in-plane in six-coordinated, low-spin oxyhemoglobin. The tension exercised by the salt-bridges in the T-structure was to be transmitted to the heme-linked histidines and to restrain the movement of the iron atoms into the porphyrin plane that is necessary for oxygen binding. At the beta-hemes, the distal valine and histidine block the oxygen-combining site in the T-structure; its tension was thought to strengthen that blockage. Finally, Perutz attributed the linearity of proton release with early oxygen uptake to the sequential rupture of salt-bridges in the T-structure and to the accompanying drop in pKa of the weak bases that form part of them. Almost every feature of this mechanism has been disputed, but evidence that has come to light more than 25 years later now shows it to have been substantially correct. That new evidence is reviewed below.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.1
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  • 19
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MINOR GROOVE-BINDING ARCHITECTURAL PROTEINS: Structure, Function, and DNA Recognition1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 105-131 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract To date, high-resolution structures have been solved for five different architectural proteins complexed to their DNA target sites. These include TATA-box-binding protein, integration host factor (IHF), high mobility group I(Y)[HMG I(Y)], and the HMG-box-containing proteins SRY and LEF-1. Each of these proteins interacts with DNA exclusively through minor groove contacts and alters DNA conformation. This paper reviews the structural features of these complexes and the roles they play in facilitating assembly of higher-order protein-DNA complexes and discusses elements that contribute to sequence-specific recognition and conformational changes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.105
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  • 20
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF PROTEIN PHOSPHATASES: Insights into Catalysis and Regulation (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 133-164 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Eukaryotic protein phosphatases are structurally and functionally diverse enzymes that are represented by three distinct gene families. Two of these, the PPP and PPM families, dephosphorylate phosphoserine and phosphothreonine residues, whereas the protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) dephosphorylate phosphotyrosine amino acids. A subfamily of the PTPs, the dual-specificity phosphatases, dephosphorylate all three phosphoamino acids. Within each family, the catalytic domains are highly conserved, with functional diversity endowed by regulatory domains and subunits. The protein Ser/Thr phosphatases are metalloenzymes and dephosphorylate their substrates in a single reaction step using a metal-activated nucleophilic water molecule. In contrast, the PTPs catalyze dephosphorylation by use of a cysteinyl-phosphate enzyme intermediate. The crystal structures of a number of protein phosphatases have been determined, enabling us to understand their catalytic mechanisms and the basis for substrate recognition and to begin to provide insights into molecular mechanisms of protein phosphatase regulation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.133
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  • 21
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE RIBOSOME AND ITS COMPONENTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 35-58 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Exciting progress has been made in the last decade by those who use physical methods to study the structure of the ribosome and its components. The structures of 10 ribosomal proteins and three isolated ribosomal protein domains are known, and the conformations of a significant number of rRNA sequences have been determined. Electron microscopists have made major advances in the analysis of images of ribosomes, and microscopically derived ribosome models at resolutions approaching 10A are likely quite soon. Furthermore, ribosome crystallographers are on the verge of phasing the diffraction patterns they have had for several years, and near-atomic resolution models for entire ribosomal subunits could emerge from this source at any time. The literature relevant to these developments is reviewed below.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.35
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  • 22
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    Digitale Medien
    BIOSENSORS IN CHEMICAL SEPARATIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 165-198 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Identification of biomolecules in complex biological mixtures represents a major challenge in biomedical, environmental, and chemical research today. Chemical separations with traditional detection schemes such as absorption, fluorescence, refractive index, conductivity, and electrochemistry have been the standards for definitive identifications of many compounds. In many instances, however, the complexity of the biomixture exceeds the resolution capability of chemical separations. Biosensors based on molecular recognition can dramatically improve the selectivity of and provide biologically relevant information about the components. This review describes how coupling chemical separations with online biosensors solves challenging problems in sample analysis by identifying components that would not normally be detectable by either technique alone. This review also presents examples and principles of combining chemical separations with biosensor detection that uses living systems, whole cells, membrane receptors, enzymes, and immunosensors.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.165
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  • 23
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    DNA NANOTECHNOLOGY: Novel DNA Constructions (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 225-248 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract DNA nanotechnology entails the construction of specific geometrical and topological targets from DNA. The goals include the use of DNA molecules to scaffold the assembly of other molecules, particularly in periodic arrays, with the objects of both crystal facilitation and memory-device construction. Many of these products are based on branched DNA motifs. DNA molecules with the connectivities of a cube and a truncated octahedron have been prepared. A solid-support methodology has been developed to construct DNA targets. DNA trefoil and figure-8 knots have been made, predicated on the relationship between a topological crossing and a half-turn of B-DNA or Z-DNA. The same basis has been used to construct Borromean rings from DNA. An RNA knot has been used to demonstrate an RNA topoisomerase activity. The desire to construct periodic matter held together by DNA sticky ends has resulted in a search for stiff components; DNA double crossover molecules appear to be the best candidates. It appears that novel DNA motifs may be of use in the new field of DNA-based computing.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.225
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  • 24
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    Digitale Medien
    SPATIO-TEMPORAL RESOLUTION OF EXOCYTOSIS FROM INDIVIDUAL CELLS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 77-103 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Biophysical events involved in late stages of exocytosis occur at highly localized areas of cells on millisecond and submillisecond time scales. Thus, methodologies with high spatio-temporal resolution are required to achieve measurements at individual secretory cells. Much has been learned about the mechanisms and kinetics of vesicular release through analysis with the carbon fiber microelectrode techniques amperometry and cyclic voltammetry. Coupling of these techniques with other methods such as patch-clamp continues to reveal details of the secretion process. It is now clear that extrusion of the vesicular contents is a more complex process than previously believed. Vesicle-cell fusion, revealed by cell capacitance measurements, is temporally dissociated from secretion measured amperometrically. The stability imparted by interaction and association of vesicle contents at rest results in a rate-limiting extrusion process after full fusion. Furthermore, the presence of partial fusion events and the occurrence of nonquantized release have been revealed with electrochemical tools.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.77
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  • 25
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    RNA RECOGNITION BY RNP PROTEINS DURING RNA PROCESSING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 407-445 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The ribonucleoprotein (RNP) domain is one of the most common eukaryotic protein folds. Proteins containing RNP domains function in important steps of posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression by directing the assembly of multiprotein complexes on primary transcripts, mature mRNAs, and stable ribonucleoprotein components of the RNA processing machinery. The diverse functions performed by these proteins depend on their dual ability to recognize RNA and to interact with other proteins, often utilizing specialized auxiliary domains. Crystallographic and NMR structures of several RNP domains and a handful of structures of RNA-protein complexes have begun to reveal the molecular basis for RNP-RNA recognition.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.407
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  • 26
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    Digitale Medien
    ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING OF THE BRAIN (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 27 (1998), S. 447-474 
    Details
    ISSN: 1056-8700
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract In this review we discuss various recent topics that characterize functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These topics include a brief description of MRI image acquisition, how to cope with noise or signal fluctuation, the basis of fMRI signal changes, and the relation of MRI signal to neuronal events. Several observations of fMRI that show good correlation to the neurofunction are referred to. Temporal characteristics of fMRI signals and examples of how the feature of real time measurement is utilized are then described. The question of spatial resolution of fMRI, which must be dictated by the vascular structure serving the functional system, is discussed based on various fMRI observations. Finally, the advantage of fMRI mapping is shown in a few examples. Reviewing the vast number of recent fMRI application that have now been reported is beyond the scope of this article.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.447
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  • 27
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE TIGHT JUNCTION: Morphology to Molecules (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 89-109 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The tight junction forms a regulated barrier in the paracellular pathway between epithelial and endothelial cells. This intercellular junction also demarcates the compositionally distinct apical and basolateral membranes. While the existence of a paracellular barrier in epithelia was hypothesized by physiologists over a century ago, the molecular characterization of the tight junction is a relatively new and rapidly expanding area of research. It is now recognized that the tight junction is comprised of at least nine peripheral and one integral membrane proteins. This complex includes members of a protein family related to tumor suppression and signal transduction, a rab protein, and a Ras target protein. The characteristics of, interactions between, and potential physiological roles of these proteins at the tight junction are discussed.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.89
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  • 28
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MECHANISMS OF WNT SIGNALING IN DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 59-88 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Wnt genes encode a large family of secreted, cysteine-rich proteins that play key roles as intercellular signaling molecules in development. Genetic studies in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans, ectopic gene expression in Xenopus, and gene knockouts in the mouse have demonstrated the involvement of Wnts in processes as diverse as segmentation, CNS patterning, and control of asymmetric cell divisions. The transduction of Wnt signals between cells proceeds in a complex series of events including post-translational modification and secretion of Wnts, binding to transmembrane receptors, activation of cytoplasmic effectors, and, finally, transcriptional regulation of target genes. Over the past two years our understanding of Wnt signaling has been substantially improved by the identification of Frizzled proteins as cell surface receptors for Wnts and by the finding that beta-catenin, a component downstream of the receptor, can translocate to the nucleus and function as a transcriptional activator. Here we review recent data that have started to unravel the mechanisms of Wnt signaling.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.59
