ALBERT

Notes: Summary The complex of ‚lysenkoism‘ cannot satisfyingly be explained as a pure and internal marxist tradition and reception. A necessary external addition has to consider the social history of the Soviet Union, her political economy, and the development of her scientific history. Hence, a more adequate connection to the ‚stalinist‘ epoch can be drawn.

Notes: Summary My concern in what follows is to give a comparative report on some important lectures held at the Hegel-Kongreß 1981 in Stuttgart. In discussing the views of Quine, Hacking, Davidson, Putnam and Habermas I want to confront them with some details of Rorty's recent critique of our philosophical tradition. At last I try to give a tentative answer whether there is an end or a turning-point for current analytical philosophy.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Geschichte des Begriffs des Naturgesetzes, besonders den Umständen seiner Durchsetzung, wird der systematische Hinweis entnommen, daß die generellen Sätze der Physik methodisch primär von Apparaten gelten. Daraus ergeben sich Gesichtspunkte für eine Hierarchisierung physikalischer Sätze. Eine technik-orientierte Deutung der Physik läßt dann auch die ökologische Dimension physikalischer Forschung in einem kritischeren Licht erscheinen.

Notes: Summary The paper's aim is to contribute to a better understanding of Weber's methodology by clarifying the difference of Weber's concept ofVerstehen from Dilthey's concept ofVerstehen, and by answering the question of how Weber's claim to objectivity of hisVerstehende Soziologie is compatible with his claim that the specific method of hisVerstehende Soziologie, the idealtypical construction, is empirically irrefutable. My thesis is that there are three classes of ideal types in Weber: concepts of ‚historical individuals‘, concepts of ‚objective possibilities‘ and idealtypical classifying concepts. Common to them is the end to grasp the individual character of a social phenomenon. Their different functions in realizing this end justify to describe Weber'sVerstehende Soziologie as a system, in which social phenomena are presented as if they were the result of conscious human decisions.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Wissenschaftstheorie hat sich in der Vergangenheit hauptsächlich mit dem Aufbau und der Analyse wissenschaftlicher Theorien und den logischen Problemen in ihrem eigenen Gebiet beschäftigt, während Probleme der Wissenschaftspraxis, hier vor allem die theoretischen Grundlagen des Messens, nur am Rande oder gar nicht behandelt wurden. Dies ist insofern bemerkenswert, weil die Messung das wichtigste erfahrungswissenschaftliche Hilfsmittel zur Gewinnung von Erkenntnis darstellt. Beim Messen erfolgt der wichtige Übergang vom Empirischen zum Formalen, indem die empirisch vorliegende Intensität einer Meßgröße durch eine mathematische Größe beschrieben und damit überhaupt erst die Voraussetzung für eine erfahrungswissenschaftliche Theorie geschaffen wird. Die vorliegende Meßtheorie ist in Meßprozeßtheorie, Metrisierungstheorie und Fehlertheorie gegliedert. Die Meßprozeßtheorie behandelt die Vorgänge zwischen Meßobjekt und Meßgerät, die Metrisierungstheorie die Darstellung der empirischen Größe als formale und die Fehlertheorie die Schätzung des gesuchten wahren Wertes aus mehreren fehlerbehafteten gleichwertigen Meßwerten. Der Schätzwert ist das Endergebnis einer Messung. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, die Meßtheorie aus dem engen Kreis der Metrisierungs- bzw. Skalentheorie herauszulösen und auf die häufig übersehenen notwendigen Bedingungen einer Messung aufmerksam zu machen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Gegen den Vorwurf, die sprachanalytische Philosophie sei einzelsprachlich relativ oder provinziell, haben sich die sprachanalytischen Philosophen mit mindestens vier Argumenten erfolgreich gewehrt: (I) Den Vertretern derphilosophischen Grammatik geht es zwar um die einzelsprachliche Grammatik bestimmter Ausdrücke; aber um eben diese Grammatik muß es ihnen auch gehen, da philosophische Probleme aus dem Getäuschtsein durch die Grammatik entstehen. Nicht nur die Problemlösung, sondern auch die Problemstellung ist provinziell. (II) Den Vertretern derlinguistischen Phänomenologie geht es um die Unterscheidung und Ordnung von Phänomenen. Weil sie dabei die Sprache und ihre Distinktionen bloß als heuristisches Mittel gebrauchen, haben ihre Aussagen die gleiche Reichweite wie die Ergebnisse einer mundan-phänomenologischen Analyse. (III) Den Vertretern derinformalen Logik geht es um die Logik bestimmter Begriffe und Propositionen. Die Explikation der Logik dieser Begriffe und Propositionen hat Gültigkeit für den gesamten Bereich, in dem eben diese Begriffe und Propositionen ‘verbalisierbar’ sind. (IV) Den Vertretern derSprechakttheorie schließlich geht es um die Regeln, denen Sprechakte gehorchen. Die Analyse dieser Regeln gilt für alle diejenigen Sprachen bzw. Gesellschaften, in denen es die Institution des betreffenden Sprechakts gibt.

Notes: Summary Ordinary language philosophers frequently draw on the fact that an appropriately selected sentential combination of the form “p but not q” can, or cannot, be uttered without absurdity; however, they do so without sufficient reflection on the methodology of such combination tests, which results in considerable shortcomings even in practical application. To improve things, I shall discuss two criteria for distinguishing ‘pragmatic’ from ‘non-pragmatic’ implications and for separating the latter into ‘linguistic’ (‘semantic’ and ‘syntactical’) and ‘non-linguistic’ ones (2–3); consider the bearing of the principle of ‘sense-constancy‘ on the applicability of combination tests (4); and call attention to the important, though merely heuristic, function of investigating pragmatic, as opposed to semantic, implications (5.1–5.2). Finally, I shall hint at a striking analogy between the linguistic (yet non-empirical) method of combination tests, the phenomenological method of ‘fictional variation’, and the empirical method of ‘conjectures and refutations’ (5.3).

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Begriff der axiomatischen Basis einer physikalischen Theorie wurde in [1] eingeführt. Die dort gegebene Definition ist zu eng verglichen mit dem, was in der theoretischen Physik angestrebt wird und z. B. für die Quantenmechanik in [2] und [3] durchgeführt ist. Die in dieser Arbeit angegebene, neue (erweiterte) Definition einer axiomatischen Basis beschreibt das tatsächliche Vorgehen der theoretischen Physik methodisch besser. Die neue Definition erlaubt es auch, die Untersuchungen über physikalische Begriffe insofern gegenüber [1] zu verbessern, als es möglich ist, sauber zwischen „theoretischen Hilfsbegriffen“ und „theoretischen Begriffen“ zu unterscheiden. Es läßt sich genauer definieren, was man unter „physikalisch interpretierbaren“ Gesetzen verstehen will. Entgegen mancher Meinung wird die Vermutung aufgestellt, daß man jede physikalische Theorie mit „physikalisch interpretierbaren“ Gesetzen, d. h. ohne theoretische Hilfsbegriffe formulieren kann.

