ALBERT

Notizen: One of the most important problems in the interpretation of gravity data is the separation of the data giving information characterizing the different geological structures. Various methods were elaborated to perform this separation (smoothing, removing of residuals, second derivatives, analytic continuation and others). For each operation various sets of coefficients were proposed. All these sets of coefficients may be considered as to provide linear filtering processes applied to the original map. The frequency response of the filter unambigously determines the method and gives good and clear information concerning their advantages (or disadvantages). The knowledge of frequency responses enables the choice of the most suitable method for the interpretation of a given map. Graphs are presented by the author showing:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉a.the effect of radius used in the calculation of residualsb.effect of the number of points used in averaging the data on a circlec.the effect of the different systems of coefficients used in the various second derivative formulas.

Notizen: Results from current trials indicate that soil type, time of application and weather influence responses to applications of gulle. Over 3 sites gulle N had an efficiency of about 60% of that of fertilizer N. Best results were obtained from heavy clay soils or those containing much organic matter. Winter applications of dilute gulle to light soils under wet conditions may result in large losses of N through leaching. Generally, winter gulle applications may lead to severe losses of plants in short-term ryegrasses with associated heavy uptakes of K in spring. It is concluded that much of the gulle produced should be broadcast in winter on to swards destined for mowing in early summer. Optimum utilization of gulle calls for supplementation with fertilizer N, when the full potential of the K derived from the sludge can be exploited.

Notizen: Study of the growth of an undefoliated stand of Italian ryegrass showed that the yields of leaf blade, leaf sheath, and dead matter remained fairly constant for 10 weeks in winter, although individual tillers produced a new leaf every 16–19 days. From these data it is estimated that approximately 8 lb. of dry matter/acre/day was lost through the death and subsequent decomposition of plant tissue.Investigation of the recovery growth of a closely defoliated perennial ryegrass sward in summer showed that the yields of leaf blade and leaf sheath increased rapidly with time until there was sufficient foliage to intercept virtually all of the noon light and slowly thereafter; whereas the yield of senescent and dead material increased slowly at first and rapidly later. It is suggested that the rate at which dry matter accumulated beyond the stage of complete light interception depended to a large extent upon the rate of tissue decay.Determinations of the composition of the stubble of a perennial ryegrass sward which was leniently defoliated at weekly intervals in late summer showed that the proportion of leaf blade in the material necessary to intercept 90–95% of the noon light decreased with time, whilst the proportion of dead matter increased. It is pointed out that the rate of dry-matter accumulation was probably affected throughout by factors which determined the rate of decomposition of dead material. The conclusion drawn is that pasture production is likely to be good only when grazing or cutting management ensures that dry-matter losses by decay are kept to a minimum, whilst gains by photosynthesis continue at a high level. The results of some cutting trials are discussed in these terms.

Notizen: Thermocouples were used to measure temperatures at shallow depths (top 39 mm) in soils during late winter burning of hayed-off native pasture. Different intensities of burning were investigated. The maximum temperature recorded for any treatment was 75–5°C, at 1 mm below the soil surface, and marked temperature rises were recorded only in the upper 10 mm of the soil. The results suggest that the temperature rise induced by burning would have little direct effect on soil organic matter, the microbial populations, or buried seeds. The possible significance of these results in practice is discussed.

Notizen: Three experiments were carried out to examine the influence of grass seed-rate upon the amount of clover growing with different varieties of perennial ryegrass. The bred varieties S23 and S24 were compared with Irish ryegrass. A larger quantity of clover grew with Irish ryegrass than with bred varieties at any given seed-rate. If the varieties were to be compared in terms of herbage of similar clover content, then Irish ryegrass sown at 20 lb/ac had to be compared with S23 or S24 sown at about a quarter of that rate. Reducing the seed-rate of the bred varieties from 20 to 5 lb/ac had only a small effect upon yield of ryegrass, and this was offset by an increase in yield of clover. Since weed grasses also took advantage of low grass seed-rate, it is concluded that other factors in the management of variety trials must be so controlled as to produce a satisfactory clover content without too drastic a reduction in the seed-rate of any variety. The relationship between grass seed-rate and yield of clover varied markedly with the availability of moisture.

Notizen: The rate of growth of Italian ryegrass in the spring was measured by recording dry-matter yield at weekly intervals over periods of 6 weeks. There were 3 levels of applied N: 25, 75 and 125 lb/ac. Yield increased fairly slowly in the first 2 weeks and level of applied N had little effect. In the final 4 weeks the grass grew at a faster and fairly constant rate, which was very much affected by the level of N. Grass receiving 25 lb N produced 2900 lb of dry matter/ac in 6 weeks, 75 lb N 4400 Ib, and 125 Ib N 4700 lb. By the end of the first week, % N and % nitrate-N were higher at the 75 lb than at the 25 lb N level and by the end of the second week they were higher at the 125 lb than at the 75 lb N level. The effect of weather factors and the question of predictability of yield are discussed.

Notizen: Tall fescue S170 and Italian ryegrass S22, slow- and rapid-establishing grasses, respectively, were sown either with white clover or with a mixture of red and white clovers, with or without a companion- or cover-crop, and with or without nitrogen. Swards established without a cover-crop were grazed frequently or cut infrequently; swards undersown with the oat crop were grazed once in the autumn. In the year of sowing tall fescue/clover mixtures produced yields similar to those of Italian ryegrass/clover swards. Tall fescue proved sensitive to competition, even from red clover, during establishment and sowing under a cover-crop is therefore not recommended. The yield of red- and white-clover was increased when sown under a cover-crop and when cut infrequently, compared with frequent grazing by sheep. The growth of white clover was greatly reduced by adding red clover to the mixture, particularly under a cover-crop and when defoliation was infrequent, but red clover increased total yield. The effect of N applied to the seed-bed varied with the method of establishment. Cereal yield was reduced under dry conditions by undersowing with a mixture containing red clover.