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  • 29
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    BIOLUMINESCENCE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 197-230 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Bioluminescence has evolved independently many times; thus the responsible genes are unrelated in bacteria, unicellular algae, coelenterates, beetles, fishes, and others. Chemically, all involve exergonic reactions of molecular oxygen with different substrates (luciferins) and enzymes (luciferases), resulting in photons of visible light (=50 kcal). In addition to the structure of luciferan, several factors determine the color of the emissions, such as the amino acid sequence of the luciferase (as in beetles, for example) or the presence of accessory proteins, notably GFP, discovered in coelenterates and now used as a reporter of gene expression and a cellular marker. The mechanisms used to control the intensity and kinetics of luminescence, often emitted as flashes, also vary. Bioluminescence is credited with the discovery of how some bacteria, luminous or not, sense their density and regulate specific genes by chemical communication, as in the fascinating example of symbiosis between luminous bacteria and squid.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.197
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  • 30
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    Digitale Medien
    TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL OF MUSCLE DEVELOPMENT BY MYOCYTE ENHANCER FACTOR-2 (MEF2) PROTEINS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 167-196 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Metazoans contain multiple types of muscle cells that share several common properties, including contractility, excitability, and expression of overlapping sets of muscle structural genes that mediate these functions. Recent biochemical and genetic studies have demonstrated that members of the myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF2) family of MADS (MCM1, agamous, deficiens, serum response factor)-box transcription factors play multiple roles in muscle cells to control myogenesis and morphogenesis. Like other MADS-box proteins, MEF2 proteins act combinatorially through protein-protein interactions with other transcription factors to control specific sets of target genes. Genetic studies in Drosophila have also begun to reveal the upstream elements of myogenic regulatory hierarchies that control MEF2 expression during development of skeletal, cardiac, and visceral muscle lineages. Paradoxically, MEF2 factors also regulate cell proliferation by functioning as endpoints for a variety of growth factor-regulated intracellular signaling pathways that are antagonistic to muscle differentiation. We discuss the diverse functions of this family of transcription factors, the ways in which they are regulated, and their mechanisms of action.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.167
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  • 31
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CONTROL OF TRANSLATION INITIATION IN ANIMALS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 399-458 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Regulation of translation initiation is a central control point in animal cells. We review our current understanding of the mechanisms of regulation, drawing particularly on examples in which the biological consequences of the regulation are clear. Specific mRNAs can be controlled via sequences in their 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) and by alterations in the translation machinery. The 5'UTR sequence can determine which initiation pathway is used to bring the ribosome to the initiation codon, how efficiently initiation occurs, and which initiation site is selected. 5'UTR-mediated control can also be accomplished via sequence-specific mRNA-binding proteins. Sequences in the 3' untranslated region and the poly(A) tail can have dramatic effects on initiation frequency, with particularly profound effects in oogenesis and early development. The mechanism by which 3'UTRs and poly(A) regulate initiation may involve contacts between proteins bound to these regions and the basal translation apparatus. mRNA localization signals in the 3'UTR can also dramatically influence translational activation and repression. Modulations of the initiation machinery, including phosphorylation of initiation factors and their regulated association with other proteins, can regulate both specific mRNAs and overall translation rates and thereby affect cell growth and phenotype.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.399
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  • 32
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ROAMING THROUGH ASTROPHYSICS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 1-16 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.1
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  • 33
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE LYMAN ALPHA FOREST IN THE SPECTRA OF QUASISTELLAR OBJECTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 267-316 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Observations of redshifted Lyman alpha (Lyalpha) forest absorption in the spectra of quasistellar objects (QSOs) provide a highly sensitive probe of the distribution of gaseous matter in the universe. Over the past two decades, optical spectroscopy with large ground-based telescopes, and more recently ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy from space, have yielded a wealth of information on what appears to be a gaseous, photoionized intergalactic medium (IGM), partly enriched by the products of stellar nucleosynthesis, residing in coherent structures over many hundreds of kiloparsecs. Recent progress with cosmological hydro-simulations based on hierarchical structure formation models has led to important insights into the physical structures giving rise to the forest. If these ideas are correct, a truly inter- and protogalactic medium [at high redshift (z~ 3), the main repository of baryons] collapses under the influence of dark matter gravity into flattened or filamentary structures, which are seen in absorption against background QSOs. With decreasing redshift, galaxies forming in the denser regions may contribute an increasing part of the Lyalpha absorption cross section. Comparisons between large data samples from the new generation of telescopes and artificial Lyalpha forest spectra from cosmological simulations promise to become a useful cosmological tool.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.267
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  • 34
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CARBON STARS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 369-433 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Absolute magnitudes are estimated for carbon stars of various subtypes in the Hipparcos catalogue and as found in the Magellanic Clouds. Stellar radii fall within the limits of 2.4-4.7 AU. The chemical composition of carbon stars indicates that the C-N stars show nearly solar C/H, N/H, and 12C/13C ratios. This indicates that much of the C and N in our Galaxy came from mass-losing carbon stars. Special carbon stars such as the C-R, C-H, and dC stars are described. Mass loss from asymptotic giant branch carbon stars, at rates up to several x 10-5M year-1, contributes about half of the total mass return to the interstellar medium. R stars do not lose mass and may be carbon-rich red giants. The mass loss rates for Miras are about 10 times higher than for SRb and Lb stars, whose properties are similar enough to show that they are likely to belong to the same population. The distribution of carbon star mass loss rates peaks at about 10-7M year-1, close to the rate of growth of the core mass and demonstrative of the close relationship between mass loss and evolution. Infrared spectroscopy shows that dust mixtures can occur. Detached shells are seen around some stars; they appear to form on the time scales of the helium shell flashes and to be a normal occurrence in carbon star evolution.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369
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  • 35
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MODELING EXTRAGALACTIC JETS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 539-598 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Extragalactic jets were discovered and initially studied by radio astronomers in connection with extended radio sources. At present, the combination of jets and disks is considered the crucial element in unification models for all active galactic nuclei (AGNs). The acceleration and propagation conditions of jets, together with the aspect ratio of the disk/jet geometry with respect to the observer, shape the morphologies of AGNs. However, these phenomenological models are very complex from the physical and mathematical point of view, as they involve different elements of the theories of gravitation, fluid dynamics, and electrodynamics in a highly nonlinear combination and in conditions not easily reproducible in laboratory plasma or fluid experiments. In the last ten years, theorists have attacked the subject with advanced analytical and numerical methods, and some important results have already been established that confirm the global scenario, although we are still far from a complete physical interpretation. This review summarizes the main results on the art of jet modeling, emphasizing the limitations of the available models and the possibility of new developments.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.539
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  • 36
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    DWARF GALAXIES OF THE LOCAL GROUP (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 435-506 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The Local Group dwarf galaxies offer a unique window to the detailed properties of the most common type of galaxy in the Universe. In this review, I update the census of Local Group dwarfs based on the most recent distance and radial velocity determinations. I then discuss the detailed properties of this sample, including (a) the integrated photometric parameters and optical structures of these galaxies, (b) the content, nature, and distribution of their interstellar medium (ISM), (c) their heavy-element abundances derived from both stars and nebulae, (d) the complex and varied star-formation histories of these dwarfs, (e) their internal kinematics, stressing the relevance of these galaxies to the "dark matter problem" and to alternative interpretations, and (f) evidence for past, ongoing, and future interactions of these dwarfs with other galaxies in the Local Group and beyond. To complement the discussion and to serve as a foundation for future work, I present an extensive set of basic observational data in tables that summarize much of what we know and do not know about these nearby dwarfs. Our understanding of these galaxies has grown impressively in the past decade, but fundamental puzzles remain that will keep the Local Group at the forefront of galaxy evolution studies for some time.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.435
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  • 37
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE DIVERSE AND DYNAMIC STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL GENOMES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 339-377 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Bacterial genome sizes, which range from 500 to 10,000 kbp, are within the current scope of operation of large-scale nucleotide sequence determination facilities. To date, 8 complete bacterial genomes have been sequenced, and at least 40 more will be completed in the near future. Such projects give wonderfully detailed information concerning the structure of the organism's genes and the overall organization of the sequenced genomes. It will be very important to put this incredible wealth of detail into a larger biological picture: How does this information apply to the genomes of related genera, related species, or even other individuals from the same species? Recent advances in pulsed-field gel electrophoretic technology have facilitated the construction of complete and accurate physical maps of bacterial chromosomes, and the many maps constructed in the past decade have revealed unexpected and substantial differences in genome size and organization even among closely related bacteria. This review focuses on this recently appreciated plasticity in structure of bacterial genomes, and diversity in genome size, replicon geometry, and chromosome number are discussed at inter- and intraspecies levels.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.339
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  • 38