Notes: Summary This study gives an arithmetic calculus to determine tautologies, contradictions and satisfiable formulas of the first order logic. The presented calculus may easily be extended on modal and deontic logic. The mathematical foundation of this arithmetic calculus is a Boolean ring.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Im Rahmen der Popperianischen Bewährungstheorie spielt der Begriff der Strenge eines Tests eine wichtige Rolle. Einige konkurrierende Vorschläge zur Bestimmung der Teststrenge werden vorgestellt, auf ihre Konsequenzen hin analysiert und miteinander verglichen. Gegen Vorschläge von Popper und Watkins bzw. Lakatos und Musgrave werden schwerwiegende Einwände vorgebracht; durch die Erweiterung einer Idee von Zahar lassen sich deren vertretbare Konsequenzen aber erhalten und sogar erklären. Es wird die Ansicht vertreten, daß es im Zusammenhang mit einer rationalen Theorienpräferenz mehr auf ein Optimum an empirischer Kritik als auf ein Maximum ankommt: ein Test muß zwar streng, aber auch fair sein.

Notes: Summary In an illuminating article A. Kamlah considers philosophy of science as an activity leading step by step from neutral descriptions to rational prescriptions. What his remarks do not offer us is a way of dealing with the troublesome ambiguities we find in the analyses provided by those philosophers of science who refuse to say whether they legislate how scientists should behave or describe how they do. In this context I want to draw attention to a helpful distinction H. A. Simon has made.

Notes: Summary Some leading ideas of the constructivist protophysics are discussed on the basis of P. Janich's Protophysik der Zeit. After having reviewed the contents of the second edition Janich's claim that analytical philosophy of science is purely affirmative and not critical towards science in its historical appearence is refuted. In the next section the principles of constructivist methodology of physics are criticised, and the claim is refuted that prescriptions for measurement cannot without circularity be shown to be invalid by experimental results. In the last section we discuss Janich's foundation of time measurement in a mathematical frame similar to that for extensive systems. Thus the relation between Janich's and the ordinary account is cleared up.

Notes: Summary This paper discusses critically the fundamental elements of the Stegmüller/Sneed-reconstruction of Kuhn's normal science concept. It is argued that a) Kuhn himself cannot accept this reconstruction if he wants to describe theory dynamics in the past; b) the reconstruction is not based on a pure non-statement view; c) to have a theory in the sense of Kuhn, should be related to the ordered pair 〈K,Io〉 to ensure the desired constancy over time; d) the reconstruction implies, contrary to Kuhn, the ability of rejecting a theory without having an alternative one; e) the rejection of a theory can be the result of a falsifying procedure and, therefore, theories are not immune from falsification; f) the reconstruction still contains rationality gaps; g) the reconstruction shows more precisely than Kuhn's work that Popper is right when he attacks normal scientist's behaviour; h) the positions of the Kuhnians and of the criticists could be reconciled partially.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Das Aufkommen der „klassischen Mechanik“ wird als paradigmatisch für die Entstehung des neuzeitlichen wissenschaftlichen Denkens angesehen. Geht man nun dem Beginn dieser Entwicklung nach, so stößt man sehr bald auf den Begriff der Selbsterhaltung. Das Postulat der Selbsterhaltung erweist sich als zentrale Kategorie bei der Herausbildung einer „externen“ Naturvorstellung, nach der ein sich bewegender Körper keiner zusätzlichen Kraft bedarf, um die betreffende Bewegung aufrechtzuerhalten (Trägheitsprinzip). Sie erhält sich von selbst. Das Prinzip der Selbsterhaltung taucht in dieser Epoche auch in verschiedenen anderen Disziplinen auf, beispielsweise der Staatsphilosphie (Th. Hobbes) und der Ethik (Spinoza). Ein paralleles Phänomen während dieser Zeit ist eine beginnende Emanzipation des Individuums. Der allmähliche Ausbau einer Autonomie im Denken und Fühlen findet seinen Ausdruck in einem neuen Vernunftsbegriff, der nicht mehr in Abhängigkeit von theologischen Postulaten steht. Die Autonomie des Individuums wird weitgehend als Selbsterhaltung der Vernunft verstanden. Es liegt nahe einen Zusammenhang zu vermuten zwischen der neuzeitlichen Naturerfassung auf der Grundlage des Selbsterhaltungsbegriffes und der „Entdeckung“ einer individuellen, sich selbst konstituierenden Vernunft.

Notes: Summary It is here shown that the relativistic doctrine of the relativity of simultaneity is untenable and that both the special and general theories of relativity are inconsistent. It is also shown that the theories can perhaps be made consistent, but excessively weak, through the reintroduction of absolute space and a weakening of the Lorentz transformations. Non-relativistic hypotheses for some events thought to require relativity are suggested. Finally, some conjectures are made on how so wrong a theory could have been accepted by so many for so long.

Notes: Summary A pattern can be found in the history of semiconductor electronics, which largely appears to coincide with that of scientific revolutions as described by Thomas Kuhn1. However, the history of semiconductor electronics has some characteristics which suggest that Kuhn's model requires correction in important respects.

Notes: Summary In a case study Kuhn's morphology of scientific revolutions is put to the test in confronting it with the contemporary developments in physics. It is shown in detail, that Kuhn's scheme is not compatible with the situation in physics today.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Peter Janichs konstruktiver Aufbau einer Chronometrie, wie er in der neuen Auflage seines Buches „Die Protophysik der Zeit“ beschrieben ist, wird einer detaillierten Kritik unterzogen. Dabei kristallisieren sich drei ernste Probleme heraus: Das Problem der Eindeutigkeit der Leitlinie, das Problem der Transitivität der Begleitstellungen, und das Problem der eindeutigen Bestimmtheit der Uhren. Alle drei Probleme bleiben bei Janich unbewältigt, woraus folgt, daß seine Chronometrie in der vorliegenden Form zumindest unvollständig ist.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Insoweit das Humesche Induktionsproblem die Frage der Rationalität des induktiven Vorgehens aufwirft, ist es in positiver Weise lösbar. Die Lösung basiert auf der Einsicht, daß es eine fundamentale Form der Induktion gibt, ohne welche Beobachtungen und Experimente überhaupt sinnlos würden, und ein rationales Verfahren zur Bestimmung einer induktiven Voraussetzung existiert, das eine bestimmte Fassung dieser Induktion validiert.

Notes: Summary This paper presents an immanent criticism of Lakatos' reconstruction of the degenerating phase of Bohr's atomic theory. That is to say, the historiographical methods used are exclusively of a Lakatosian kind. Such a closer Lakatosian look at the historical episode in question shows that Lakatos' own reconstruction is incorrect on three essential points. These are the role of the correspondence principle, the position of the hard core in Bohr's programme, and the presence of important novel predicted facts. I conclude that these defects are irreparable within the framework of Lakatos' methodology of scientific research programmes.