Notizen: On 6 dates during a period of 14 days, S48 timothy seed was combine harvested directly and then dried in layers 6 in. deep at air temperatures of 77, 95, 104 and 122° F and airflows of 20 and 35 ft/min. The effect of these drying conditions upon subsequent laboratory germination was measured. An experimental drier of 8 units developed for this work is described. Results showed that the depression of germination by increasing temperatures depended on the stage of ripeness when the initial moisture content was greater than 30% wet basis.* Below this moisture level, no significant depression was found at temperatures up to 1223F. Seed of acceptable commercial standard was obtained when harvested at 41·3% m. c.w. b., but only under the gentlest drying treatment, 77°GF and 20 ft/min.

Notizen: An experiment to determine the effect of applying high levels of N on the seed yield of S37 cocksfoot is described. Increasing the rate of application in the range 174–1044 Ib N/ac/annum did not substantially increase yield, except where 1044 Ib N was applied in monthly lots in 1960–1; in some instances yield was significantly reduced by increased N application, apparently as a result of increased frost susceptibility. It is concluded that an application of about 174 lb N/ac/annum is the maximum desirable if there is a danger of frost.

Notizen: The digestible crude protein percentage (DCP) of 218 different feeds derived from 16 tropical grasses and 8 tropical legumes containing 2·2 to 25·3% crude protein (CP) was Treasured with sheep. DCP was closely related to CP (r =· 0·979) and could be predicted from the equation DCP=O·899 CP-3·25 (SE estimate · 0·84). Predicted values for tropical grasses and legumes were similar to, but more variable than, those calculated from a similar equation derived from temperate pasture species. It was suggested that CP per se is a useful criterion for selecting tropical pasture plants when direct in vivo measurements of DCP cannot be obtained.

Notizen: Book reviewed in this artile:BOOTH, W. E. AgrostologyWHITE, R. O. The grassland and fodder resources of IndiaWOODFORD, E. K.; EVANS, S. A. [Eds] Weed control handbookJONES, E. L. Seasons and prices. The role of the weather in English agricultural history

Notizen: Swards based on a mixture of SI 70 tall fescue and S215 meadow fescue were very early in spring, gave high yields for conservation in mid-season and, rested from mid-August, gave good grazing in November-December. Under this treatment, the tall fescue assumed dominance, and the swards were persistent and remained productive. The digestibility of the tall fescue swards was always higher than that of swards based on cocksfoot with which they were compared. During spring and autumn the former sward was better grazed by stock, but the position was reversed in mid-summer. Cattle grazing tall-fescue-dominant swards made better liveweight gains than those grazing cocksfoot swards during November-December.

Notizen: The effects of N and K fertilizers on the yield and chemical composition of herbage and the serum Mg and Ca levels of grazing ruminants were investigated, using 64 lactaling ewes in a 4x4 Latin square arrangement of plots. During the 2-year experiment there was no evidence that application of N alone has a depressing effect on the Mg content of either herbage or blood serum. The sheep grazing plots treated with combined N and K fertilizer had significantly (P〈0·01) lower serum Mg levels during the early spring grazing period of 1961. It is suggested that individual variability within a group of animals may considerably influence the results of investigations of this kind.

Notizen: It was found that in terms of the relationship between capacitance and yield of pasture as measured by a modified electronic probe and by cutting, respectively, that: differences existed between the types of pastures studied; dry-matter estimation was inferior to either the fresh-material or the ‘total–water’ yield estimation; the degree of curvilinearity of the fresh-material regression was not constant; the presence of dew on the plants resulted in a small increase hi capacitance reading. The possible significance of these results is discussed.

Notizen: The distribution of natural and cultivated grasslands in relation to climate and the use of various indices and diagrams in studies of crops and climate are discussed. Attempts to establish simple linear relationships between yield and weather components have been disappointing. Studies involving light, theoretical considerations of productivity, adaptation of herbage plants in relation to climatic origin, etc. have proved more useful. Problems involved in extending the work conducted under controlled conditions to the field, are stressed. Particularly important is a better characterization of the environment prevailing in and immediately above swards of different types. The importance of winter survival in Britain is discussed.

Notizen: The value of varieties of Italian, hybrid and Westerwold ryegrass for early-bite production was compared at 32 centres in different environments. The relative performance of Italian ryegrass varieties was fairly consistent from centre to centre over a period of 3 years. Danish and Leda Daehnfeldt Italians produced the most, and S22 the least, early spring production. Good early-bite and total annual yields were obtained from hybrid ryegrasses. Swards sown in the previous autumn were more winter-hardy than spring-sown swards and appeared to be as early in the following year.

Notizen: Recent publications dealing with the efficiency of utilization of dietary energy by ruminants suggest that metabolizable- and net-energy values may be calculated with reasonable precision from digestible-energy values. Use has been made here of existing data to estimate the metabolizable-energy (M. E.) and net-energy values for maintenance and fattening (N. E.m and N. E.f) of 5 samples of barn-dried hay of known in vivo digestibility, firstly to provide such figures for good quality barn-dried hays and, secondly, to illustrate a method of estimating energy values for hays that might be useful for routine advisory purposes.

Notizen: Survey data collected during a grassland-recording investigation showed a strong positive correlation between nitrogen input and the output of utilized starch equivalent per acre. At the levels of output covered, sward type was not very important in relation to total yield. Herbage species were important for other reasons and the choice of seeds mixtures should be determined by factors such as earliness and lateness of growth and resistance to disease and drought. The survey showed that well-managed ley and permanent pasture are both capable of producing at a high level. A disturbing feature of the results was the low production of most spring resowings, primarily as a result of poor management. Although the records were obtained from an above-average group of farms, the results have general application. Potential responses to fertilizers may be even greater on less intensive farms, especially with regard to phosphate and potash. However, the level of production of a field will always depend finally on the level of management exercised by the farmer himself.

Notizen: The viable-seed content of soils under grass swards was investigated in relation to the potential weed flora which may occur in chemically-renewed swards. The viable-seed populations in the top 6 in. of the soils ranged from 46 million per acre for a 1-year ryegrass ley to 1·7 million in an old permanent pasture. On the limited evidence available, there appears to be no close correlation between the broad-leaved weed species present in the original pasture, the viable seeds in the soil, or the volunteer species in the new sward. Large populations of viable seeds of indigenous grass species occurred in most swards, while there was an almost complete lack of seeds of cultivated grasses. The effect of surface cultivation following the application of paraquat to a grass sward is to stimulate the dormant weed seeds in the upper layers of the soil to germinate. If these layers were left undisturbed a relatively weed-free environment would eventually be achieved.