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    EARLY PATTERNING OF THE C. ELEGANS EMBRYO (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 521-545 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Studies of about 20 maternally expressed genes are providing an understanding of mechanisms of patterning and cell-fate determination in the early Caenorhabditis elegans embryo. The analyses have revealed that fates of the early blastomeres are specified by a combination of intrinsically asymmetric cell divisions and two types of cell-cell interactions: inductions and polarizing interactions. In this review we summarize the current level of understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes in the specification of cell fates in the pregastrulation embryo.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.521
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  • 39
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MATING-TYPE GENE SWITCHING IN SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 561-599 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Saccharomyces cerevisiae can change its mating type as often as every generation by a highly choreographed, site-specific recombination event that replaces one MAT allele with different DNA sequences encoding the opposite allele. The study of this process has yielded important insights into the control of cell lineage, the silencing of gene expression, and the formation of heterochromatin, as well as the molecular events of double-strand break-induced recombination. In addition, MAT switching provides a remarkable example of a small locus control region-the Recombination Enhancer-that controls recombination along an entire chromosome arm.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.561
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  • 40
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ALTERNATIVE SPLICING OF PRE-mRNA: Developmental Consequences and Mechanisms of Regulation (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 279-305 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Alternative splicing of pre-mRNAs is a powerful and versatile regulatory mechanism that can effect quantitative control of gene expression and functional diversification of proteins. It contributes to major developmental decisions and also to fine tuning of gene function. Genetic and biochemical approaches have identified cis-acting regulatory elements and trans-acting factors that control alternative splicing of specific pre-mRNAs. Both approaches are contributing to an understanding of their mode of action. Some alternative splicing decisions are controlled by specific factors whose expression is highly restricted during development, but others may be controlled by more modest variations in the levels of general factors acting cooperatively or antagonistically. Certain factors play active roles in both constitutive splicing and regulation of alternative splicing. Cooperative and antagonistic effects integrated at regulatory elements are likely to be important for specificity and for finely tuned differences in cell-type-specific alternative splicing patterns.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.279
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  • 41
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    KINETOCHORES AND THE CHECKPOINT MECHANISM THAT MONITORS FOR DEFECTS IN THE CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION MACHINERY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 307-337 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Whether we consider the division of the simplest unicellular organisms into two daughter cells or the generation of haploid gametes by the most complex eukaryotes, no two processes secure the continuance of life more than the proper replication and segregation of the genetic material. The cell cycle, marked in part by the periodic rise and fall of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activities, is the means by which these two processes are separated. DNA damage and mistakes in chromosome segregation are costly, so nature has further devised elaborate checkpoint mechanisms that halt cell cycle progression, allowing time for repairs or corrections. In this article, we review the mitotic checkpoint mechanism that responds to defects in the chromosome segregation machinery and arrests cells in mitosis prior to anaphase onset. At opposite ends of this pathway are the kinetochore, where many checkpoint proteins reside, and the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), the metaphase-to-interphase transition regulator. Throughout this review we focus on budding yeast but reference parallel processes found in other organisms.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.307
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  • 42
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    EVOLUTION AND MECHANISM OF TRANSLATION IN CHLOROPLASTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 437-459 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The entire sequence (120 ~ 190 kb) of chloroplast genomes has been determined from a dozen plant species. The genome contains from 87 to 183 known genes, of which half encode components involved in translation. These include a complete set of rRNAs and about 30 tRNAs, which are likely to be sufficient to support translation in chloroplasts. RNA editing (mostly C to U base changes) occurs in some chloroplast transcripts, creating start and stop codons and changing codons to retain conserved amino acids. Many components that constitute the chloroplast translational machinery are similar to those of Escherichia coli, whereas only one third of the chloroplast mRNAs contain Shine-Dalgarno-like sequences at the correct positions. Analyses conducted in vivo and in vitro have revealed the existence of multiple mechanisms for translational initiation in chloroplasts.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.437
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  • 43
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    NATURAL SELECTION AT MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX LOCI OF VERTEBRATES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 415-435 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The loci of the vertebrate major histocompatibility complex encode cell-surface glycoproteins that present peptides to T cells. Certain of these loci are highly polymorphic, and the mechanisms responsible for this polymorphism have been intensely debated. Four independent lines of evidence support the hypothesis that MHC polymorphisms are selectively maintained: (a) The distribution of allelic frequencies does not fit the neutral expectation. (b) The rate of nonsynonymous nucleotide substitution significantly exceeds the rate of synonymous substitution in the codons encoding the peptide-binding region of the molecule. (c) Polymorphisms have been maintained for long periods of time ("trans-species polymorphism"). (d) Introns have been homogenized relative to exons over evolutionary time, suggesting that balancing selection acts to maintain diversity in the latter, in contrast to the former.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.415
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  • 44
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    UBIQUITIN AND THE CONTROL OF PROTEIN FATE IN THE SECRETORY AND ENDOCYTIC PATHWAYS1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 19-57 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The modification of proteins by chains of ubiquitin has long been known to mediate targeting of cytosolic and nuclear proteins for degradation by proteasomes. In this article, we discuss recent developments that reveal the involvement of ubiquitin in the degradation of proteins retained within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the internalization of plasma membrane proteins. Both luminal and transmembrane proteins retained in the ER are now known to be retrotranslocated into the cytosol in a process that involves ER chaperones and components of the protein import machinery. Once exposed to the cytosolic milieu, retro-translocated proteins are degraded by the proteasome, in most cases following polyubiquitination. There is growing evidence that both the ubiquitin-conjugating machinery and proteasomes may be associated with the cytosolic face of the ER membrane and that they could be functionally coupled to the process of retro-translocation. The ubiquitination of plasma membrane proteins, on the other hand, mediates internalization of the proteins, which in most cases is followed by lysosomal/vacuolar degradation. There is, however, a well-documented case of a plasma membrane protein (the c-Met receptor) for which ubiquitination results in proteasomal degradation. These recent findings imply that ubiquitin plays more diverse roles in the regulation of the fate of cellular proteins than originally anticipated.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.19
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  • 45
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE SPECIFICATION OF LEAF IDENTITY DURING SHOOT DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 373-398 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract A single plant produces several different types of leaves or leaf-like organs during its life span. This phenomenon, which is termed heteroblasty, is an invariant feature of shoot development but is also regulated by environmental factors that affect the physiology of the plant. Invariant patterns of heteroblastic development reflect global changes in the developmental status of the shoot, such as the progression from embryogenesis through juvenile and adult phases of vegetative development, culminating in the production of reproductive structures. Genes that regulate these phase-specific aspects of leaf identity have been identified by mutational analysis in both maize and Arabidopsis. These mutations have revealed that leaf production is regulated independently of leaf identity, implying that the identity of a leaf at a particular position on the shoot may depend on when the leaf was initiated in relation to a temporal program of shoot development.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.373
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  • 46
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF STAR-FORMING REGIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 317-368 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Recent advances in the understanding of the chemical processes that occur during all stages of the formation of stars, from the collapse of molecular clouds to the assemblage of icy planetesimals in protoplanetary accretion disks, are reviewed. Observational studies of the circumstellar material within 100-10,000 AU of the young star with (sub)millimeter single-dish telescopes, millimeter interferometers, and ground-based as well as space-borne infrared observatories have only become possible within the past few years. Results are compared with detailed chemical models that emphasize the coupling of gas-phase and grain-surface chemistry. Molecules that are particularly sensitive to different routes of formation and that may be useful in distinguishing between a variety of environments and histories are outlined. In the cold, low-density prestellar cores, radicals and long unsaturated carbon chains are enhanced. During the cold collapse phase, most species freeze out onto the grains in the high-density inner region. Once young stars ignite, their surroundings are heated through radiation and/or shocks, whereupon new chemical characteristics appear. Evaporation of ices drives a "hot core" chemistry rich in organic molecules, whereas shocks propagating through the dense envelope release both refractory and volatile grain material, resulting in prominent SiO, OH, and H2O emission. The role of future instrumentation in further developing these chemical and temporal diagnostics is discussed.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.317
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  • 47
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SIMULATIONS OF STRUCTURE FORMATION IN THE UNIVERSE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 599-654 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Cosmic structure has formed as a result of gravitational amplification of primordial density fluctuations together with the action of other physical processes (adiabatic gas dynamics, radiative cooling, photoionization and recombination, radiative transfer). These complex nonlinear processes, acting over a wide range of length scales (from kiloparsecs to tens of megaparsecs), make this a difficult problem for computation. During the last two decades, significant progress has been made in developing numerical methods and statistical tools for analyzing simulations and data. Combined with observational advances, numerical simulations have led to the demise of several formerly popular models and to an improved understanding of galaxy clusters, quasistellar object (QSO) absorption line systems, and other phenomena. This review summarizes these advances.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599
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  • 48
