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  • Articles  (1,781)
  • Articles: DFG German National Licenses  (1,781)
  • Springer  (1,781)
  • International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
  • 1990-1994  (1,781)
  • Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying  (1,781)
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  • Articles  (1,781)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Operator and integro-differential representations of conditional and unconditional stochastic subsurface flow (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 157-172 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract Operator representations of stochastic subsurface flow equations allow writing their solutions implicitly or explicitly in terms of integro-differential expressions. Most of these representations involve Neumann series that must be truncated or otherwise approximated to become operational. It is often claimed that truncated Neumann series allow solving groundwater flow problems in the presence of arbitrarily large heterogeneities. Such claims have so far not been backed by convincing computational examples, and we present an analysis which suggests that they may not be justified on theoretical grounds. We describe an alternative operator representation due to Neuman and Orr (1993) which avoids the use of Neumann series yet accomplishes a similar purpose. It leads to a compact integro-differential form which provides considerable new insight into the nature of the solution. When written in terms of conditional moments, our new representation contains local and nonlocal effective parameters that depend on scale and information. As such, these parameters are not unique material properties but may change as more is learned about the flow system.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01589896
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Groundwater contaminant transport including adsorption and first order decay (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 185-205 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Contaminant transport ; adsorption ; decay ; random walk ; killing ; Kolmogorov equations ; contamination of a well
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract This study deals with the transport of a contaminant in groundwater. The contaminant is subject to first order decay or linear adsorption. Its displacement can be modeled by a random walk process in which particles are killed at exponentially distributed times. Dirichlet problems are derived for the rate and mean time at which contaminated particles reach a particular part of the boundary of a certain domain. These Dirichlet problems are solved asymptotically for two types of 2D-flow patterns: flow parallel to the boundary of a domain and arbitrary flow towards a well in an aquifer.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01587234
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Nonequilibrium statistical mechanical derivation of a nonlocal Darcy's Law for unsaturated/saturated flow (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 109-116 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Unsaturated ; nonlocal ; memory ; statistical physics
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract As illustrated variously by wetting and drying scanning curves, flow in unsaturated porous media is inherently nonlocal. This nonlocality is also manifest in hysteresis in the classical Darcy conductivity. It is the authors' belief that most current theories of unsaturated/saturated flow are often inadequate, as they do not account for spatial nonlocality and memory. Here we provide a fundamental theory in which nonlocality of the flow constitutive theory is a natural consequence of force balances. The results are derived from general principles in statistical physics and under appropriate limiting conditions, the classical Darcy's Law is recovered for saturated flow. A notable departure in this theory from other nonlocal flow theories is that a classical Darcy type equation on a small scale need not exist.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01589892
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Solution of stochastic groundwater flow by infinite series, and convergence of the one-dimensional expansion (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 139-155 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Porous media ; random media ; random fields ; groundwater flow ; stochastic hydrology ; stochastic partial differential equations ; perturbation methods ; Taylor expansions ; hierarchical systems ; Green's functions ; effective conductivity ; homogenization
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract This paper investigates analytical solutions of stochastic Darcy flow in randomly heterogeneous porous media. We focus on infinite series solutions of the steady-state equations in the case of continuous porous media whose saturated log-conductivity (lnK) is a gaussian random field. The standard deviation of lnK is denoted ‘σ’. The solution method is based on a Taylor series expansion in terms of parameter σ, around the value σ=0, of the hydraulic head (H) and gradient (J). The head solution H is expressed, for any spatial dimension, as an infinite hierarchy of Green's function integrals, and the hydraulic gradient J is given by a linear first-order recursion involving a stochastic integral operator. The convergence of the ‘σ-expansion’ solution is not guaranteed a priori. In one dimension, however, we prove convergence by solving explicitly the hierarchical sequence of equations to all orders. An ‘infinite-order stochastic solution is obtained in the form of a σ-power series that converges for any finite value of σ. It is pointed out that other expansion methods based on K rather than lnK yield divergent series. The infinite-order solution depends on the integration method and the boundary conditions imposed on individual order equations. The most flexible and general method is that based on Laplacian Green's functions and boundary integrals. Imposing zero head conditions for all orders greater than one yields meaningful far-field gradient conditions. The whole approach can serve as a basis for treatment of higher-dimensional problems.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01589894
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A probability-weighted moment test to assess simple scaling (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 173-183 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Probability weighted moment ; scaling in rainfall ; stable distribution