Notizen: Data on the growth rates of ‘worm-free’ Iambs were collected at different seasons over 4 years. In 1959 and 1960 the Iambs were set-stocked on a perennial ryegrass/white-clover sward, and in 1961 and 1962 lambs were rotationally grazed on a pure S23 perennial rye-grass sward. Although significant differences were obtained between seasons, there was no correlation between lamb growth rate and any one factor of herbage quality or environment.

Notizen: The effect of rate of nitrogen fertilizer and clipping frequency on total production of dry matter (DM), in vitro digestible organic matter (DOM), and crude protein (CP) was investigated in the first harvest year of intermediate wheatgrass. The highest yields of DM and DOM, but not of CP, were obtained at the longest clipping intervals and at the higher rates of fertilizer application. Fertilizer failed to give satisfactory increases in yield even at very high rates of application when a 2-week clipping interval was used. The interaction between clipping frequency and fertilizer rate had a highly significant effect on yields of both DM and DOM. A sharp decline in percentage DOM that occurred with increasing length between clippings was offset to some degree by application of N fertilizer. A similar assessment of treatments was obtained from DOM and DM yield data when the grass was fertilized with N, but not when N was deficient. The CP data gave a different assessment of treatments from that obtained from either DOM or DM data.

Notizen: Grazing management should be firmly based on knowledge derived from studies of both animal- and plant-physiology. It is essential to understand both the nutritional needs of the animal and the effect of harvesting procedures on the growth rate of the plant.Animal performance, however, is not simply related to the mean nutritive value of the sward on offer; selective grazing can result in large differences between the latter and the value of the diet actually consumed. Thus it is possible to obtain similar animal growth rules on very different pastures, where grazing pressure is very low, or to obtain different animal performances on pastures which differ little in mean digestibility, but where the herbage is more, or less, ‘available’. It is therefore necessary to understand the relationship between the amounts of herbage on offer, removed and left behind in grazing, and the nutrient intake of the animal.To use biological criteria, such as the quantity of herbage present, in operating grazing methods it is essential that they are expressed in terms which are relevant theoretically and measurable in practice.The results of experimental comparisons of managements can not necessarily be used to judge the usefulness of physiological concepts, since the assumption that such concepts are embodied in the managements is often unjustified. There is, for example, little evidence that continuous and rotational grazing, under conditions of ‘correct’ stocking, result in different frequencies of defoliation of the individual plant units involved.

Notizen: The botanical changes in a wet (Molinia) and a drier (Nardtts) upland pasture that followed a single defoliation by a forage harvester are briefly described. Without fertilizer the bare and litter-covered areas were soon recolonized by the original dominants; with lime and fertilizer the recolonization was mainly by Agrostis spp., even when Agrostis was a minor element in the original sward. These changes were markedly accelerated by the forage-harvester treatment. The results of surface seeding after the forage-harvester treatment are compared with those obtained after rotary cultivation. Contrasting moisture regimes and competitive thresholds led to considerable differences in sward balance and in establishment of sown species, and seeding was successful only on the wetter site. Too rapid regeneration of undesirable remnants was prevalent, but this and other hazards are related to the uneven deposit of litter left by the forage harvester; thick, slowly-rotting accumulations inhibited the redevelopment of rapidly-growing species and germination on seeded areas.

Notizen: The yields of Chloris gayana, pure and in mixture with Stylosanthes gracilis, were compared under nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur fertilizer treatments applied in factorial combination. The unfertilized grass/legume mixture gave twice the yield of pure grass. When fertilized with P and S, the mixed pasture produced over 3 times as much as the pure grass. The legume component of the mixture depressed the grass component as a result of competition. N increased grass growth but its net effect on total production in the grass/legume mixture was nil. The biggest single fertilizer effect was that of S on the legume.

Notizen: The improvement of hill land is important to the national economy of the United Kingdom. An increase in the amount of enclosed productive land results in a greater stock-carrying capacity of a hill farm. Improvement is not always possible by conventional implements, and herbicides are being used to kill the old sward. The bipyridyl herbicides offer a means of destroying or modifying the indigenous vegetation. The application of low doses of paraquat or diquat to an association containing Molinia caerulea, Nardus sfricta and Festuca avina resulted in a change in equilibrium in favour of the fescues. The application of 2 lb paraquat per acre practically eliminates all grass species in a sward and it is then possible to establish desirable pasture species after lightly cultivating the dead surface litter.

Notizen: The authors present a review of the activities of the “Centre National de Volcanologie” (Belgium) in the field of the application of geophysical and geodesic techniques in the study of active volcanoes.The first region of interest is constituted by the African volcanoes: Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira, North of the Kivu lake; the second by the Etna in Sicily.The methods used were: volcano-seismology, gravimetry, magnetism, underground clinometry and “tiltmetry”.The authors close with considerations on geothermic research, which is envisaged for future programmes.

Notizen: The method of induced polarization finds more and more application in the prospection of metallic ore deposits. It is very useful also in the determination of non-metallic minerals and underground water flows.In the case when an electrical current flows accross the interface between metallic and electrolytic phases the causes of the induced polarization are well known and have often been discussed. In the case of non-metallic minerals and rocks the polarization is mainly caused by the membrane potential, since the polyelectrolytic clay material, having the capacity of ion-exchange in micells, acts as a semipermeable membrane.Practical examples of exploration for non-metallic mineral by the induced polarization method are discussed. Some kaolin deposits have been revealed. The depth and the extent of a clay layer, impervious to water, are determined in the bottom of a future storage lake of an hydroelectric power-plant. The underground water flows in the Karst region are traced.