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE ROLE OF THE FHIT/FRA3B LOCUS IN CANCER (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 7-31 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Common fragile sites form gaps at characteristic chromosome bands in metaphases from normal cells after aphidicolin induction. The distribution of common fragile sites parallels the positions of neoplasia-associated chromosomal rearrangements, prompting the proposal that fragility disposes to chromosomal rearrangements. Implicit in this hypothesis is that genes at fragile sites are altered by chromosome rearrangement and thus contribute to neoplastic growth. Chromosome band 3p14.2, encompassing the most inducible common fragile region, FRA3B, has been cloned and the FHIT gene, straddling FRA3B, characterized. The gene is inactivated by deletions in cancer-derived cell lines and primary tumors and Fhit protein is absent or reduced in lung, stomach, kidney, and cervical carcinomas, consistent with function as a tumor suppressor. FRA3B thus fulfills the prophecy that fragile site alterations contribute to the neoplastic process through inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.7
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  • 49
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    NONSEGMENTED NEGATIVE-STRAND RNA VIRUSES: Genetics and Manipulation of Viral Genomes (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 123-162 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Protocols to recover negative-strand RNA viruses entirely from cDNA have been established in recent years, opening up this virus group to the detailed analysis of molecular genetics and virus biology. The unique gene-expression strategy of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses, which involves replication of ribonucleoprotein complexes and sequential synthesis of free mRNAs, has also allowed the use of these viruses to express heterologous sequences. There are advantages in terms of easy manipulation of constructs, high capacity for foreign sequences, genetically stable expression, and the possibility of adjusting expression levels. Fascinating prospects for biomedical applications and transient gene therapy are offered by chimeric virus vectors carrying novel envelope protein genes and targeted to defined host cells.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.123
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  • 50
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF BACTERIOCIN EVOLUTION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 255-278 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Microorganisms are engaged in a never-ending arms race. One consequence of this intense competition is the diversity of antimicrobial compounds that most species of bacteria produce. Surprisingly, little attention has been paid to the evolution of such extraordinary diversity. One class of antimicrobials, the bacteriocins, has received increasing attention because of the high levels of bacteriocin diversity observed and the use of bacteriocins as preservatives in the food industry and as antibiotics in the human health industry. However, little effort has been focused on evolutionary questions, such as what are the phylogenetic relationships among these toxins, what mechanisms are involved in their evolution, and how do microorganisms respond to such an arsenal of weapons? The focus of this review is to provide a detailed picture of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the process of bacteriocin diversification.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.255
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  • 51
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    RECOMBINATION AND RECOMBINATION-DEPENDENT DNA REPLICATION IN BACTERIOPHAGE T4 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 379-413 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract General recombination is essential for growth of phage T4, because origin initiation of DNA replication is inactivated during development, and recombination-dependent initiation is necessary for continuing DNA replication. The requirement of recombination for T4 growth has apparently been a driving force to acquire and maintain multiple recombination mechanisms. This requirement makes this phage an excellent model to analyze several recombination mechanisms that appear redundant under optimal growth conditions but become essential under other conditions, or at different stages of the developmental program. The most important substrate for wild-type T4 recombination is single-stranded DNA generated by incomplete replication of natural or artificial chromosomal ends, or by nucleolytic degradation from induced breaks, or nicks. Recombination circumvents the further erosion of such ends. There are multiple proteins and multiple pathways to initiate formation of recombinants (by single-strand annealing or by strand invasion) and to convert recombinational intermediates into final recombinants ("cut and paste" or "cut and package"), or to initiate extensive DNA replication by "join-copy" or "join-cut-copy" mechanisms. Most T4 recombination is asymmetrical, favoring the initiation of replication. In wild-type T4 these pathways are integrated with physiological changes of other DNA transactions: mainly replication, transcription, and packaging. DNA replication and packaging enzymes participate in recombination, and recombination intermediates supply substrates for replication and packaging. The replicative recombination pathways are also important for transmission of intron DNA to intronless genomes ("homing"), and are implicated in horizontal transfer of foreign genes during evolution of the T-even phages. When horizontal transfer involves heteroduplex formation and repair, it is intrinsically mutagenic and contributes to generation of species barriers between phages.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.379
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  • 52
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    TARGETING AND ASSEMBLY OF PERIPLASMIC AND OUTER-MEMBRANE PROTEINS IN ESCHERICHIA COLI (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 59-94 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Escherichia coli must actively transport many of its proteins to extracytoplasmic compartments such as the periplasm and outer membrane. To perform this duty, E. coli employs a collection of Sec (secretion) proteins that catalyze the translocation of various polypeptides through the inner membrane. After translocation across the inner membrane, periplasmic and outer-membrane proteins are folded and targeted to their appropriate destinations. Here we review our knowledge of protein translocation across the inner membrane. We also discuss the various signal transduction systems that monitor extracytoplasmic protein folding and targeting, and we consider how these signal transduction systems may ultimately control these processes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.59
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  • 53
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    REGULATION OF SYMBIOTIC ROOT NODULE DEVELOPMENT (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 33-57 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Symbiosis between rhizobia and leguminous plants leads to the formation of N2-fixing root nodules. The interaction of rhizobia and plants shows a high degree of host specificity based on the exchange of chemical signals between the symbiotic partners. The plant signals, flavonoids exuded by the roots, activate the expression of nodulation genes, resulting in the production of the rhizobial lipochitooligosaccharide signals (Nod factors). Nod factors act as morphogens that, under conditions of nitrogen limitation, induce cells within the root cortex to divide and to develop into nodule primordia. This review focuses on how the production of Nod factors is regulated, how these signals are perceived and transduced by the plant root, and the physiological conditions and plant factors that control the early events leading to root nodule development.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.33
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  • 54
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    COMPARATIVE DNA ANALYSIS ACROSS DIVERSE GENOMES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 185-225 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract We review concepts and methods for comparative analysis of complete genomes including assessments of genomic compositional contrasts based on dinucleotide and tetranucleotide relative abundance values, identifications of rare and frequent oligonucleotides, evaluations and interpretations of codon biases in several large prokaryotic genomes, and characterizations of compositional asymmetry between the two DNA strands in certain bacterial genomes. The discussion also covers means for identifying alien (e.g. laterally transferred) genes and detecting potential specialization islands in bacterial genomes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.185
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  • 55
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    FUNCTIONS OF LIPID RAFTS IN BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 111-136 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Recent studies showing that detergent-resistant membrane fragments can be isolated from cells suggest that biological membranes are not always in a liquid-crystalline phase. Instead, sphingolipid and cholesterol-rich membranes such as plasma membranes appear to exist, at least partially, in the liquid-ordered phase or a phase with similar properties. Sphingolipid and cholesterol-rich domains may exist as phase-separated "rafts" in the membrane. We discuss the relationship between detergent-resistant membranes, rafts, caveolae, and low-density plasma membrane fragments. We also discuss possible functions of lipid rafts in membranes. Signal transduction through the high-affinity receptor for IgE on basophils, and possibly through related receptors on other hematopoietic cells, appears to be enhanced by association with rafts. Raft association may also aid in signaling through proteins anchored by glycosylphosphatidylinositol, particularly in hematopoietic cells and neurons. Rafts may also function in sorting and trafficking through the secretory and endocytic pathways.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.111
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  • 56
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SYSTEMIN: A Polypeptide Signal for Plant Defensive Genes (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 1-17 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Damage to leaves of several plant species by herbivores or by other mechanical wounding induces defense gene activation throughout the plants within hours. An 18-amino acid polypeptide, called systemin, has been isolated from tomato leaves that is a powerful inducer of over 15 defensive genes when supplied to the tomato plants at levels of fmol/plant. Systemin is readily transported from wound sites and is considered to be the primary systemic signal. The polypeptide is processed from a 200-amino acid precursor called prosystemin, analogous to polypeptide hormones in animals. However, the plant prohormone does not possess typical dibasic cleavage sites, nor does it contain a signal sequence or any typical membrane-spanning regions. The signal transduction pathway that mediates systemin signaling involves linolenic acid release from membranes and subsequent conversion to jasmonic acid, a potent activator of defense gene transcription. The pathway exhibits analogies to arachidonic acid/prostaglandin signaling in animals that leads to inflammatory and acute phase responses.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.1
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  • 57
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    INTRACELLULAR PATHOGENS AND THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 137-166 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Many pathogens actively exploit the actin cytoskeleton during infection. This exploitation may take place during entry into mammalian cells after engagement of a receptor and/or as series of signaling events culminating in the engulfment of the microorganism. Although actin rearrangements are a common feature of most internalization events (e.g. entry of Listeria, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Neisseria, and Bartonella), bacterial and other cellular factors involved in entry are specific to each bacterium. Another step during which pathogens harness the actin cytoskeleton takes place in the cytosol, within which some bacteria (Listeria, Shigella, Rickettsia) or viruses (vaccinia virus) are able to move. Movement is coupled to a polarized actin polymerization process, with the formation of characteristic actin tails. Increasing attention has focused on this phenomenon due to its striking similarity to cellular events occurring at the leading edge of locomoting cells. Thus pathogens are convenient systems in which to study actin cytoskeleton rearrangements in response to stimuli at the plasma membrane or inside cells.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.137
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  • 58
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PHOSPHOINOSITIDE LIPIDS AS SIGNALING MOLECULES: Common Themes for Signal Transduction, Cytoskeletal Regulation, and Membrane Trafficking (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 231-264 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Signaling roles for phosphoinositides that involve their regulated hydrolysis to generate second messengers have been well characterized. Recent work has revealed additional signaling roles for phosphoinositides that do not involve their hydrolysis. PtdIns 3-P, PtdIns 3,4,5-P3, and PtdIns 4,5-P2 function as site-specific signals on membranes that recruit and/or activate proteins for the assembly of spatially localized functional complexes. A large number of phosphoinositide-binding proteins have been identified as the potential effectors for phosphoinositide signals. Common themes of localized signal generation and the spatially localized recruitment of effector proteins appear to underlie mechanisms employed in signal transduction, cytoskeletal, and membrane trafficking events.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.231