Notes: Summary Popper's methodology does not entail any playing down of the various indispensible distinctions such as the distinction between knowing and guessing, the distinction between myth and science, the distinction between the observational and the theoretical, and between the vernacular and technical sublanguages or technical vocabulary. By avoiding both the totalization that led to the foundationalist position and the scepticist reactions to these frustrated foundationalist hopes, Popper's methodology makes it possible to combine fallibilism with a realist view of theories. It combines the perennial willingness to re-examine positions, statements, etc. with the claim that a particular theory (as an item of knowledge in the objective sense) constitutes cognitive progress over its rivals. However, some of his formulations have been deliberately provocative and in this way have given rise to certain misgivings about possible paradoxical implications, even in philosophers congenial with Popper's approach. The concept of knowledge in the objective sense is, of course, an explicatum which Popper proposes primarily for use in methodology and epistemology. The concept is an expression of the acknowledgment of fallibility in principle. The phrasing that ‘knowledge is conjectural’ or ‘knowledge is fallible’, even when it refers to knowledge in the objective sense, is but an abbreviation for: since our methods for ascertaining the truth-value of a particular statement about empirical reality are fallible in principle, there cannot be any certain knowledge about reality. In everyday life and in politics tolerance will be possible to the extent to which the recognition of this fallibility is more than a declaration.

Notes: Summary Opinion is divided as to whether chemistry is reducible to physics. The problem can be given a satisfactory solution provided three conditions are met: that a science not be identified with its theories; that several notions of theory dependence be distinguished; and that quantum chemistry, rather than classical chemistry, be compared with physics. This paper proposes to perform all three tasks. It does so by analyzing the methodological concepts concerned as well as by examining the way a chemical rate constant is derivable with the help of the quantum atomic theory. The conclusion is that chemistry, and in particular quantum chemistry, is not a part of physics although it is certainly based on the latter.