Notizen: The technique of two-dimensional seismic models offers a simple solution to the problem of pulse reflection at the interface of two solids. Particular attention is paid to the existence and character of the amplitude increase in the interference zone between PP and PPP. The following points are discussed:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1)– the considerable deformation of the pulse when such an increase exists.2)– the desagreement existing in the neighborhood of the critical points between the amplitude calculated by plane wave theory and the amplitude observed for cylindrical or spherical waves.3)– the nonexistence of such an increase when velocity or density contrasts are too great.4)– the presence, in the case of very large velocity contrasts, of an increase of the amplitude in the zone of interference, between PP and PSP-waves.5)– the considerable importance of conversion arrivals (PS+SP).6)– the necessity of taking into account the emission of distorsional waves so that the observed arrivals of conversion waves can be explained.

Notizen: When interpreting Bouguer Anomalies, it is important that the location of the point to which the corrected measurement is related, is correctly defined: the station itself or its projection on the datum plane. The consequences of this choice are not negligeable when the topography is rough.

Notizen: A conservation experiment is described in which the losses in ensiling heavily-wilted herbage, of approximately 50% dry matter, in lined trench silos, with and without a polyethylene film seal, are compared. The composition and digestibility of the silages produced in the sealed silos were comparable with those of the original herbage. The content of organic acids in the sealed silos was low, suggesting that fermentation was suppressed by the partially gas-tight seal. In the unsealed silos there was considerable spoilage, 70% of the material being inedible. In the 2 sealed silos losses of dry matter were 8·2 and 5·2% and losses of SE 11·5 and 7·8%, respectively. The losses recorded are compared with those usually encountered in lined trench silos.

Notizen: An instrument for estimating pasture yield electronically was constructed. It was a modification of that described by Campbell et al (1). A transistorized crystal oscillator was incorporated to provide a highly stable frequency standard for use in the field. This provided a zero reference point for both the measuring head oscillator and the reading oscillator before and during use. The instrument is fully described and details are given of its field adjustment and operation.

Notizen: When the rate of dry-matter production of a grass crop is determined only by the incoming light energy, it increases exponentially until a closed green surface is reached. Thereafter the production is linear for some time, but soon it decreases and finally drops to zero. This decrease is partly caused by an increase in the rate of respiration relative to photosynthesis. However, there are still unknown factors affecting the rate of production, especially in the second half of the season. When a sward receives an optimal supply of water and nutrients the organic plant constituents at a given growth stage remain fairly constant throughout the season. It would be advantageous, however, to harvest grass with a higher sugar and a lower protein content. This seems to give better rumen digestion and, besides, would improve the regrowth of the sward. Since plants with a high rate of dry-matter production usually have a fairly low reserve level, it is unlikely that selection could provide a strain with both a high reserve level and a high rate of production.

Notizen: Summary: In section 2 we formulate a linear programming problem, dual to the general convex programming problem, in such a fashion that this dual has the straightforward economic interpretation of a pricing problem. It turns out that the presently known duality results follow from the theorem. Known duality results in nonlinear and quadratic programming are derived in section 2. Section 3 derives and extends the duality results of homogeneous-constraint programming (including linear and quadratic programming).

Notizen: Summary: Under conditions often occurring in practice the variance of the estimated constant in a regression equation with correlated disturbances cannot be estimated without bias or consistently, although it is identifiable.

Notizen: The antioxidant activities of several flavone glycosides and cinnamic acids were determined in lipid-aqueous systems. Flavone glycosides, except rutin, possessed approximately the same antioxidant activity as their respective aglycone. Rutin was not as effective as its corresponding aglycone, quercetin. Quercetin derivatives were the only glycosides isolated from green onions, green-pepper pods, green-pepper seeds, and potato peels. Green-onion tops also possessed a glycoside of myricetin. Caffeic acid was an effective antioxidant hut chlorogenic acid had no antioxidant activity.

Notizen: The effect of sulfite on the reaction of mushroom polyphenol oxidase with o-diphenols was studied in model systems at pH 6.5. Spectrophotometric, manometric, chromographic, electrophoretic, and radiosotopic evidence is presented that sulfite prevented browning in the systems by combining with the enzymatically produced o-quinones and stopping their condensation to melanins. During preincubation of polyphenol oxidase with sulfite a gradual loss of the property of the enzyme to cause browning was observed.

Notizen: Fresh, diced onions were dehydrated under different regimes (high-, intermediate-, and low-temperature, and lyophilization). Rehydration volumes were determined for the dice. Water vapor sorption properties and X-ray estimates of crystallinity were obtained for the cellulose extracted from the dice and for control samples of cellulose that had been extracted from fresh onions and then dehydrated. Rehydration occurs most rapidly in lyophilized tissues, in which at 24°C and at 91°C approximately the original fresh volume is attained in 15–30 min. The final rehydrated volume in other treatments is reached more slowly and is considerably smaller than the fresh volume. The highest crystallinity of cellulose is found in the lyophilized materials, probably as a freezing effect. Freezing also produces large, internal voids. Cellulose crystallinity is essentially unaffected by temperature differences during the dehydration process.

Notizen: The main simple polyphenols of immature dates (Phoenix dactylifera var. Deglet Noor) are flavans, flavonol glycosides, caffeoylshikimic acids, and a cinnamic acid derivative. Tannins are both water-soluble and -insoluble condensed tannins of the leucoanthocyanidin type. Of the simple polyphenols, the flavans and caffeoylshikimic acids undergo the greatest decrease during maturation and storage. Tests with date phenolase show these compounds to be the most susceptible to enzymic browning. Several new phenols form during storage. Treatment of the tannins with hot strong acid produces cyanidin chloride, suggesting the presence of leuco-cyanidin units in the tannins.

Notizen: Twelve sets of canned tomatoes, each set composed of three fruits harvested from the same plant and subjected to different ripening conditions, were analyzed for pectic constituents. Firmness was highly significantly correlated with total pectic constituents and with the ratio of the carhonyl and pectic content. Correlation between firmness and mineral content was also significant. These results indicate that a high content, large molecular size, and a low methoxyl content of the pectic constituents result in firmer tomatoes. From the results it appears that firmness is related to retention of the original pectic content and controlled demethylation. This induced demethylation increases the extent of ionic bonding and results in firm fruits.