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  • 59
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ISOFORM SORTING AND THE CREATION OF INTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 339-372 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The generation of isoforms via gene duplication and alternative splicing has been a valuable evolutionary tool for the creation of biological diversity. In addition to the formation of molecules with related but different functional characteristics, it is now apparent that isoforms can be segregated into different intracellular sites within the same cell. Sorting has been observed in a wide range of genes, including those encoding structural molecules, receptors, channels, enzymes, and signaling molecules. This results in the creation of intracellular compartments that (a) can be independently controlled and (b) have different functional properties. The sorting mechanisms are likely to operate at the level of both proteins and mRNAs. Isoform sorting may be an important consequence of the evolution of isoforms and is likely to have contributed to the diversity of functional properties within groups of isoforms.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.339
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  • 60
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    DEFINING ACTIN FILAMENT LENGTH IN STRIATED MUSCLE: Rulers and Caps or Dynamic Stability? (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 14 (1998), S. 487-525 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Actin filaments (thin filaments) are polymerized to strikingly uniform lengths in striated muscle sarcomeres. Yet, actin monomers can exchange dynamically into thin filaments in vivo, indicating that actin monomer association and dissociation at filament ends must be highly regulated to maintain the uniformity of filament lengths. We propose several hypothetical mechanisms that could generate uniform actin filament length distributions and discuss their application to the determination of thin filament length in vivo. At the Z line, titin may determine the minimum extent and tropomyosin the maximum extent of thin filament overlap by regulating alpha-actinin binding to actin, while a unique Z filament may bind to capZ and regulate barbed end capping. For the free portion of the thin filament, we evaluate possibilities that thin filament components (e.g. nebulin or the tropomyosin/troponin polymer) determine thin filament lengths by binding directly to tropomodulin and regulating pointed end capping, or alternatively, that myosin thick filaments, together with titin, determine filament length by indirectly regulating tropomodulin's capping activity.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.487
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  • 61
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ASTRONOMICAL SEARCHES FOR EARTH-LIKE PLANETS AND SIGNS OF LIFE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 507-537 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract If Earth-like planets orbit nearby stars, they could be detectable with specially designed telescopes. Direct observations would be very revealing, particularly low resolution infrared spectra, which could establish habitability on the basis of temperature and atmospheric water. Abundant, primitive life based on organized molecular structure might reveal itself, as on Earth, by an atmospheric composition modified in ways unlikely to be from inorganic processes. The technical challenge is to detect and obtain spectra of an object with Mbol~ 28 that is very close to a star and some 5 x 109 times less luminous. Indirect methods, used to detect Jupiter-mass planets, do not seem to offer an easy intermediate step to finding Earth-like planets. However, the direct detection techniques needed for spectroscopy also offer a viable method for discovery by imaging. Thermal infrared wavelengths, in which a planet emits most energy, are the most favorable. A robust search for planets of ~100 nearby solar-type stars, with spectroscopic follow-up of Earth-like candidates, could be made with an interferometer ~75 m in length. In visible light, the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) could, with the addition of a high resolution correction instrument, see Earth-like planets around a dozen or so of the nearest stars. Both infrared and optical instruments are possible within the range of current space agency plans.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.507
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    Digitale Medien
    FIRST RESULTS FROM HIPPARCOS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 99-129 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract After recalling the principle of the Hipparcos mission and of the data reduction, the main statistical features of the final Hipparcos and Tycho catalogues are presented. The results, characterized by accuracies in annual proper motions and parallaxes of the order of one milliarcsecond have been already widely used for astrophysical investigations described in this review. In the field of galactic kinematics, new results were obtained in the analysis of the motions of nearby stars, the evolution of OB associations, and the modeling of the Gould Belt. An important result is that, on average, stars are farther apart than previously thought. Among the consequences is a reconciliation between the ages of the Universe and globular clusters. In particular, the evolutionary sequences of metal-poor stars need to be reassessed. The HR diagram is now extended to the giant horizontal branch and A stars in the main sequence. The Hyades are seen for the first time in three dimensions, allowing a detailed description of their dynamics. Some unexplained inconsistencies between the HR diagrams of open clusters were found. Other results in galactic dynamics, open clusters, variable stars, unseen companions of stars, and the post-Newtonian parameters gamma are also presented.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.99
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  • 63
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    RADIO EMISSION FROM SOLAR FLARES (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 131-188 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Radio emission from solar flares offers a number of unique diagnostic tools to address long-standing questions about energy release, plasma heating, particle acceleration, and particle transport in magnetized plasmas. At millimeter and centimeter wavelengths, incoherent gyrosynchrotron emission from electrons with energies of tens of kilo electron volts to several mega electron volts plays a dominant role. These electrons carry a significant fraction of the energy released during the impulsive phase of flares. At decimeter and meter wavelengths, coherent plasma radiation can play a dominant role. Particularly important are type III and type III-like radio bursts, which are due to upward- and downward-directed beams of nonthermal electrons, presumed to originate in the energy release site. With the launch of Yohkoh and the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, the relationship between radio emission and energetic photon emissions has been clarified. In this review, recent progress on our Dunderstanding of radio emission from impulsive flares and its relation to X-ray emission is discussed, as well as energy release in flare-like phenomena (microflares, nanoflares) and their bearing on coronal heating.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.131
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  • 64
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    Digitale Medien
    STAR FORMATION IN GALAXIES ALONG THE HUBBLE SEQUENCE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 189-231 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Observations of star formation rates (SFRs) in galaxies provide vital clues to the physical nature of the Hubble sequence and are key probes of the evolutionary histories of galaxies. The focus of this review is on the broad patterns in the star formation properties of galaxies along the Hubble sequence and their implications for understanding galaxy evolution and the physical processes that drive the evolution. Star formation in the disks and nuclear regions of galaxies are reviewed separately, then discussed within a common interpretive framework. The diagnostic methods used to measure SFRs are also reviewed, and a self-consistent set of SFR calibrations is presented as an aid to workers in the field.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.189
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  • 65
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    HERBIG Ae/Be STARS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36 (1998), S. 233-266 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Physik
    Notizen: Abstract We review the wide range of observed properties of Herbig Ae/Be stars and try to combine this rich data set into a consistent picture of their circumstellar environment and evolutionary status. We discuss in some detail the geometry of the circumstellar environment. The presence of disks in Herbig Ae/Be stars is inferred from direct and indirect observational evidence. Envelopes can dominate the spectral energy distributions on large angular scales. In some stars, a fairly massive disk persists until the star has reached the main sequence. The evidence for an evolutionary link between isolated Herbig Ae/Be stars and beta Pictoris is summarized.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.233
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  • 66
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    Digitale Medien
    ALFRED D. HERSHEY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 1-6 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.1
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  • 67
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    Digitale Medien
    THE GENETICS OF DISULFIDE BOND METABOLISM (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 163-184 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Disulfide bonds are required for the stability and function of a large number of proteins. Genetic analysis in combination with biochemical studies have elucidated the main catalysts involved in facilitating these processes in the cell. All enzymes involved in thiol-disulfide metabolism have a conserved active site that consists of two cysteine residues, separated by two intervening amino acids, the Cys-Xaa-Xaa-Cys motif. While these enzymes are capable of catalyzing both disulfide bond formation and reduction, they have evolved to perform one or the other reaction more efficiently. In the cytoplasm, multiple pathways are involved in the reduction of disulfide bonds that occur as part of the catalytic cycle of a variety of metabolic enzymes. In the bacterial periplasm, a system for the efficient introduction as well as isomerization of disulfide bonds is in place. In eukaryotes, disulfide bonds are introduced into proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Genetic studies have recently begun to reveal new features of this process. While the enzyme mechanisms of thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases have been the subject of much scrutiny, questions remain regarding where and when they act in vivo, their specificities, and the maintenance of the redox environment that determines their function.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.163
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  • 68
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    Digitale Medien
    ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE: Genetic Studies and Transgenic Models (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 461-493 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Recent advances in a variety of areas of research, particularly in genetics and in transgenic (Tg)/gene targeting approaches, have had a substantial impact on our understanding of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related disorders. After briefly reviewing the progress that has been made in diagnostic assessments of patients with senile dementia and in investigations of the neuropathology of AD, we discuss some of the genes/proteins that are causative or risk factors for this disease, including those encoding amyloid precursor protein, presenilin 1 and 2, and apolipoprotein E. In addition, we comment on several potential new candidate loci/genes. Subsequently, we review selected recent reports of analyses of a variety of lines of Tg mice that show several neuropathological features of AD, including Abeta-amyloid deposits and dystrophic neurites. Finally, we discuss the several important issues in future investigations of Tg mice, with particular emphasis on the influences of genetic strains on phenotype, especially behavior, and strategies for making new models of neurodegenerative disorders. We believe that investigations of these Tg models will (a) enhance understanding of the relationships between impaired performance on memory tasks and the pathological/biochemical abnormalities in brain, (b) help to clarify pathogenic mechanisms in vivo, (c) lead to identification of new therapeutic targets, and (d) allow testing of new treatment strategies first in mice and then, if successful, in humans with AD.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.461