Notes: Summary We shall proceed as follows: In section ii, we shall give a brief over-view of the literature on Gilbert, more to indicate general directions of interest than to present any in-depth analysis. Then, in the main body of this presentation, section iii, we will present three ways in which we think it is accurate to claim that Gilbert influenced Descartes. These are: (1) Gilbert gave Descartes a new definition of an organ; (2) Gilbert gave Descartes a new definition of what constitutes life and animation; (3) Gilbert gave Descartes a new view of natural motion.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Im Gegensatz zur verbreiteten Auffassung über die Voraussetzungen zur Ausbildung neuen Wissens entstehen wichtige Umstellungen im Denken häufignicht durch harte Konfrontationzwischen Hypothesen bzw. Theorien. Vielmehr sind oft allmähliche Deutungsverschiebungen bei der Auffassungeiner einzigen Hypothese bzw. Theorie zu beobachten. Derartige Prozesse erstrecken sich in der Regel über vergleichsweise lange Zeiträume und sind nicht wie die erstgenannten Vorgänge von eher kurzfristiger Natur. Verglichen mit dem Ausgangspunkt der jeweiligen Entwicklung tritt uns aber eine oft an ihrem Ende tiefgreifend veränderte Wissenssituation entgegen. Infolge derLangsamkeit der geschilderten Entwicklungen und der damit zugleich gegebenen Gewöhnung ihrer Vertreter an die geänderte Situation sind derartige Veränderungen des Wissens selten in einem Ausmaß vom Bewußtsein der Neuheit begleitet, wie dies bei Vorgängen der zuerst geschilderten Art der Fall ist. Trotzdem können aber gerade diese Veränderungen nachhaltiger und von grundlegenderer Art sein als jene. In der Folge sollen die beiden angedeuteten Wege der Erkenntnis hinsichtlich ihres strukturellen Unterschieds klarer erfaßt werden. Unterschiedliche Annahmen über die zugrundeliegende Ontologie sind für diese beiden Arten der Wissensbildung von besonderem Interesse. Insbesondere wird sich auch zeigen, daß die bereits in der Fristfrage berührten pragmatischen Gesichtspunkte eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Die beiden in dieser Untersuchung herauspräparierten „Wege“ sind Aspekte jeweils eines Erkenntnisprozesses. So sind sie nicht gegeneinander auszuspielen. Vielmehr weist jeder derartige Vorgang Charakteristikabeider modellhaft erfaßten Typen auf.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird über die verschiedenen Aspekte der sogenannten FitzGerald-Lorentz-Kontraktion berichtet. Nach einem kurzen Abriß der Entwicklung der Ätherkonzeption wird eine Beschreibung des Michelson-Morley Versuchs gegeben und seine Rolle in der Entstehungsgeschichte der speziellen Relativitätstheorie diskutiert. Anschließend wird die Kontraktionshypothese vorgestellt und die Frage erörtert, ob die Kontraktion „wirklich“ oder nur „scheinbar“ ist. Einige Gedankenexperimente werden vorgestellt, die zeigen, daß die Kontraktion bewegter Körper kein bloßer Schein ist. Ferner wird die noch bei Einstein unklare Beantwortung nach der Frage der Sichtbarkeit der Längenkontraktion durch die Analyse der Begriffe „Beobachten“ und „Sehen“ aufgehellt. Abschließend wird auf die Frage nach der Falsifizierbarkeit der Kontraktionshypothese eingegangen, die von Popper aufgeworfen wurde.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Für unseren Begriff der Gegenstände der Biologie ist es charakteristisch, daß diese Gegenstände eine Geschichte haben. Das unterscheidet sie von den Grundgegenständen der Physik, die wir so definieren, daß sie als Elemente in geschichtliche Abläufe zwar eingehen, ohne dabei indes selbst historischen Wandlungen unterworfen zu sein. Deswegen ist es im Rahmen biologischer Forschungen üblich, Erklärungen einmal für Veränderungen und einmal für Entstehungen eines Lebewesens (einer Art) anzustreben. Es wird zu zeigen versucht, daß die bekannten Einwände gegenüber teleologischen Erklärungen innerhalb der Biologie sich präzisieren und verschärfen lassen, wenn man jene Unterscheidung zwischen Veränderungs- und Entstehungserklärungen berücksichtigt. Darüber hinaus wird zu zeigen versucht, daß gewisse Erklärungen innerhalb der Biologie dadurch gekennzeichnet sind, daß sie, im Gewand einer Veränderungserklärung, den Entstehungszusammenhang des Schemas der Lebensäußerung, dessen Aktualisierung eigentlich zur Debatte steht, mitzureflektieren versuchen. Das Resultat einer solchen Mischung sind die quasi-teleologischen oder teleonomischen Erklärungen. Deren heuristischer Wert liegt darin, daß sie im Bezug auf das Einzelne die Entstehung des Allgemeinen, dessen Instanz jenes ist, mitaufzudecken versuchen. Ihre Problematik liegt darin, daß sie zwei verschiedene Explanandumtypen auf eine nicht unmittelbar erkennbare Weise überlappen lassen.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird zu zeigen versucht, daß die Unterscheidung logischer und faktischer Wahrheiten nicht gelingen kann, solange nicht zwei Arten von Existenz unterschieden werden, nämlich logische Existenz als Widerspruchsfreiheit und faktische als an Ort und Zeit gebundene Existenz. Die Vernachlässigung der Bedingungen von Ort und Zeit führt dazu, daß z. B. Leibniz, Frege und Russell die faktische Wahrheit auf die logische zurückführen, was wiederum dadurch begünstigt wird, daß die genannten Autoren Individuum und Einermenge nicht konsequent unterscheiden. Die Unterscheidung logischer und faktischer Wahrheiten ist aber zugleich wichtigster Bestandteil des empiristischen Sinnkriteriums der logischen Empiristen. Der Streit zwischen Carnap und Quine über die Unterscheidbarkeit analytischer und synthetischer Sätze war daher zugleich ein Streit um die Unterscheidbarkeit logischer und faktischer Wahreiten. Da aber weder Quine noch Carnap bereit waren, Voraussetzungen ontologischer Art zu machen, und sie daher Wahrheit auf Beweisbarkeit sowie auf den richtigen Gebrauch einer Sprache zurückführten, wurden auch für sie Individuum und Einermenge und damit auch logische und faktische Wahrheiten ununterscheidbar. Daher kommen beiden trotz ursprünglich gegensätzlicher Auffassungen zu sehr ähnlichen Ergebnissen. Während Quine nämlich die logische Wahrheit auf die faktische zurückführt und Wissenschaft für ihn nichts weiter ist als mit Erfahrung verknüpfte Gedankenkonstruktion, führt Carnap ganz im Sinne von Leibniz die faktische Wahrheit auf die logische, nämlich auf Widerspruchsfreiheit zurück, so daß die gesamte Erfahrungswelt für ihn nichts weiter ist als eine aus Grundelementen rational konstruierbare Welt des sinnlichen Scheins. Wenn faktische Wahrheit aber mehr ist als nur Widerspruchsfreiheit und Deduzierbarkeit, dann muß die Wahrheit von unabhängigen Atomsätzen anerkannt werden, deren Wahrheit nicht mit rein innersprachlichen Mitteln gesichert werden kann, sondern durch die Existenz außersprachlicher individueller Objekte abgestützt werden muß; denn Individuelles läßt sich in seiner Individualität nicht aus allgemeinen Gesetzen herleiten. Ein Wahrheitsbegriff, der dies leistet, findet sich bei Bernard Bolzano, der dafür die Annahme einer dritten Welt, einer Welt möglicher Intensionen, benötigte. Daß solch eine Annahme keine unnötige Vervielfältigung von Entitäten bedeutet, wird deutlich an den Schwierigkeiten, die für Wittgenstein dadurch entstanden, daß er einerseits mit Freges Theorie vom Sinn sprachlicher Zeichen eine semantische Grundlage sprachlicher Zeichen anerkannte, zugleich aber einen nominalistischen Standpunkt vertrat, indem er nur Namen, nicht aber Sätzen eine Bezeichnungsfunktion zuerkannte. Bolzanos Theorie von den zwei Arten der Existenz und der durch sie begründeten Arten von Wahrheiten bedarf jedoch einer Ergänzung und einer begrifflichen Analyse dessen, was unter „Sachverhalt“, „Tatsache“, „Faktum“, „Ereignis“ und „Individuum“ zu verstehen ist, was einer späteren Arbeit vorbehalten bleiben soll.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Anknüpfend an den Beitrag von U. Steinvorth in Heft 1/1980 wird die Auffassung vertreten, daß die moderne allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie bisher keine überzeugende Antwort auf die Frage nach dem Status der Politischen Wissenschaft und ihrer theoretischen Erzeugnisse gegeben hat. In diesem Beitrag wird in Auseinandersetzung mit Steinvorth u. a. hervorgehoben: Analog zu der These, daß in der Politik Vernünftigkeit nicht auf Rationalität reduziert werden darf, ist es weder möglich noch wünschenswert, für alle spezifischen politischen Wertungen einen Erklärungstyp zu begründen oder als verbindlich vorzuschreiben. Die Wissenschaftstheorie muß sich in bezug auf die Frage nach dem Status „politischer“ Theorien mit einem Theorietypus beschäftigen, der ein neues Abgrenzungskriterium voraussetzt, nämlich einen spezifischen Satz von Prinzipien und Regeln zur Konstruktion politikwissenschaftlicher Theorien.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Da Goethes Farbenlehre im allgemeinen allein unter dem Blickwinkel der darin enthaltenen methodologischen Thesen untersucht wird, tritt hier die Rekonstruktion ihres physikalischen Gehalts in den Vordergrund. Es zeigt sich auf diese Weise, daß die Farbenlehre als eine Verbindung physikalischer und sinnesphysiologischer Aspekte einige der zentralen Versuche der Newtonschen Optik angemessen interpretieren kann. Die Diskussion der Methodologie zeitigt anschließend ein zukunftweisendes Element: die Erkenntnis der Bedeutung der Meßapparatur für die Konstitution der Theorie. Schließlich wird Goethes Naturbild und seine Aktualisierung in den Bestrebungen der kritischen Theorie erörtert.

Notes: Summary Presented here is an overview from the standpoints of sociology, history of science, philosophy of science and “pure science” of the lingering question of whether sociology is a form of scientific pursuit. The conclusion is drawn that sociology barely meets any of the rigid criteria traditionally associated with the natural sciences. Sociology is viewed as having a position of theory and argument which is labeled “inconoclastic scepticism.”

Notes: Summary Pluralism and monism are the two current views concerning scientific research and language understanding. Between them there is a third, intermediate, view. We take a “procedural methodology of science” as exemplified in the work of L. Tondl, and “procedural linguistics”, as exemplified in the work of B. Harrison, to be representative of this third possibility. Procedures are cognitive, linguistic, and physical processes which, through their hierarchical interconnections can generate fruitful “mechanisms”. These “mechanisms” are sensitive to context and operate in heuristic and algorithmic ways. Their similar logical structure points towards a profound unified basis for scientific and linguistic activities, thus providing an interesting bridge between what is achieved by a little child talking to his parents, and a creative scientist struggling to interpret the results of his experiments. “Variety of rules with unity of principles is a requirement of reason ..., such a requirement however, prescribes no law to the objects themselves. It is merely a subjective law of economy ..., namely a logical form, a faculty whereby the cognitions of the understanding are arranged among themselves only, andlower rules under higher ones.” Kant,Critique of Pure Reason “We can conceive of theinvention of new metaphors as aprocess of discovery, with definite criteria of success attached to it rather than as a matter of arbitrary caprice.” Harrison B.,Meaning and Structure

Notes: Zusammenfassung Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit verfolgen wir drei Ziele. Erstens exemplifizieren wir einige wissenschaftstheoretische Fragen und die zugehörigen Antworten (Theoretizität, Problem der theoretischen Terme, empirische Behauptung einer Theorie, Ramsey-Eliminierbarkeit theoretischer Terme) am sehr einfachen Beispiel der klassischen Stoßmechanik. Zweitens läßt sich an diesem Beispiel besonders klar der Begriff des Meßmodells darstellen; insbesondere erhalten wir eine vollständige Übersicht über alle Meßmodelle. Und drittens erhalten wir ein schönes Beispiel für den Begriff der Reduktion einer Theorie auf eine andere, denn die Stoßmechanik läßt sich auf einfache Weise auf eine Spezialisierung der Klassischen Partikelmechanik reduzieren.