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract We present a statistically robust approach based on probability weighted moments to assess the presence of simple scaling in geophysical processes. The proposed approach is different from current approaches which rely on estimation of high order moments. High order moments of simple scaling processes (distributions) may not have theoretically defined values and consequently, their empirical estimates are highly variable and do not converge with increasing sample size. They are, therefore, not an appropriate tool for inference. On the other hand we show that the probability weighted moments of such processes (distributions) do exist and, hence, their empirical estimates are more robust. These moments, therefore, provide an appropriate tool for inferring the presence of scaling. We illustrate this using simulated Levystable processes and then draw inference on the nature of scaling in fluctuations of a spatial rainfall process.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01587233
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Announcements (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 156-156 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01589895
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Probabilistic assessment of travel times in groundwater modeling (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 19-55 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Indicator kriging ; stochastic simulation ; soft data ; Walker Lake ; sequential simulation ; scaling-up
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract A Monte Carlo approach is described for the quantification of uncertainty on travel time estimates. A real (non synthetic) and exhaustive data set of natural genesis is used for reference. Using an approach based on binary indicators, constraint interval data are easily accommodated in the modeling process. It is shown how the incorporation of imprecise data can reduce drastically the uncertainty in the estimates. It is also shown that unrealistic results are obtained when a deterministic modeling is carried out using a kriging estimate of the transmissivity field. Problems related with using sequential indicator simulation for the generation of fields incorporating constraint interval data are discussed. The final results consists of 95% probability intervals of arrival times at selected control planes reflecting the original uncertainty on the transmissivity maps.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01581389
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Joint conditional simulations and the spectral approach for flow modeling (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 79-108 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Stochastic flow equations ; conditional simulation ; spectral representations ; joint conditioning
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract The use of data to condition single random fields has a well-established history. However, the joint use of data from several cross-correlated random fields is not as well developed. For example, the use of both transmissivity and head data in a steady state 2-d stochastic flow problem is essentially an inverse problem that is very important for both flow and transport predictions. This problem is addressed here by using a combination of numerical simulation and analytical methods and its application illustrated. The type of information conveyed by the different data categories is explored. The results presented are especially interesting in that head and transmissivity each give different information: Head values would appear to constrain the geometry of the paths while transmissivity data yields information about travel times. The linearized model is expanded to an iterative procedure and the “true” conditional distribution at several locations is compared with the iterative solution. The problem mentioned above is one with a special transfer function specified by the flow equation. In the second part of the paper a Fast Fourier Transform method for generation and conditioning of two or more random fields is introduced. This procedure is simple to implement, fast and very flexible.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01581391
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effective hydraulic conductivity of nonstationary aquifers (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 1-17 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Stochastic diffusion equations ; effective hydraulic conductivity ; correlation scale ; heterogeneous aquifers ; spectral representation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract Assuming that the ln hydraulic conductivity in an aquifer is mathematically approximated by a spatial deterministic “surface”, or trend, plus a stationary random noise, we treat the problem of finding what the effective hydraulic conductivity of that aquifer is. This problem is tackled by spectral methods applied to a type of diffusion equation of groundwater flow, together with suitable coordinate transformations. Analytical (exact) solutions in terms of elementary functions are presented for one- and three-dimensional finite and infinite domains. Stability criteria are obtained for the solutions, in terms of a critical parameter, that turns out to involve the product of correlation scale and trend gradient. For the case of finite and symmetrical domains, additional provisions to insure the stability of numerical calculations of effective hydraulic conductivity are provided. Effective hydraulic conductivity is an important property, with potential applications in the calibrations of groundwater and transport numerical models.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01581388