Notizen: Meat and water slurries of both leg and breast muscle from heavy hens were cooked in a nitrogen atmosphere. Some of the chemical components in the volatile fraction were identified by solubility classification, derivative preparation, and/or functional group analysis in combination with gas chromatography and/or qualitative chemical analyses and odor evaluation. Twenty-nine compounds in the volatiles from leg muscle and 25 compounds from breast muscle were identified by the functional-group trapping technique followed by gas chromatography of the effluent fractions. Qualitative chemical tests revealed 19 major classes of compounds and a few specific compounds.Removal of sulfur compounds resulted in an almost complete loss of “meaty odor” in both dark and light meat. Removal of the carbonyls from the volatile fraction resulted in a loss of “chickeny-flavor” and intensification of the “meaty or beef-like odor.”

Notizen: Free amino acid analyses were conducted on 24 muscle tissue samples of chicken, both young and old, fresh and aged, in an attempt to show some properties or constituents of the meat which might he related to quality factors, such as tenderness. In general, ammonia nitrogen remained fairly constant throughout the study. Storage resulted in increases in free amino acids, with proline being a major exception. Light meat showed less free amino acids than dark meat, with major exceptions being lysine and histidine. In most cases, broilers had more free amino acids than hens. Taurine concentration was much higher in the dark meat of both broilers and hens. No relation was found between tenderness and the general pattern of free amino acid concentration or between tenderness and the concentration of any single free amino acid.

Notizen: A study of the distribution of the free amino acids in different commercial varieties of cocoa beans revealed differences which might account, at least in part, for the acknowledged variations in aroma and flavor of the products obtained from these raw materials.

Notizen: The products formed on reaction of neoxanthin with hydrochloric acid in methanol and in acetone indicate that neoxanthin is 3,3′,5′-trihydroxy-5′6′-dihydro-5,6-epoxy-beta-carotene. The tertiary 5′-hydroxyl group reacts in a similar manner to the allylic 3′-hydroxyl group in lutein.

Notizen: Ontario, Katahdin, and Pontiac potatoes grown with and without boron foliar spray were examined for discoloration and lipid content. The lipid was fractionated into free fatty acids, neutral fat, and phospholipids. The free fatty acids from each of the three fractions were esterified and determined quantitatively by gas chromatography. Discoloration was measured with a Hunter color-difference meter.The total lipid of all three varieties was higher in potatoes treated with boron than in the control potatoes. Cortex tissue was significantly higher in lipid content that center tissue. Pontiac potatoes, the variety most resistant to discoloration, had the highest lipid content. The phospholipid fraction of all three varieties was higher in the potatoes treated with boron, and the neutral-fat fraction was higher in Pontiac potatoes treated with boron than in untreated potatoes.Treatment of potatoes with boron tended to increase the amount of unsaturated and decrease the amount of saturated fatty acids. The free fatty acid fractions of potatoes receiving boron treatment were lower in palmitic and higher in linoleic acid than the control, the neutral fat fraction was higher in linolenic acid, and the phospholipid fraction was lower in palmitic acid. Potatoes receiving boron discolored less than control potatoes.

Notizen: The degree of ionization of some sodium polyphosphates used in the food industry was determined with sodium ion electrodes. The effect of the presence of the calcium ion on the ionization of these phosphates was also studied. Sodium orthophosphate completely dissociated in solution, with the degree of dissociation of the polyphosphates inversely proportional to the number of P atoms in the chain or the ring. The addition of calcium enhanced the dissociation of the polyphosphate and lowered the pH in each case.

Notizen: Volatile components of beef irradiated at 5 megarad by concurrent radiation-distillation, by radiation just prior to distillation, and by radiation and storage at ambient temperature for 6 months before distillation, were isolated and characterized. The total yield of odor isolate from stored beef was approximately 4.4 mg per lb (about 10 ppm), or about one-third of the yield obtained from freshly irradiated beef or from unirradiated beef. The n-alkanals and methional, major volatile components of freshly irradiated beef, are minor components of stored irradiated beef. n-Alkanes are present in relatively greater amount in odor concentrates of stored beef. n-Alkanes and l-alkenes are volatile components of both stored and freshly irradiated beef, hut are present in much smaller quantity in the stored product.

Notizen: The effects and interrelationships of time, temperature, and solute concentration on the vapor space equilibration of a dilute ester system is described. The results, which are of interest to those engaged in gas chromatographic headspace analysis or in sniff-test methodology, show that dilute solutions behave in a predictable manner, even though the data do not fit the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

Notizen: A method was developed for the determination of water activities of flour at high moisture contents. In this method a flour sample was allowed to equilibrate with water contained in a porous membrane while under a certain constant mechanical pressure. The cell was fitted with a porous membrane which allowed the transfer. of moisture from and to the sample. After equilibrium was achieved the sample was analyzed for moisture content. A thermodynamic relationship enabled calculation of the water activity corresponding to the pressure used in the cell. Results obtained with this method were in agreement with those obtained with the constant-relative-humidity desiccator technique in the over-lapping range of water activities. The two methods were also in agreement that the water activity of flour was not affected by the particle size distribution.

Notizen: Methods were developed for the preparation in reproducible yield (2–5 ppm) of odor concentrate from fresh ripe tomatoes. Sufficient concentrate was obtained to allow its separation by gas chromatography and collection of its components for direct investigation. Examination of the fractions resulted in rigorous identification of previously unknown tomato constituents.

Notizen: The fatty acid composition of free and bound lipids in freeze-dried pork, lamb, and beef was determined by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). Both raw and cooked samples were studied to establish whether cooking affected the fatty acid content of either fraction. Sixteen acids were identified in pork, lamb, and beef. In the bound lipids fraction, traces of saturated C13, C15, and C17 were evident. Three peaks remained unidentified. These unknown peaks are probably unsaturated acids, although the possibility that they may be oxidation products cannot be ruled out entirely. The bound lipids fraction of the meat samples studied was found to have a greater quantity of polyunsaturated fatty acids than the free lipids fraction. The linoleic, behenic, and arachidonic acid content of the bound lipids exceeded that of the free lipids fraction. Cooking prior to freeze-drying appeared to have no significant influence on the fatty acid composition of either free or bound lipids. Lamb and beef are similar to each other in fatty acid composition, and quite different from pork. The myristic and myristoleic acid content is higher in lamb and beef than in pork, but the linoleic and arachidonic acid content of pork exceeds that of lamb and beef.