Notes: Summary Teleology can be defined as goal seeking behaviour with production of negentropy, i.e. with generation of an state improbable under the given conditions. Contrary to an opinion often hold, the production of negentropy does not mean an decrease of entropy. That permits a physical and non-teleological explanation for the origin of the negentropy of the univers in its present state.

Notes: Summary By means of a survey of the papers given at the XIX Symposium of theSociety for History of Sciences on the „Idea of Purposiveness in the History of the Sciences“, Mai 28–30, 1981 in Bamberg, West Germany, it is demonstrated that in the course of the history of science teleological thinking in its traditional form is increasingly eliminated from the sciences. This process culminates in the attempt to rehabilitate teleological thinking by means of a reconstruction of Aristotelian philosophy using the tools of modern natural science. The question arises whether this signifies the end of teleological thinking or a new direction of genuinely teleological thought.

Notes: Summary According to the so-called Starnberger Group1, the amenability of a science to science policy measures, conceptualised by the Group in terms of “finalization”, depends crucially on conditions intrinsic to the science not invariably present at every stage of its development. Finalization is possible only at junctures where the science in question faces methodologically divergent alternative lines of development. The most significant kind of case depends on the presence of “completed”, or “classical”, theories. In this paper I shall argue that the Starnbergers have failed to vindicate any interesting variety of the thesis concerning internal scientific prerequisites of finalization; and that this is due, in part, to a failure to establish the existence of interestingly completed theories.

Notes: Summary In reply to H. Bußhoff's paper (this journal XII, 1981) I give another outline of Lakatos' approach to normative theories in order to reduce the misunderstandings Bußhoff seems to have fallen victim to. (1). In particular, I try to show that he is wrong in claiming there is a vicious circle in this approach or my interpretation of it (2). Finally, I expose for criticism his alternative methodology of political science which propagates a theory of a „third type“, suggesting that he takes too little seriously problems he calls academical although their importance has been shown not only by Lakatos but by political philosophers as Rawls and Nozick (3).

Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Forderung des Deutschen Konstruktivismus nach „Begründung der Wissenschaft“ ist weiten Kreisen geläufig; was mit dieser Forderung bezweckt, inwieweit sie gerechtfertigt und auf welche Weise sie gegebenenfalls zu erfüllen ist, scheint dagegen außerhalb des konstruktivistischen Lagers weniger klar. Im vorliegenden Beitrag soll versucht werden, unter weitgehendem Verzicht auf formale Details ein wesentliches Lehrstück des obigen Programms zu erläutern, nämlich die „Begründung von Logik“. Dazu möchte ich zunächst klären, was sich in diesem Zusammenhang unter „Begründung“ verstehen läßt. Ferner werde ich skizzieren, wie Anfangsstücke der Logik gegenwärtig außerhalb des Konstruktivismus betrieben werden, und inwiefern es hierbei zu „Begründungsdefiziten“ kommen könnte. Schließlich soll ein Überblick gegeben werden, wie sich der Deutsche Konstruktivismus Lösungen der von ihm lokalisierten Probleme vorstellt. Abschließend wird angedeutet, wie analoge Lösungen im Rahmen eines klassischen Logikaufbaus aussehen könnten.

Notes: Summary The need to rethink the history of ideas has led both Kuhn and Foucault to break away from the prevalent conception of knowledge as one of continuous growth, of accretion. It is surprising how little attention philosophers and historians of science have paid to Foucault's work, and how, consequently, the convergence between his and the Kuhnian approach has gone completely unnoticed. To see the parallels, however, and to relate their works, promises to give rise to a synthesis that might present a new approach to the history of ideas (going beyond the particular concerns of our two authors). The present paper attempts a first step: It relates the key concepts of Kuhn and Foucault (“revolution/rupture; normal science/épistèmé”) and discusses the possibility of clarifying Kuhn's concept of normal science in the light of Foucault's analysis of discursive structures, and of adding Kuhn's explanation of the cause of conceptual change to the range of Foucault's tools. The last section is devoted to an evaluation of the author's relativism which is seen as a fertile notion and shown to be distinct from Feyerabend's brand of relativism.

Notes: Abstract This study reviews the literature on academic environments with particular reference to the academic department which is seen as the most important factor in the teaching and learning environment. Departmental environment characteristics as identified by faculty and by students are described. For students the most important are:- Student-Faculty Relationships; Interest and Engagement in Teaching; and Satisfaction with Instruction. Differences between teaching and between learning environments are explained, especially differences between social science and natural science departments. These differences reflect the interaction between discipline, personal styles of faculty and students, and faculty-student relationships. Student academic satisfaction seems to be heavily dependent upon the relationships between students and faculty. Student achievement in relation to students' perception of the academic department seems to be dependent on the degree of their adaptation to the department. The studies reviewed clearly show that there are differences between departments. They also show that these differences may be explained not only by differences with regard to the characteristics of the academic discipline concerned, but also by differences concerning student-faculty relationships, faculty interest in students and teaching and the interaction between these factors. Teacher and student satisfaction and student achievement are affected by these variables.

Notes: Abstract First year student expectations of their forthcoming chemistry courses, the degree to which those expectations are realised, and their attitudes towards chemistry at the end of the year were examined by discriminant analysis. A total of 1,438 Students (Ss) drawn from three Belgian universities and taking twelve different major study subjects took part. Degree of satisfaction with the separate components of the chemistry courses, unlike the overall sense of satisfaction, does not seem to be a valid means of discriminating between their differing course needs. The same is true of their expectations. Any rejection of the development of abstract thinking in universities was found not to be the result of experience prior to university entrance. Attitudes towards chemistry alone also cannot be used as a means of discriminating between populations, although attitudes do correlate with the concordance between expectations and realisations. Evidence was also found supporting earlier work of others that negative attitudes toward science (in this case chemistry) are generated by pitching courses at too great a level of difficulty. Overlap of population interests indicates that the chemistry course needs of the students (Ss) could be met by four separate courses.