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  • 69
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    Digitale Medien
    THE CRITICAL ROLE OF CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATIONS IN HUMAN LEUKEMIAS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 495-519 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Many chromosome abnormalities, especially translocations or inversions, are closely associated with a particular morphologic or phenotypic subtype of leukemia, lymphoma, or sarcoma. Cloning the genes at the breakpoints of these rearrangements has had a major impact on our understanding of the molecular biology of cancer. One such gene is MLL (myeloid-lymphoid or mixed lineage leukemia) located at chromosome band 11q23. The target gene(s) of MLL is unknown at present, but because of its homology to the trithorax gene in Drosophila as well as experimental data from mice, it appears to be involved in maintaining the function of some of the homeobox genes. Most genes involved in translocations have homologs in other organisms. Comparison of the functions of these genes in human cells with their function in other systems has enriched our understanding of their role in cell biology.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.495
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  • 70
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    Digitale Medien
    GENETIC COUNSELING: Clinical and Ethical Challenges1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998), S. 547-559 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4197
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract After explaining the origin, nature, and goals of genetic counseling, we consider the impact of the Human Genome Project on its practice. In light of the availability of presymptomatic tests for late-onset disorders and the possibility of preventive behavior or treatment, we examine the apparent conflict between nondirectiveness and directiveness in genetic counseling. We discuss views of genetic counselors, medical geneticists, and counselees on specific issues, and document gender differences in attitudes toward genetic ties to offspring. Because genetic discrimination and unequal access to genetic services are likely to increase with advances in genetics, we conclude that efforts of genetic counselors to adhere to the principle of justice or equity in their practice cannot be successful without governmental and public support, as well as support from researchers and colleagues in health care.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.547
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  • 71
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    Digitale Medien
    PHYLOGENY OF VASCULAR PLANTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 29 (1998), S. 567-599 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4162
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Morphological and molecular analyses resolve many aspects of vascular plant phylogeny, though others remain uncertain. Vascular plants are nested within bryophytes; lycopsids and zosterophylls are one branch of crown-group vascular plants, and euphyllophytes (Psilophyton, sphenopsids, ferns, seed plants) are the other. In Filicales, Osmundaceae are basal; water ferns and Polypodiaceae sensu lato are both monophyletic. Seed plants are nested within progymnosperms, and coniferophytes are nested within platyspermic seed ferns. Morphology indicates that angiosperms and Gnetales are related, but detailed scenarios depend on uncertain relationships of fossils; molecular data are inconsistent but indicate that both groups are monophyletic. Amborella, Nymphaeales, Austrobaileya, and Illiciales appear basal in angiosperms. Groups with tricolpate pollen form a clade (eudicots), with ranunculids and lower hamamelids basal. Most eudicots belong to the rosid and asterid lines, with higher hamamelids in the rosid line and dilleniids scattered in both. Alismids, Arales, and Acorus are basal in monocots; palms are linked with Commelinidae.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.567
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  • 72
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    Digitale Medien
    MANIPULATING NATURAL ENEMIES BY PLANT VARIETY SELECTION AND MODIFICATION:A Realistic Strategy? (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 43 (1998), S. 347-367 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The host plants of arthropod pests may affect parasitoids and predators directly or indirectly, through multitrophic interactions. Direct plant effects may involve simple mechanisms such as reduced parasitoid searching efficiency caused by trichomes. Multitrophic effects often involve complex interactions that are not well understood, and their impact on natural enemies and biological control are difficult to predict. Knowledge of the direct and multitrophic effects creates opportunities to increase the effectiveness of natural enemies by incorporating natural enemy-enhancing traits into crop plants. The strategy may have potential for both generalist and specialist natural enemies, but the enemies' behavior and other factors will affect the results. Although combining natural enemies and plant resistance may slow the adaptation of some insect pests, it may speed up adaptations of others. A better understanding of plant/pest/natural enemy evolution is necessary to predict how to combine natural enemies and plant resistance for the best long-term results.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.347
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  • 73
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    Digitale Medien
    ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF HAZELNUT PESTS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 43 (1998), S. 395-419 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Insect and mite pests cause serious damage to the hazelnut crop worldwide. The control strategies used against these pests include application of insecticides, classical and augmentative biological control, utilization of resistant varieties, and use of Bacillus thuringiensis-based preparations. In the United States, extensive research has been directed toward elucidating ecological interactions among different pests and natural enemies and understanding the role of abiotic factors in pest population dynamics. Differences exist worldwide regarding the understanding of pests and natural enemy biologies and, to a limited extent, control practices. An integrated pest management approach based on utilizing effective sampling and monitoring techniques and a near complete reliance on biological control and "soft" pesticides, including insect growth regulators, is currently under development both in North America and Europe/Turkey. Hazelnuts are on the verge of becoming one of the first crops in the United States that could possibly be produced commercially without the use of any broad-spectrum organic insecticides.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.395
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  • 74
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    Digitale Medien
    EUREKA! AND OTHER PLEASURES* (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 1-25 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: At first one is very pleased at being invited to write a Prefatory Chapter, but as the delivery deadline draws closer one begins to think, "Oh my God! What on earth can I say that all but family members and few close friends will not find a great bore?" One solution is to write a scientific essay, but I concluded that that was a cop-out. I decided that perhaps the best tack to follow was to try to convey to the reader the personal characteristics I bring to my science and to other aspects of my professional career. The writing of this chapter has certainly convinced me that my particular background influenced what problems I chose to work on and how I approached their solution, but I hope that my results have a more ecumenical significance. There's been much written recently about how one's cultural background affects one's science, but I think that thesis can also be exaggerated. Science is a method of inquiry that by using certain guidelines permits rational individuals to observe Nature in a way that their findings will agree and have permanence. We shouldn't be diffident about defending that claim of objectivity.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.1
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  • 75
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    Digitale Medien
    CD40 AND CD154 IN CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 111-135 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract CD40-CD154-mediated contact-dependent signals between B and T cells are required for the generation of thymus dependent (TD) humoral immune responses. CD40-CD154 interactions are however also important in many other cell systems. CD40 is expressed by a large variety of cell types other than B cells, and these include dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. CD40- and CD154-knockout mice and antibodies to CD40 and CD154 have helped to elucidate the role of the CD40-CD154 system in immune responses. Recently published studies indicate that CD40-CD154 interactions can influence T cell priming and T cell-mediated effector functions; they can also upregulate costimulatory molecules and activate macrophages, NK cells, and endothelia as well as participate in organ-specific autoimmune disease, graft rejection, and even atherosclerosis. This review focuses on the role of the CD40-CD154 system in the regulation of many newly discovered functions important in inflammation and cell-mediated immunity.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.111
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  • 76
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    Digitale Medien
    T CELL MEMORY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 201-223 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Immunological memory can be defined as the faster and stronger response of an animal that follows reexposure to the same antigen. By this definition, it is an operational property of the whole animal or the immune system. Memory cells express a different pattern of cell surface markers, and they respond in several ways that are functionally different from those of naive cells. Murine memory cells are CD44 high and low in the expression of activation markers such as CD25 (IL-2R), whereas human memory cells are CD45RA-, CD45RO+. In contrast to naive cells, memory cells secrete a full range of T cell cytokines and can be polarized to secrete particular restricted patterns of secretion for both CD4 and CD8 T cells. The requirements for the activation of memory cells for proliferation and cytokine production are not quite as strict as those of naive cells, but costimulation in the broad sense is required for optimum responses and for responses to suboptimum antigen concentrations. It would appear that memory cells can persist in the absence of antigenic stimulation and persist as nondividing cells. Reencounter with the same antigen can expand the population to a new, stable, higher level and generate a separate population of CD44 high effectors that may be required for protection, while competition from other antigens can drive it down to a lower stable level. It is unclear how or where memory cells arise, but once generated they have different pathways of recirculation and homing.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.201
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  • 77
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    Digitale Medien
    NK CELL RECEPTORS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 359-393 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract NK cells are regulated by opposing signals from receptors that activate and inhibit effector function. While positive stimulation may be initiated by an array of co-stimulatory receptors, specificity is provided by inhibitory signals transduced by receptors for MHC class I. Three distinct receptor families, Ly49, CD94/NKG2, and KIR, are involved in NK cell recognition of polymorphic MHC class I molecules. A common pathway of inhibitory signaling is provided by ITIM sequences in the cytoplasmic domains of these otherwise structurally diverse receptors. Upon ligand binding and activation, the inhibitory NK cell receptors become tyrosine phosphorylated and recruit tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and possibly SHP-2, resulting in inhibition of NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity and cytokine expression. Recent studies suggest these inhibitory NK cell receptors are members of a larger superfamily containing ITIM sequences, the inhibitory receptor superfamily (IRS).