Notizen: As part of a study of the flavor constituents of orange oil, 13 terpenes and 11 sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were isolated and identified. The terpene hydrocarbons were identified as α-thujene, α-pinene, camphene, 2,4-p-mentbadiene, sabinene, myrcene, Δ-3-carene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, limonene, Δ-3-terpinene, p-cymene, and terpinolene. The sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were identified as α-copaene, α-ylangene, β-copaene, β-elemene, caryophyllene, β-ylangene, farnesene, α- and β-humulene, valencene, and Δ-cadinene.

Notizen: Three pectin methyl esterase fractions were obtained from banana pulp by successive extraction with water (Fraction I), a solution of 0.15M NaCl (Fraction II), and a solution of 0.15M NaCl after adjusting the pH of the mixture to 7.5 (Fraction III). The changes in the activities of these fractions during post-harvest ripening were investigated. The activities of all three fractions increased as the banana skin began to change from green to yellow. Thereafter Fractions I and II remained relatively constant while Fraction III continued to increase in activity throughout the period of ripening studied.

Notizen: Slices of potato tubers were subjected to cyclic elongation, stress relaxation, and breaking in an Instron materials-testing instrument. Cubes of such tissues and of ripe, fruits of pears and apples were subjected to cyclic compression and stress relaxation. The time required for 20% relaxation of the stress was progressively longer with each of 3 cycles. Cycling increased the apparent values of Young's modulus, E, for slices treated in acetone, treated in acetone and rehydrated, and frozen and then thawed, but decreased values for slices soaked overnight in H2O at 6°C. With potato slices and cubes, treatments which wilted them resulted in shorter times for a 20% relaxation of stress. Cubes of pear and apple soaked 3 hr in H2O tended to disintegrate and also showed much shorter times for relaxation of stress than cubes treated in 0.5M sucrose. The general features of all curves were qualitatively similar, except that compressing cubes of potato tubers beyond a stress of about 0.9 Kg/cm2 resulted in a sharp, reversible increase in apparent values of E.

Notizen: Eggplant polyphenolase oxidized chlorogenic acid much faster than it did any other substrate. In contrast, the substrate oxidized most rapidly by the avocado preparation was nordi-hydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), followed by catechin and catechin. Resorcinol was a moderately effective competitive inhibitor (Kt= 0.02M), whereas hydroquinone (Kt= 0.005M) was a slightly less potent noncompetitive inhibitor. All the chlorides tested depressed eggplant polyphenolase activity to a similar but limited extent. The copper-chelating agents 1-phenyl-2-thiourea and sodium diethyldithio-carbamate were powerful inhibitors; the former (Kt= 0.01mM) was shown to act non-competitively.

Notizen: To elucidate the changes of “myosin B” during storage of rabbit muscle, investigation was made of the dissociation of “myosin B” into myosin A and actin, their content of “myosin B,” and the interaction of “myosin B” with ATP. The approximate contents of myosin A and actin in “myosin B” were variable, showing a maximum content of actin in “myosin B” extracted from the muscle at 2 days after slaughter. This can also be inferred from changes of viscosity and the salting-out curve of “myosin B,” as recently shown. Moreover, the interaction between actin and myosin A in “myosin B” became less strong with the progress of aging.

Notizen: An experiment was conducted to establish the fiber arrangement and micro-structure at three sites in the longissimus dorsi of horizontally placed and vertically suspended bovine carcass sides. Fiber angles, from transverse processes, increased markedly from anterior to posterior positions. Conversely, the fiber angles, from the spinous processes, decreased from anterior to posterior positions. In comparison with horizontal placement, vertical suspension released some of the tension on the longissimus dorsi and allowed rearrangement of its internal construction. This rearrange. ment was noted by larger angles, from both the transverse and spinous processes, and shorter sarcomeres in the vertically suspended than in the horizontally placed sides. Differences were also observed in muscle shape and marbling coarseness.

Notizen: A study was made of the effects of length of cold storage and of heating on histological appearance of muscles from 4–5-month-old rabbits. The rabbit muscles appeared to contain little if any elastin except in and around blood vessels. The changes in histological appearance with increasing cold storage and with heating resembled in general those found in beef, although there were several exceptions. The rabbit muscle fibers showed less tendency to granulate, but the contraction nodes tended to disappear with longer storage, especially in the heated tissue. Also, at the longer storage times, heating tended to destroy even the granulated structure of collagen, reducing it to an amorphous state. Within the muscle bundles, rabbit muscles appeared to have more fine strands of collagen in the endomysium than did beef. Also, within the bundles, heating appeared to produce some granulation from the muscle fibers themselves, from the fine collagen strands, and from the endomysial reticulum, rather than primarily from the muscle fibers as in beef.