Notes: Abstract The historical background to the emergence of the Japanese system of higher education is described, attention being drawn to the link established between national aims and those of the university and to the system of gakubatsu (a form of patronage for graduates of a particular university). Post World War II expansion brought junior colleges (tanki-daigaku) into the sphere of higher education as well as universities (daigaku). Though formally and legally these classes of institution are equal they are in fact ranked according to the old system. Within universities there is also a ranking which is reinforced by gakubatsu. This ranking limits mobility in the academic profession; academic staff are likely to spend all their careers, undergraduate, postgraduate and as faculty members, at the same university. This system prevents Japanese scholars from taking posts abroad though it must also be pointed out that many Japanese academics go to great lengths to remain fully acquainted with western scholarship.

Notes: Abstract The term “certification”, as used in discussions concerning higher education, is clarified and a distinction made between terminal awards which do have a genuine “certifying effect” in the sense of procuring admission to a profession and those which do not. Institutions wishing to increase the value of the “certifying effect” of their awards, seek to do this by stimulating applications for entry to their institution. The longer the queue at the gate the greater the prestige of the terminal award. The ability to influence the “certifying effect” of an award does not, however, lie with the teaching institutions alone; business, the employers and the professions can, and increasingly do, determine the relative value of awards and of different ways of preparing for the exercise of a particular profession. The case of the business schools in France is described to illustrate how teaching institutions once they are established seek to increase the “certifying effect” of the diplomas they award by actually reducing the number of graduates. The numerus clausus, as applied to medical schools, provides another example of the same phenomenon. Such strategies lead to what the author describes as “consumer effect”. Once admittance to a prestige institution has been gained, entry to a position of influence and possibly affluence, is more or less assured. Students in such institutions, in both capitalist and communist countries, have exploited this by persuading teaching staff to acquiesce in a reduction of the demands made by the course, though some directors of institutions have begun to respond by failing more students, seeking to re-establish positions surrendered in the days of student unrest and by these and other means seeking to reduce “consumer effect”. Teacher training colleges provide an interesting example of institutions having a low but certain “certifying effect”, producing a high “consumer effect”. The possibility of deriving a general theory from the proposition put forward in the article is discussed.

Notes: Abstract In the 1970's Denmark established two new institutions called “university centers” which were to differ from the traditional universities in terms of academic organization and curriculum. The first center, Roskilde, was established near the national capital while the second center, Aalborg, was established in a provincial area. The development of these two centers, though emanating from the same plan, has been strikingly different particularly in terms of institutional stability, autonomy and distinctiveness. This article presents case studies of these two institutions from their opening in 1972 and 1974 respectively to the summer of 1979 and attempts to explain the different patterns of development.

Notes: Abstract The article describes our experience and experiments in helping to develop a training programme for academic staff at Universiti Sains Malaysia and the model of staff training associated with this programme. This is used as a basis for proposals for a more general scheme of staff training for universities in the South East Asian region, a special feature of the proposals being the use of distance teaching and of individualised learning materials in teaching and learning in higher education. The ultimate aim of the scheme is to make the region independent of outside assistance.

Notes: Abstract The problems involved in the effective dissemination of information and ideas concerning teaching in higher education are discussed. The contribution made by the operation of the Open University is considered in this context. The results of a study investigating the influence the Open University has on teaching staff in other institutions in higher education are reported and discussed. The teacher in higher education who is also a part-time staff member of the Open University is seen to be considerably influenced by the Open University. The influence of the Open University is attributed to the accessibility of its materials and its tendency to adopt the characteristics of curriculum innovation identified by the Nuffield researchers.

Notes: Abstract The use of planning models in higher education has been receiving increasing attention in recent years. The article summarizes the planning model literature from its earliest use to the present, emphasizing the generalized resource allocation models. An organizational chart is presented which allows a more specific categorization of models. Several examples of each category are cited from the current literature. Conceptual issues such as implementation, acceptance, suitability and effectiveness are discussed in terms applicable to models in general. The article concludes with an in-depth analysis of the six significant resource allocation models: HELP/PLANTRAN, RRPM, SEARCH, CAMPUS, TRADES, and EFPM.

Notes: Abstract Part-time positions in academe have long been considered women's work because of the opportunities they afford for child care and household responsibilities, as well as the lower status and pay which they generally carry. Recent data indicate that men are just as likely as women to be part-timers, and that the large majority of women do not fit the stereotypical view of women part-timers. This paper uses data from a nation-wide survey of part-timers, conducted by the American Association of University Professors in 1977, to compare job-related characteristics of males and females and their motivations for working part-time. The data suggest that part-time academic employment may, in fact, be a female issue since some differences between the sexes are found to exist. In several instances women appear to be worse off than their male counterparts. The article concludes with policy recommendations to improve this situation.

Notes: Abstract For the past two decades universities in Africa have been engaged in a re-examination of their relationship with society. In the light of this, the popular characterization of the African university as reflecting colonial, international, “stages of development”, or “levels of integration” models, appears inadequate to describe the challenge involved in creating an African identity for the university. Similarly, conceptions of the university as an instrument for creating an “educated”, “planned” or “changed” society or to think of it in terms of preserving and reflecting the dominant features of society, seem inadequate to describe fully the demands of contemporary and future society upon the university. A new framework of thought is urgently required; such a framework would encompass the desired aims of both the university and society and the relationships - dynamic and organic - between them. This article attempts to formulate such a framework and indicates its implications for the structure, content and operation of the university in Africa.

Notes: Abstract Drawing upon recent literature on educational inflation, overeducation, and the diploma disese, this paper examines analytically both the positive and negative aspects of degreeism in developed as well as in developing nations. Some of the positive effects of degreeism found are, for example, (1) a positive employment effect, (2) a proxy information effect, and (3) ritualistic effects. Among the major negative effects of degreeism discussed are (1) economic waste, (2) imbalance between job expectations and labor market realities, and (3) consumer deceit. Finally, alternative policy suggestions are presented for addressing the problem of degreeism. Some of the policies discussed are the degree tax, incomes policy, improved labor market information services, and modified civil service procedures. The major implication of such policies is to direct attention to the real issue of competency, not diplomas.

Notes: Abstract The validation of models of “good” teaching is discussed in terms of students' learning, and opinions of teaching are considered in this context. First-year university students were asked their opinions about good teaching and 40 items were derived from the interview data. The appropriate student population (2300) was then asked to rate the items for (a) Importance, and (b) Typicality. Discrepancies between ideal and typical teaching were derived for the whole sample and six different degree groups. Generally, the groups have similar opinions but there are significant differences depending upon the discipline studied and specific teaching experiences. Ratings were factor-analysed to reveal the underlying dimensions. The model of good teaching is characterised by two general factors — the first is learning-centred, the second associated with teaching — together with some minor specific factors. No general factors are associated with the “typical” models which tend to be more complex. Some methodological and practical implications of the results are discussed.