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.359
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  • 78
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    Digitale Medien
    XENOGENEIC TRANSPLANTATION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 433-470 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract This review summarizes the clinical history and rationale for xenotransplantation; recent progress in understanding the physiologic, immunologic, and infectious obstacles to the procedure's success; and some of the strategies being pursued to overcome these obstacles. The problems of xenotransplantation are complex, and a combination of approaches is required. The earliest and most striking immunologic obstacle, that of hyperacute rejection, appears to be the closest to being solved. This phenomenon depends on the binding of natural antibody to the vascular endothelium, fixation of complement by that antibody, and finally, activation of the endothelium and initiation of coagulation. Therefore, these three pathways have been targeted as sites for intervention in the process. The mechanisms responsible for the next immunologic barrier, that of delayed xenograft/acute vascular rejection, remain to be fully elucidated. They probably also involve multiple pathways, including antibody and/or immune cell binding and endothelial cell activation. The final immunologic barrier, that of the cellular immune response, involves mechanisms that are similar to those involved in allograft rejection. However, the strength of the cellular immune response to xenografts is so great that it is unlikely to be controlled by the types of nonspecific immunosuppression used routinely to prevent allograft rejection. For this reason, it may be essential to induce specific immunologic unresponsiveness to at least some of the most antigenic xenogeneic molecules.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.433
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  • 79
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    Digitale Medien
    THE ROLE OF COMPLEMENT AND COMPLEMENT RECEPTORS IN INDUCTION AND REGULATION OF IMMUNITY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 16 (1998), S. 545-568 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Covalent attachment of activated complement C3 (C3d) to antigen links innate and adaptive immunity by targeting antigen to follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and B cells via specific receptors CD21 and CD35. Recent characterization of knockout mice deficient in complement components C3, C4, or the receptors CD21 and CD35 as well as biochemical studies of the CD21/CD19/Tapa-1 coreceptor on B cells have helped to elucidate the mechanism of complement regulation of both B-1 and B-2 lymphocytes. Interestingly, natural antibody of the adaptive immune system provides a major recognition role in activation of the complement system, which in turn enhances activation of antigen-specific B cells. Enhancement of the primary and secondary immune response to T-dependent antigens is mediated by coligation of the coreceptor and the B cell antigen receptor, which dramatically increases follicular retention and B cell survival within the germinal center. Most recent evidence suggests that complement also regulates elimination of self-reactive B cells, as breeding of mice that are deficient in C4 or CD21/CD35 with the lupus-prone strain of lpr mice demonstrates an exacerbation of disease due to an increase in autoantibodies.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.545
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  • 80
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    Digitale Medien
    MOLECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF TIGHT JUNCTIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 121-142 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The tight junction creates a regulated barrier in the paracellular pathway and, together with the actin-rich adherens junction, forms a functional unit called the apical junction complex. A growing number of tight junction-associated proteins have been identified, but functions are defined for only a few. The intercellular barrier is formed by rows of the transmembrane protein occludin, which is bound on the cytoplasmic surface to ZO-1 and ZO-2. These proteins are members of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) protein family and are likely to have both structural and signaling roles. Junctional plaque proteins without known functions include cingulin, p130, and 7H6; single reports describe ZA-1TJ and symplekin. Many cellular signaling pathways affect assembly and sealing of junctions. Transducing proteins, which localize within the junction, include both heterotrimeric and rho-related GTP-binding proteins, PKC-zeta and nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. Control of perijunctional actin may be the unifying mechanism for regulating paracellular permeability.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.121
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  • 81
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    Digitale Medien
    SURFACTANT PROTEINS: Molecular Genetics of Neonatal Pulmonary Diseases (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 365-384 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Genetic and phenotypic complexity has been described for diseases of varied etiology. Groups of patients with varied phenotype can be used in association studies as an initial approach to identify contributing loci. Although association studies have limitations, their value is enhanced by using candidate genes with functions related to disease. Surfactant proteins have been studied in the etiopathogenesis of neonatal pulmonary diseases. SP-A and SP-B polymorphisms are found at a higher frequency in certain groups of patients with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), and SP-B mutations are linked to the pathogenesis of congenital alveolar proteinosis (CAP). Phenotypic heterogeneity is observed for both CAP and RDS. The available data suggest that a number of factors contribute to the etiology of CAP and RDS and, therefore, a multidisciplinary approach of clinical, genetic, epidemiologic, and statistical considerations is necessary for an in-depth understanding of the pathophysiology of these and other pulmonary diseases.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.365
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  • 82
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    Digitale Medien
    THE SYNAPTIC VESICLE CYCLE (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 347-363 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The ins and outs of the synaptic vesicle cycle are being examined in increasing detail with diverse investigative tools in a variety of cell types, particularly those with large granules. The cycle begins with the opening of a fusion pore that connects the vesicle lumen to the extracellular fluid. Sensitive electrophysiological techniques reveal the often-stuttering behavior of single pores in non-neuronal cells, through which small molecules trickle until the fusion pore expands and the remaining contents erupt from the vesicle. The granule membranes are then retrieved by multiple processes that appear to act in parallel and that are distinguished from each other kinetically and ultrastructurally. Following endocytosis, synaptic vesicles are then shuttled back into the vesicle pool, where they briefly mix with other vesicles, become immobilized, and remain gelled with their neighbors, even while moving en masse again to the presynaptic membrane as a prelude for another round of exocytosis.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.347
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  • 83
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PREBOTZINGER COMPLEX AND PACEMAKER NEURONS: Hypothesized Site and Kernel for Respiratory Rhythm Generation (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 385-405 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Identification of the sites and mechanisms underlying the generation of respiratory rhythm is of longstanding interest to physiologists and neurobiologists. Recently, with the development of novel experimental preparations, especially in vitro en bloc and slice preparations of rodent brainstem, progress has been made. In particular, a site in the ventrolateral medulla, the preBotzinger Complex, is hypothesized to contain neuronal circuits generating respiratory rhythm. Lesions or disruption of synaptic transmission within the preBotzinger Complex, either in vivo or in vitro, can abolish respiratory activity. Furthermore, the persistence of respiratory rhythm following interference with postsynaptic inhibition and the subsequent discovery of neurons with endogenous bursting properties within the preBotzinger Complex have led to the hypothesis that rhythmogenesis results from synchronized activity of pacemaker or group-pacemaker neurons.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.385
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  • 84
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PARATHYROID HORMONE-RELATED PROTEIN: An Emerging Role as a Developmental Factor (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 431-460 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) is the agent responsible for humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy. Its pathogenic role in this syndrome is well established, and attention has focused in recent years on the elucidation of the roles played by PTHrP in normal developmental and adult physiology. This review focuses on studies of the past two years: (a) elucidation of the posttranslational processing pattern of PTHrP, the mechanisms of action of the various secretory forms of PTHrP, the role of PTHrP as an intracrine regulator of cell growth and cell death; (b) the emergence of PTHrP as a critical developmental factor in the mammary gland, epidermis, and the skeleton; and (c) the advances in understanding of the roles of PTHrP in the regulation of pancreatic islet mass, vascular smooth muscle tone and proliferation, and materno-fetal calcium transfer across the placenta.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.431
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  • 85
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE LUTEINIZING HORMONE RECEPTOR1 (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 461-496 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) is a member of the subfamily of glycoprotein hormone receptors within the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptors. Over the past eight years, major advances have been made in determining the structure and function of the LHR and its gene. The hormone-binding domain has been localized to exons 1-7 in the extracellular (EC) domain/region of the receptor, which contains several leucine-rich repeats. High-affinity binding of LH and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) causes secondary hormone or receptor contacts to be established with regions of the EC loop/transmembrane module that initiate signal transduction. Models of hormone-receptor interaction have been derived from the crystal structures of hCG and of the ribonuclease inhibitor, which also contains leucine-rich repeats. Such models provide a framework for the interpretation of mutational studies and for further experiments. The extracellular domain of the receptor has been overexpressed in vitro, which will facilitate crystallographic resolution of the structure of the receptor-binding site. The transmembrane domain/loop/cytoplasmic module transduces the signal for couplingto G proteins. Several constitutive, activating mutations that cause human disease have been found in helix VI and adjacent structures. These mutations have provided valuable information about mechanisms of signal transfer and G protein coupling. The structure of the LHR gene has been elucidated, and the regulation of its transcription is beginning to be understood. Valuable insights into receptor evolution have been derived from analysis of sequence homologies, the gene structure of glycoprotein hormone receptors and other members of the GPCR family, and the glycoprotein hormone receptor-like precursors identified in several invertebrate species.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.461
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  • 86
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    Digitale Medien
    SPECIAL TOPIC: APOPOTOSIS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 525-532 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.525
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  • 87
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE MITOCHONDRIAL DEATH/LIFE REGULATOR IN APOPTOSIS AND NECROSIS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 619-642 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Both physiological cell death (apoptosis) and, in some cases, accidental cell death (necrosis) involve a two-step process. At a first level, numerous physiological and some pathological stimuli trigger an increase in mitochondrial membrane permeability. The mitochondria release apoptogenic factors through the outer membrane and dissipate the electrochemical gradient of the inner membrane. Mitochondrial permeability transition (PT) involves a dynamic multiprotein complex formed in the contact site between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. The PT complex can function as a sensor for stress and damage, as well as for certain signals connected to receptors. Inhibition of PT by pharmacological intervention on mitochondrial structures or mitochondrial expression of the apoptosis-inhibitory oncoprotein Bcl-2 prevents cell death, suggesting that PT is a rate-limiting event of the death process. At a second level, the consequences of mitochondrial dysfunction (collapse of the mitochondrial inner transmembrane potential, uncoupling of the respiratory chain, hyperproduction of superoxide anions, disruption of mitochondrial biogenesis, outflow of matrix calcium and glutathione, and release of soluble intermembrane proteins) entails a bioenergetic catastrophe culminating in the disruption of plasma membrane integrity (necrosis) and/or the activation of specific apoptogenic proteases (caspases) by mitochondrial proteins that leak into the cytosol (cytochrome c, apoptosis-inducing factor) with secondary endonuclease activation (apoptosis). The relative rate of these two processes (bioenergetic catastrophe versus protease and endonuclease activation) determines whether a cell will undergo primary necrosis or apoptosis. The acquisition of the biochemical and ultrastructural features of apoptosis critically relies on the liberation of apoptogenic proteases or protease activators from mitochondria. The fact that mitochondrial events control cell death has major implications for the development of cytoprotective and cytotoxic drugs.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.619
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  • 88