Notizen: The activity of 17 or 18 specific enzymes in the longissimus dorsi muscle of five beef and 18 pork carcasses was followed by histochemical procedures. Beef samples were removed from carcasses within 10 min up to 20 days port-mortem, and pork samples within 16 min up to 24 and/or 48 hr post-mortem. The beef carcasses were submitted to so-called normal cooling procedures. However, one side of each of 13 pork carcasses was placed at –29°C, while the other side was subjected to 37°C for the first 41/2–5 hr post-mortem.In beef muscle, the histochemical activity of lactate dehydrogenase, alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, TPN diaphorase, and DPN diaphorase showed a steady decrease with increasing time post-mortem. Reactions for both alcohol dehydrogenase and glutamate dehydrogenase were very weak or entirely absent at 48 hr post-mortem and all subsequent sampling periods. Positive reactions for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase were observed in the initial samples only. No acid phosphatase, leucine amino peptidase, or 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase activity was detected in any of the samples.In pork muscle, the activity of lactate dehydrogenase, alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and DPN diaphorase was slightly weaker at both 0 and 24 hr post-mortem than similar activity in beef muscle. Alcohol dehydrogenase activity was weaker than that observed for the above enzymes, while the activity of glutamate dehydrogenase was of intermediate intensity. Traces of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase activity were observed in only a portion of the initial samples. Similarly, weak reactions for beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase were observed only at 0 hr post-mortem. None or only weak activity was observed for malic dehydrogenase, and TPN diaphorase activity was unexplainably absent from all samples. Moderate levels of cytochrome oxidase activity were observed at both 0 and 24 hr post-mortem. LTDPG-glycogen transferase was completely inactivated by the 37°C treatment post-mortem, but the treatment had a less marked effect upon phosphorylase and branching enzyme. The presence of acid and alkaline phosphatase activity in muscles of 7 carcasses suggested that a degenerative condition existed in these muscles.

Notizen: The red fiber content of several porcine muscles was estimated by a histochemical method (affinity for Sudan Black B due to high intracellular lipid content) and a biochemical method (high succinic dehydrogenase activity). Even though the muscles varied widely in total lipid content, the histochemical method was comparable to the biochemical method in categorizing porcine muscles as red or white. Red muscles (〉 40% red fibers) contained greater myoglobin concentrations and generally had longer post-rigor sarcomeres than white (〈 30% red fibers) muscles. Interrelationships of percent red fibers, succinic dehydrogenase activity, fat content, glycolytic rate, and post-rigor contraction state were discussed.

Notizen: The odor component of proline and ornithine degraded by periodate, isatin, or ninhydrin was identified as 1-pyrroline by means of gas chromatography on three columns, mass spectra, and infrared analysis. Free γ-amino-butanal also yields the same odor component via formation of an internal Schiff base.

Notizen: Three protein components with peroxidase activity were separated from Ficus glabrata latex by chromatography on diethylaminoethyl cellulose at pH 7.0. Purification was aided by carboxymethyl cellulose adsorption and ammonium sulfate precipitation. These three components were identical to horse-radish peroxidase II with respect to molecular weights, absorption spectra, and activity-pH relationships. They differed markedly from horseradish peroxidase II with respect to isoelectric points [at pH 4.25–4.45 (acetate buffer), vs. pH 7.2]. They were more heat-stable than horse-radish peroxidase II. While one of the F. glabrata peroxidases had Vmax values similar to those of horse-radish peroxidase II on hydrogen peroxide and guaiacol, the other two F. glabrata peroxidases had quite different kinetic parameters. The three F. glabrata peroxidases differed in chromatographic, electrophoretic, heat stability, and kinetic properties (components B and C, vs. A), but all other properties measured were identical or similar for the three peroxidases.

Notizen: A mild method for the isolation of mucoprotein from bovine skeletal muscle is described. Minced skeletal muscle was extracted twice with neutral 0.6M KCl. The washed stromal residue was extracted twice with acetone, air-dried, and pulverized. The stromal residue powder was extracted twice with 10% CaCl2. The pooled CaCl2 extracts were added to 1.5 volumes ice-cold ethanol and refrigerated. The crude mucoprotein precipitate was obtained by centrifugation, and suspended in 5% sodium acetate. After extraction for 24 hr at 4°C, the mucoprotein suspension was filtered through Celite and purified. The final dried product was pulverized to a light tan powder. Dissolved in phosphate buffer, it gave a viscous milky-white solution. Quantitative hexosamine and nitrogen values obtained at each major step of the isolation procedure are given, and their significance is discussed. Less than 10% of the total stromal residue hexosamine is ex-tractable by CaCl2. The CaCl2-extractable fraction was isolated and purified and designated the “soluble mucoprotein fraction.” Hydrolysates of this fraction were analyzed by paper chromatography. The consistent observation of galactosamine and glucuronic acid indicated that chondroitin sulfate was present. Glucosamine was also noted consistently, along with galactose, but their presence was not easily explained.

Notizen: The anthocyanins in Rubired grapes were extracted with 0.2% methanolie HCI, partially purified by adsorption on a Dowex-50 W× 4 cation-exchange column, eluted from the washed resin with acidified methanol, and the individual pigments separated by paper chromatography in two dimensions with n-butanol- acetic -acid-water (BAW 4:1:5 v/v) and acetic acid-water-cone HCl (AWH, 15:82:3) as solvents. The purified pigments were identified by their Rt values, the sugar moiety, partial acid hydrolysis, alkaline degradation products of the aglycoue, fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation, and absorption spectra. The pigments, in decreasing order of photodensitometer readings, were malvidiu 3,5-diglucoside, peonidin 3,5-diglucoside, malvidin 3-monoglucoside, peouidin 3-monoglucoside, delphinidin 3-monoglucoside, petunidin 3-monoglucoside, petunidin 3,5-diglucoside, malvidin 3,5-diglucoside acylated with p-coumaric acid, malvidin 3-monoglucoside acylated with p-coumaric acid, peonidin 3-monoglueoside acylated with p-coumaric, and delphinidin 3,5-diglucoside.

Notizen: Concord grape essence was examined by GLC-mass spectrometry and sixteen volatile components identified. Aside from ethyl acetate and ethanol, the most abundant was 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol. Preliminary information on several other components has been obtained.

Notizen: A number of compounds in the flavor-containing chloroform extract of maple sirup have been isolated and identified. A major constituent not previously isolated by gas chromatography was acetol. Other constituents present in lesser concentrations which have not previously been reported were acetoin, ethyl vanillate, syringoyl methyl ketone, and methyleyclopentenolone.

Notizen: Polyphenolic compounds were extracted with ethyl acetate from aqueous infusions of canned Blenheim apricots (Prunus armenica L.). The compounds were separated by two-dimensional paper chromatography of the extract with n-butanol-acetic acid-water (4:1:5) and 2% acetic acid. The individual compounds were identified by Rf values, fluorescent behavior, absorption spectra, and degradation products. Shown to be present in the extract were three chlorogenic acid isomers, two p-coumaric acid derivatives, rutin, isoquercitrin, quercetin, an unidentified quercetin glucoside, catechin, and epicatechin. The predominant polyphenolic compounds were chlorogenic acids and p-coumaric acid derivatives.