Notes: Abstract The question posed in the title refers to policy for the professional development of academic staff. The answer is considered in five parts with reference to (a) staff associations; (b) university councils; (c) university departments; (d) individual staff; and (e) students. Policies and professionalism are discussed with reference to experiences in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the U.K. A professional development policy is considered to be a prerequisite for in-service programmes for academic staff, for evaluation of academic performance and career related decisions. Members of a profession should accept responsibility for the practice of the profession. In particular, detailed reference is made in the Appendix to the history of the preparation of a policy for the professional development of academic staff by the New Zealand Association of University Teachers.

Notes: Abstract A random sample of 93 lecturers responded to a 40-item questionnaire based on researches into explaining. The lecturers' views on the learnability of various features of explaining were not related to their years of experience of lecturing. But there were significant differences between arts-based and science lecturers on seventeen of the variables and between least and most experienced lecturers on ten of the variables concerned with assigned values. It is suggested that a lecturer's views on explaining may arise from the experience of studying a subject as an undergraduate.

Notes: Abstract This article provides a framework for analysis of the difficulties inherent in educational change. Examples are drawn from medical education to clarify the propositions. Implications for interventions are discussed briefly.

Notes: Abstract The typical Institution of Higher Education (IHE) is usually a large and complex organization. This article develops a framework that fits, with minor if any differences, all IHEs with the aim of improving our understanding of the IHEs functional organizational structure, administrative processes, and its information needs. This framework can be used both as a tool for research as well as for practical application. This article will focus on identifying: (1) the principal functional subsystems of the IHE; (2) their main interrelations; and (3) their interrelations with the external environment. It will be seen that the IHE's functional subsystems cluster into seven upper-level functional systems and two super-functional systems. Special attention will be given to the nature of the functional subsystem in itself.

Notes: Abstract This article addresses the rapidly changing situation in higher education in the People's Republic of China. Although it is impossible to predict the nature of the final product, there can be little doubt that the present vibrant period of intellectual searching and questioning in China is having beneficial effects on Chinese higher education, and on educational exchange with foreign universities. The article examines the state of higher education in China today and investigates why, rather than just the “ten bad years” of a Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) for the entire country, higher education has suffered from a full “twenty bad years.” The effects of constant changes in the Party line and the use of class struggle to achieve objectives in higher education are examined as they relate to university administration, curriculum, the university structure, faculty, and libraries. The article focuses on the issues that are now being raised, and the parameters within which future changes in higher education will occur.

Notes: Abstract This article reviews the work of Ference Marton and his group of researchers at the University of Goteborg in Sweden. It describes and explains research into: what students learn; how students approach studying; the relationship between approach to study and learning outcomes; what students understand learning to consist of; and whether it is possible to manipulate students' approach to studying in order to influence the learning outcomes. This review is intended to build up an overall picture of learning as seen from a phenomenological research perspective.

Notes: Abstract A model is presented in which the realistic preview concept is extended beyond the job and organization choice situation for which it was originally suggested. Realistic previews are suggested for two major career transitions: the entry from high school to college and university and the transition from university to the world of work. The differences between high schools, universities and workplaces are discussed to highlight the need for realistic previews which pertain to aspects of the occupational field which a student pursues, as well as aspects of college or workplace environments. It is reasoned that realistic previews will soften those entry transitions in the same way that a realistic preview for job choice has been shown to be beneficial.

Notes: Abstract This study reveals and confirms earlier work regarding the positive influence of marriage on the scholastic achievement of community college students. It was found that marital status was an important predictor of community college graduating Q.P.A. in the following programs of study: Business Administration General, Business Administration Transfer, Executive Secretarial, and Nursing Education. Specifically, being a married woman appeared to place students in these programs at an academic advantage. It is suggested that researchers should look more closely at what marriage does to enhance a student's performance at the community college level.

Notes: Abstract A state survey of all two-year colleges in New York focused on the assessment of academic advising in order to facilitate recommendations for institutional policy making. Questions were asked about pre-service training of academic advisers, in-service training of advisers, and the evaluation of advisers and the advising process. Responses were obtained to 10 literature-based statements using a six-point Likert-type scale. A zero-order correlation matrix and a common factor analysis showed relationships between and among variables. It was emphasized that there does not appear to be a single prescription for those institutions who wish to formulate policy for academic advisement.

Notes: Abstract Filipino and American undergraduate students rated college instructor characteristics according to their perceived importance for effective teaching. Items were selected to reflect relevant value orientations in Filipino and American cultures. Factor analysis of the ratings revealed six underlying dimensions. MANOVA results showed that the group ratings on the six corresponding subscales were significantly different. Discriminant function analysis revealed that Filipino students rated items pertaining to authoritarianism and personal appearance of the instructor as significantly more important for effective teaching than did American students. This suggests that cross-cultural differences in perceptions of effective teaching may be predictable from a knowledge of both similar and conflicting value orientations in the specific cultures. Implications for the academic adjustment of students from different cultures were discussed.

Notes: Abstract Dorfman (1980b) investigated correlates of professional activity in retirement of professors at a major state university who continued to reside in their academic community during the entire year. This follow-up study extends that research to the total population of emeriti by including emeriti who left the University community after retirement and emeriti who continued to live in the University community for part of the year. Interviews were conducted with 113 University of Iowa emeritus professors. There was consistency between level of professional activity during the preretirement career and level of professional activity in retirement for the entire group, with “stayers” more consistent than “leavers.” Significant correlates of professional activity in retirement for the entire group included rated importance of consulting and University service, strength of ties to colleagues and professional organizations outside the University, contacts with former students, and perceived rapidity of changes in knowledge in respondents' fields. Multiple regression results showed that the strongest predictors of professional activity in retirement were level of professional activity during the preretirement career and strength of ties to professional organizations outside the University.

Notes: Abstract This research compared the effectiveness of Peer-Centered (PC) and Instructor-Centered (IC) formats for Teaching-Assistant-led discussion sections in chemistry. In addition, an Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI) was hypothesized, such that self-described “collaborative” students would report more learning from the PC format and “competitive” students would benefit more from the IC format. The PC format utilized small subgroups and student presentations, while in the IC format the Teaching Assistant lectured, solved problems, and answered questions. The two sections were approximately equal in overall learning, except that more learning from fellow students occurred in the PC sections. The expected ATI effect was found. In addition, students with interpersonally oriented learning styles benefited more from interactive learning opportunities (such as sections), while those with other learning styles gained more from impersonal media (such as textbooks).

Notes: Abstract This paper reviews the origins of institutional research and its more recent association with a separately identifiable planning function. It examines in depth the issues involved in institutional research and planning and particularly emphasizes the role of values, politics, and social pressures in regard to the planning function. Planning by single institutions is likely to be more directed to attaining administrative and faculty aspirations than to meeting educational and social needs. As a result, there is considerable doubt that the institutional research and the planning function can be successfully conjoined. To prevent one dominating the other, the best resolution is that of interacting but independent units whose analyses and recommendations are brought into accord with reality (both needs and resources) by the administrations and boards in which responsibility for institutional operations is vested. The paper also points up some of the problems generated for institutional researchers by the poor quality and unjustified claims and recommendations of much of what purports to be scholarly writing or research on higher education.