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ClC AND CFTR CHLORIDE CHANNEL GATING (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 689-717 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Chloride channels are widely expressed and play important roles in cell volume regulation, transepithelial transport, intracellular pH regulation, and membrane excitability. Most chloride channels have yet to be identified at a molecular level. The ClC gene family and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) are distinct chloride channels expressed in many cell types, and mutations in their genes are the cause of several diseases including myotonias, cystic fibrosis, and kidney stones. Because of their molecular definition and roles in disease, these channels have been studied intensively over the past several years. The focus of this review is on recent studies that have provided new insights into the mechanisms governing the opening and closing, i.e. gating, of the ClC and CFTR chloride channels.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.689
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  • 89
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF ORGANIC SOLUTE CHANNELS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 719-739 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Membrane channels provide routes for the rapid, passive movement of solutes across plasma and intracellular membranes. It is generally assumed that the major physiological role of membrane channels is to transport inorganic ions for processes such as transepithelial salt absorption and secretion, cell volume regulation, signal transduction, and control of membrane electrical properties. Increasing evidence indicates, however, that channels play an important role in organic solute transport in a wide variety of cell types and organisms. Some of the major physiological roles of organic solute channels include uptake of nutrients, excretion of metabolic waste products, volume-regulatory organic osmolyte transport, and control of mitochondrial metabolism. This article reviews the functions and characteristics of channels that participate in the transport and regulation of both charged and electroneutral organic solutes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.719
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  • 90
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE AFRICAN DIASPORA (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 63-82 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Archaeologists currently studying the African diaspora generally examine three broad issues, in decreasing order of prominence: the material identification of African identity, the archaeology of freedom at maroon sites, and race and racism. While conducting this research, several scholars have learned that many nonarchaeologists are deeply interested in their interpretations. At the present time, the archaeology of the African diaspora is not a truly global pursuit and the New World is overrepresented. This situation should change as archaeologists around the world discover post-Columbian archaeology and take up diasporic investigations.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.63
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  • 91
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    Digitale Medien
    WITTGENSTEIN AND ANTHROPOLOGY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 171-195 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract This essay explores the theme of Wittgenstein as a philosopher of culture. The primary text on which the essay is based is Philosophical Investigations; it treats Stanley Cavell's work as a major guide for the understanding and reception of Wittgenstein into anthropology. Some Wittgensteinian themes explored in the essay are the idea of culture as capability, horizontal and vertical limits to forms of life, concepts of everyday life in the face of skepticism, and the complexity of the inner in relation to questions of belief and pain. While an attempt has been made to relate these ideas to ethnographic descriptions, the emphasis in this essay is on the question of how anthropology may receive Wittgenstein.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.171
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  • 92
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    Digitale Medien
    LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND ENVIRONMENT: My Early Years (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. xiii 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: In this brief account of my childhood introduction to anthropology and the subsequent ways I began acquiring a more intimate and analytical understanding of languages, cultures, societies, and impinging relevant surroundings, I acknowledge my indebtedness to the people and institutions that have facilitated this enduring process and note how informal influences and associations-some from nonanthropological domains-may be of invaluable assistance to the field-oriented ethnologist. First educated in public schools on eastern Long Island, I went for my undergraduate and graduate work to Berkeley and Yale, respectively. Since then, I have been on the anthropology faculties at Columbia (1954-1962) and Yale (1962 to the present). Since World War II, my principal ethnographic, linguistic, and ecological field sites have been on Mindoro (Hanunoo) and Luzon (Ifugao), in the Philippines.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.0
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  • 93
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    Digitale Medien
    MULTIPLE MODERNITIES: Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism in a Globalizing Age (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 83-104 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The late twentieth century has seen far-reaching changes in the translocal cultural regimes known as world religions. This review examines the politics and meanings of recent changes in three such religions: Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. It highlights the nature of the forces reshaping religious meanings and authority, the processes promoting conversion and standardization, and the implications of these religious refigurations for our understanding of late modernity itself. Though modernity is multiple and every tradition unique, this review suggests that all contemporary religions confront a similar structural predicament, related to the globalization of mass societies and the porous pluralism of late modernity.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.83
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  • 94
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    Digitale Medien
    MODELING THE GENETIC ARCHITECTURE OF MODERN POPULATIONS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 153-169 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract This article summarizes recent genetic evidence about the population history of our species. There is a congruence of evidence from different systems showing that the genetic effective size of humans is about 10,000 reproducing adults. We discuss how the magnitude and fluctuation of this number over time is important for evaluating competing hypotheses about the nature of human evolution during the Pleistocene. The differences in estimates of effective size derived from high mutation rate and low mutation rate genetic systems allow us to trace broad-scale changes in population size. The ultimate goal is to produce a comprehensive history of our own gene pool and its spread and differentiation over the world. The genetic evidence should also complement archaeological evidence of our past by revealing aspects of our history that are not readily visible from the archaeological record, such as whether hominid populations in the Pleistocene were different species.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.153
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  • 95
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    Digitale Medien
    EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES: The Third Epidemiologic Transition (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 247-271 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract We use an expanded framework of multiple epidemiologic transitions to review the issues of re/emerging infection. The first epidemiologic transition was associated with a rise in infectious diseases that accompanied the Neolithic Revolution. The second epidemiologic transition involved the shift from infectious to chronic disease mortality associated with industrialization. The recent resurgence of infectious disease mortality marks a third epidemiologic transition characterized by newly emerging, re- emerging, and antibiotic resistant pathogens in the context of an accelerated globalization of human disease ecologies. These transitions illustrate recurring sociohistorical and ecological themes in human-disease relationships from the Paleolithic Age to the present day.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.247
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  • 96
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    Digitale Medien
    CULTURE IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES? (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 301-328 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Cultural primatology is hypothesized on the basis of social learning of group-specific behavior by nonhuman primates, especially in nature. Scholars ask different questions in testing this idea: what? (anthropologists), how? (psychologists), and why? (zoologists). Most evidence comes from five genera: Cebus (capuchin monkeys), Macaca (macaque monkeys), Gorilla (gorilla), Pongo (orangutan), and Pan (chimpanzees). Two species especially, Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), show innovation, dissemination, standardization, durability, diffusion, and tradition in both subsistence and nonsubsistence activities, as revealed by decades of longitudinal study.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.301
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  • 97
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    Digitale Medien
    COMING TO TERMS WITH HUMAN VARIATION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 273-300 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Genetics has become the major tool of the life sciences. This is driven partly by technology, and partly by the belief that genes are the ultimate units of biomedical or evolutionary information. The search for variation associated with disease has motivated the Human Genome Project to construct a detailed road map of the entire set of human genetic material, and some additional form of globally representative human genome diversity resource has been proposed for the anthropological purposes of reconstructing human population history. Any such resource raises complex societal and ethical issues as well as scientific ones. However, the amount and complexity of genetic variation has frustrated hopes for simple genetic answers to important biomedical or anthropological questions, and a consequent converging of these differing interests suggests that developing a genetic variation resource will be important in many disciplines.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.273
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  • 98
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    Digitale Medien
    THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF SYMBOLS (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 329-346 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Why should archaeologists deal with symbols and how can they do so? This article outlines three major traditions archaeologists have followed in conceptualizing symbols, each with its own preferred topics of study, understanding of power and social relations, and epistemology. These include the processual view of symbols as tokens that represent reality, the structuralist view of symbols as mental girders framing a cultural reality, and the postmodern view of symbols as arbitrary fragments incorporated into phenomenological experience. The primary conclusions are that (a) any serious consideration of ancient society requires us to deal with its symbols; (b) human symbolism is so diverse (it includes cognitive structures; ritual icons; identities such as gender, prestige, and ethnicity; technological knowledge; and political ideologies) that multiple approaches are needed to deal adequately with it; and (c) a major problem in the archaeology of symbols is understanding how varied kinds of symbols relate to each other.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.329
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  • 99
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    Digitale Medien
    EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF HUMAN REPRODUCTION (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 347-374 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Evolutionary ecology of human reproduction is defined as the application of natural selection theory to the study of human reproductive strategies and decision-making in an ecological context. The basic Darwinian assumption is that humans-like all other organisms-are designed to maximize their inclusive fitness within the ecological constraints to which they are exposed. Life history theory, which identifies trade-off problems in reproductive investment, and evolutionary physiology and psychology, which analyzes the adaptive mechanisms regulating reproduction, are two crucial tools of evolutionary reproductive ecology. Advanced empirical insights have been obtained mainly with respect to the ecology of fecundity, fertility, child-care strategies, and differential parental investment. Much less is known about the ecology of nepotism and the postgenerative life span. The following three theoretical aspects, which are not well understood, belong to the desiderata of future improvement in evolutionary human reproductive ecology: (a) the significance of and the interactions between different levels of adaptability (genetic, ontogenetic, and contextual) for the adaptive solution of reproductive problems; (b) the dialectics of constraints and adaptive choices in reproductive decisions; and (c) the dynamics of demographic change.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.347
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  • 100
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    Digitale Medien
    RECENT ADVANCES IN METHOD AND THEORY IN PALEODEMOGRAPHY (1998)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998), S. 375-399 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Current methods in skeletal biology have improved significantly our ability to estimate the demographic parameters of extinct populations. Gross morphological and histological age indicators have been developed and tested in a variety of contexts, revealing great variation in the levels of accuracy of age prediction of each indicator. Primary attention is given here to the best-performing hard-tissue indicators of age and to composite methods of recovering the age and sex distribution of a cemetery. It is becoming increasingly apparent that some cemetaries should not be used for demographic reconstruction. Such collections have no bearing on the feasibility of paleodemographic research. Our review concludes with discussions about the role of comparing modern mortality patterns to those of paleodemography, and the issue and impact of departures from stationary demographic conditions during prehistoric times.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.375
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