Notizen: Asym-monoethylcitrate was isolated from avocado fruit. Its identity was established by analysis, by its proton magnetic resonance, and by comparison with the synthetic ester, including X-ray diffraction patterns. Approximately 6% of the citric acid of avocado fruit exists as its asym-monoethyl ester. The ester exists in two crystalline forms of different melting points and different X-ray diffraction patterns.

Notizen: Release of dipicolinic acid from spores of some species of Bacillus during heating at 100°C was determined. The total amount and rate of release of dipicolinic acid from these spores varied between species and strains, the most resistant spores releasing the least. Studies were made on Bacillus polymyxa and B. megaterium to determine the influence of buffers and pH on the liberation of dipicolinic acid, carbohydrate, and nitrogen. Release of these materials was usually least at pH 7.0 and greatest under conditions that favored thermal inactivation. Some of the amino acids and carbohydrates released were identified.

Notizen: Oxygenation rates of pork, beef, and lamb were determined by Munsell disk calorimetry and by the Gardner automatic color-difference meter. From the data obtained, recommendations can be made for the time to read color as a prediction of total color change due to oxygenation. Measurements can be renotated by Munsell calorimetry after 30 min for pork, 75 for beef, and 45 for lamb. Readings can be made by reflectance after 45 min for pork, 30 for beef, and 30 for lamb. The effect of oxygenation upon Munsell and reflectance measurements was also studied. The Munsell renotations appeared to increase in redness, or hue, and intensity of chroma, while value remained constant. Readings of the Gardner meter increased greatly in a1 (redness) whereas b1,(yellowness) increased less. The L readings, indicative of value, remained constant. A comparison between the two methods indicated a highly significant negative correlation between a1 of reflectance and index of reddening of Munsell calorimetry.

Notizen: To study the effect of pH and divalent cations such as Mg and Ca on rehydration of freeze-dried meat, a model system of freeze-dried myofibrils was designed. The fibrils were dried at pH 5.4, 6.0, and 7.0, with and without addition of Mg and Ca, in the concentrations found in meat. The freeze-dried fibrils were rehydrated after homogenization in the rehydrating solution; and by diffusion of the solution into the dried fibril mass. When the fibrils were homogenized the cations increased the water-holding capacity of the sedimented fibrils. An increase in the water-holding capacity with higher pH was apparent only after the cations were added. When the fibrils were rehydrated through diffusion, the cations decreased the hydration. Increased hydration capacity with higher pH was found with and without the cations.

Notizen: A new method for rapid determination of moisture-adsorption isotherms is a modification of the method suggested by Wilson and Fuwa in 1922. Air at a certain constant relative humidity is recirculated in a closed system through a tube loosely packed with a sample of solid particles, as a result of which the moisture in the sample equilibrates to the environmental relative humidity. This method is indirect but gives results in relatively short periods. A peristaltic pump, designed in this laboratory, circulated air through 12 independent closed systems. Thus, moisture-adsorption isotherms in a wide range of relative humidities can be obtained in 24–36 hr. Moisture-adsorption isotherms of flour obtained with this method agree very closely with those obtained with the constant-relative-humidity desiccator technique and with results reported by researchers who used a high-vacuum technique in conjunction with a McBain-Bakr sorption balance. The one limitation of this method is that it can be successfully applied only to solid particles whose physical state does not cause excessive resistance to flow of air through them.

Notizen: The degradation of cyanidin 3-gentiobioside by mushroom phenolase in a model system containing catechol is inhibited by SO2. In a citrate phosphate buffer, pH 6.5, with 2.8 × 10−5M catechol and 3.3 mg commercial enzyme per 100 ml reaction mixture, 8 ppm of SO2 completely checked the anthocyanin degradation. In tart cherry juice, under similar conditions but with no catechol added, 30 ppm SO2 were required for a practically complete inhibition. At lower pH the inhibition is accomplished by smaller SO2 concentrations.

Notizen: The proteolytic activity of the enzymes extracted from Japanese and Israeli prepared koji (or “Bloom of Mold”) or Japanese rice ferment and of commercial samples of taka-diastase, has been found to have a slower activity rate at pH 5.0 than at either neutral or alkaline pH. At pH 5.0, it takes a longer period of time to obtain comparable digestion of the substrate, as compared with that at pH 7.8. This activity at lower pH has been stimulated by the addition of small quantities of miso— which is a fermented mixture of cooked soy. beans and rice with koji—r by the addition of cysteine or reduced glutathione. These findings enabled us to reduce the conventional fermentation time of Japanese miso or Israeli miso-type products, from several months to only a few weeks.

Notizen: In this study, the mode of action of vitamin K5 was investigated with Saccharomyces cerevisiae the test organism.Cysteine hydrochloride antagonized the anti-fungal action of vitamin K, suggesting that the vitamin has an affinity for sulfhydryl groups, which are necessary for the activity of certain enzymes. The sulfhydryl groups of yeast cells were reduced quantitatively when they were exposed to vitamin K5.Furthermore, studies showed that dehydrogenase was inactivated by vitamin K5.

Notizen: Essential amino acids were determined by column chromatography for 5 varieties of fish popular as food in Hawaii. Recoveries for the amino acids studied were good, ranging from 98.7 to 102.2%. The content of essential as well as certain nonessential amino. acids was uniform for all the fish investigated, and the values of valine were higher than cited by other authors. There was no marked difference in the essential amino acid composition of the octopus and the four vertebrates. The proportions of the essential amino acids were compared with the proportions in the FAO “Provisional Pattern” and whole egg protein, and the protein scores were calculated. Favorable comparisons were obtained with the FAO pattern. Leucine and phenylalanine were somewhat limiting for all fish when compared with whole egg protein. The content of nonessential amino acids (histidine, glycine, glutamic acid, alanine, and proline) was comparable with ranges reported for other fish.