Notes: Abstract This study assesses the effects of college social prestige and college selectivity on men's occupational status and income. The analyses are based on a national sample of men from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. College selectivity, but not college social prestige, has a significant impact on middle-aged men's income in a single year. Neither college social prestige nor selectivity, however, affect further growth in middle-aged men's income. Nor do they affect men's occupational status.

Notes: Abstract This study sets forth an eight-variable causal model describing the spread of instructional innovations among individual faculty members. The model is tested by examining the diffusion of a particular innovation—self-instructional materials—among the faculty of sixteen medical schools, with data provided by faculty survey. The causal model as initially posited is found not to fit the data well; modifications of the model are found to conform more closely. The primary measure accounting for observed variance in faculty innovation behavior is frequency of communication with colleagues about the instructional process.

Notes: Abstract A representative sample of 379 Open University (OU) students completed a set of 8 scales measuring work-related symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsessionality, somaticism, disorganization, low motivation, work satisfaction, and “sylbism.” Similar data were available for 146 University College London (UCL) campus undergraduates. Comparison between and with university groups are made. Averaged over sex and fields of study, patterns in the two sets of data show a fairly close match: study difficulties separate into psychoneurotic and motivational components, sylbism correlates with psychoneurotic symptoms, and disorganization with low motivation. An exception is the strength of relation between work satisfaction and sylbism. Differences in performance assessment relate modestly to differences in symptoms, with somaticism confirmed as a sharp predictor of achievers and failures. Anxiety, sylbism, and work satisfaction are significantly higher in the distance learners as a whole.

Notes: Abstract Five groups of undergraduate students, dropouts (academic dismissals), low (GPA) stopouts, high (GPA) stopouts, low (GPA) persisters, and high (GPA) persisters were compared in terms of their responses to a checklist of financial sources of support. Clear sex differences were observed in the reliance on financial sources, either singly or in terms of total sources utilized. Differences related to year in school were also observed. The most significant finding related to attrition was that persisters relied on more sources of support than did withdrawers. This outcome was interpreted in terms of differences between persisters and withdrawers in motivational and personality characteristics that promote the seeking and securing of sources of support.

Notes: Abstract Because publicized minimum criteria for graduate school admission are rarely sufficient to gain entrance to the school of one's choice, a study was undertaken to estimate the actual or “effective” admission standards to graduate school. Booklets composed of 27 hypothetical graduate school applicants conforming to a 3 (GPA) × 3 (GRE) × 3 (trait adjectives) factorial design were evaluated by graduate program chairpersons from the marginal, low, middle, and high categories of the Roose and Andersen (1970), Cox and Catt (1977), and Endler et al. (1978) ranking systems of schools in psychology. Results showed that a linear model of judgment would account for the ratings of potential for success in graduate school and the decision to accept or reject the hypothetical applicants. GRE scores accounted for about twice as much variance (30%) as GPA (16%), which accounted for about twice as much variance (7%) as trait adjectives. The Roose and Andersen listing was shown to be the most acceptable ranking system when estimating “effective” graduate admission standards.

Notes: Abstract A five year longitudinal student flow analysis was conducted on 427 students who first enrolled in a two-year college's noncredit continuing education classes. Over half (54%) of this group reenrolled at the college at least once during the five-year period, and 49% of these persisters enrolled in a college credit course. The majority of reenrollments occurred one or two semesters after the initial college attendance. Other analyses included comparison of nonpersisters to persisters on type of initial course selection and examination of credit versus noncredit persisters. Implications of the study and future research directions are also discussed.

Notes: Abstract This is an empirical study of early postenrollment wage determinants of white young men in the 1966 to 1971 period. Data are from the National Longitudinal Survey for young men. The focus is on student labor force status as a determinant of postenrollment wage rates. As such, the results are related to the combined employment and college enrollment goal expressed repeatedly in federal work-study programs from the 1930s to date. Results suggest that work while enrolled may not only support the student, but mitigate transition problems to full-time work after enrollment. The major result, found with OLS multiple regression techniques, is that student job holding significantly and positively increased postenrollment wage rates relative to youth who neither worked nor looked for work as students. This indirect effect implies that the social cost of the college work-study program may be less than the federal outlays if the extra work experience enables a youth to obtain a more productive and higher paying job after enrollment.

Notes: Abstract This study compares the professional activities of retired professors from liberal arts colleges, a comprehensive university, and a major research university. Results show that a large majority of faculty continue to perform professional roles and that strength of ties to colleagues and professional organizations outside the institution are correlated with professional activity at all types of institutions. Major differences among institutions are: (1) liberal arts college and research university faculty show consistency between pre- and postretirement professional activity levels, whereas comprehensive university faculty do not; (2) university faculty show higher levels of participation in a number of professional activities than do liberal arts college faculty; (3) rated importance of “research or other creative work” is related to professional activity for comprehensive university faculty and rated importance of “consulting” and “university service” are related to professional activity for research university faculty.

Notes: Abstract To test how sex biases operate in the screening of candidates for administrative positions, an experimental study was conducted to evaluate the contribution of gender and career pattern effects on candidates' ratings. Faculty from seven universities were asked in a task that was judged to be realistic to evaluate vitae of six candidates for a deanship of a college of arts and sciences. Experimental design permitted alteration of the vitae to change gender and career patterns. No significant difference was found in the ratings assigned to male and female candidates. Career break did have a significant effect; candidates with career breaks received higher ratings on the average than those without career breaks. There was no significant interaction of gender and career break. Three different ratings systems were used, but none interacted with either gender or career break. However, closer examination of screeners' ratings did suggest that career experience was evaluated in different ways for male and female candidates.

Notes: Abstract A number of recent studies have used generalizability theory to examine the dependability of student ratings of instruction. This study extends this line of research by examining the consistency of ratings between different sections of a course taught in a given semester by the same instructor, and by comparing the performance of global- and attribute-type instructor rating items. Five samples of physics instructors, varying in size from 5 to 12 instructors, were rated by their students on a form containing two global and eight attribute items. Each instructor taught two sections of a course. The study found that the section effect was small (ratings of instructors were consistent across different sections of the same course), and that the generalizability of ratings was substantially influenced by item specificity. For summary purposes, one global item seemed sufficient.

Notes: Abstract Mentor professors were surveyed with respect to their most successful “protégés” regarding scholarly production, the mentorship role, and their careers. Career stage, network stratification, and weak-tie theories provided the conceptual frameworks. The 62 mentors were highly productive professors who were predominantly both graduates and employees of research universities. Mentors overwhelmingly nominated as their most successful protégés those whose careers were essentially identical to their own—i.e., their “clones.” Women mentors named as most successfully protégés more than twice as many females and males than men did. More productive mentors linked with a greater number of protégés but were less knowledgable about their personal lives, as Granovetter's theory would predict. The results also demonstrate the openness of the network within stratified levels.