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    MMO: An improved estimator for log-Pearson type-3 distribution (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 219-231 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Parameter estimation ; flood frequency analysis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract A mixed method combining the method of moments and the method of optimization (MMO) was developed for estimating the parameters of the log-Pearson type 3 (LP3) distribution. The MMO estimates the parameters of mean and standard deviation by the method of indirect moments (MIM) and estimates the coefficient of skewness by minimizing both the relative root average square error (RRASE) and the relative average bias (RAB). Both the predictive capability and descriptive capability of six popular estimation methods were evaluated using 90 sets of observed flood data and six selected LP3 populations with 1000 samples for each selected sample size. The performance of the MMO was compared with those of five other selected estimation methods. A weighted ranking index (WRI) procedure was developed to help select the best combination of distribution and method for the Louisiana flood data. The WRI takes both the predictive capability and the descriptive capability into account in the evaluation. The combination of LP3/MMO was found to be the best combination for Louisiana flood data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01587236
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Unsaturated flows in soils with self-similar hydraulic conductivity distribution (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 281-300 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Stochastic analysis ; unsaturated flow
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract In this article, we are concerned with the statistics of steady unsaturated flow in soils with a fractal hydraulic conductivity distribution. It is assumed that the spatial distribution of log hydraulic conductivity can be described as an isotropic stochastic fractal process. The impact of the fractal dimension of this process, the soil pore-size distribution parameter, and the characteristic length scale on the variances of tension head and the effective conductivity is investigated. Results are obtained for one-dimensional and three-dimensional flows. Our results indicate that the tension head variance is scale-dependent for fractal distribution of hydraulic conductivity. Both tension head variance and effective hydraulic conductivity depend strongly on the fractal dimension. The soil pore-size distribution parameter is important in reducing the variability of the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and of the fluxes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01588758
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Entropy principles in the prediction of water quality values at discontinued monitoring stations (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 301-317 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Change ; discontinued stations ; entropy ; networks ; optimization ; prediction ; unbiased ; water quality
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract A new methodology for predicting water quality values at discontinued water quality monitoring stations is proposed. The method is based upon the Principle of Maximum Entropy (POME) and provides unbiased predictions of water quality levels at upstream tributaries and on the mainstem of a river given observed changes in the distribution of the same water quality parameter at a downstream location. Changes in the values of water quality parameters which are known a priori to have occurred upstream, but which are not sufficiently large to account for all the observed change in the same water quality parameter at the downstream location are able to be incorporated in the method through the introduction of a new term in the basic entropy expression. Application of the procedure to water quality monitoring on the Mackenzie River in Queensland, Australia indicates the method has considerable potential for prediction of water quality at discontinued stations. The method also has potential for identifying the location of causes of observed changes in water quality at a downstream station.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01588759
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Sampling variance of a T-year flood estimated by curve-fitting (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 233-258 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Flood ; China ; river ; sampling variance
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract The sampling variance of a T-year flood when estimated using a curve-fitting method results from the errors in hydrologic observations, plotting positions, and model-fitting. This paper develops a method to quantify the contribution of plotting positions to the sampling variance of the T-year flood magnitude. Application of the method to 150 flood-flow data sets of 41 rivers in the People's Republic of China show that the errors due to plotting positions contribute more to the sampling variance than others.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01587237
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Determination of unit hydrographs by multiple storm analysis (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 269-280 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Unit hydrograph ; least square methods ; regression analysis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract This paper discusses the derivation of a unit hydrograph by multiple storm analysis using least squares methods. Variations of least squares method was generalized using the framework of weighted ridge analysis. The paper also shows two theorems to support using multi-storm analysis to derive UH. In addition, an issue was addressed on the scaling effect in the conventional multi-storm analysis which could create potential bias toward large storms in deriving a multi-storm UH. For that, a simple scaling procedure was proposed to reduce such potential bias problem. Numerical investigations were conducted to examine the performance of the scaling procedure by comparing with the conventional multi-storm analysis (without scaling) and the HEC-1 weighing procedures. Based on various performance criteria using a total of 39 storms from three watersheds, the proposed scaling procedure was found to produce a quite desirable UH.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01588757
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Modeling of transport in groundwater for environmental risk assessment (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 57-77 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Stochastic transport ; risk assessment ; concentration CDF ; exceedance probabilities
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents the principles underlying a recently developed numerical technique for modeling transport in heterogeneous porous media. The method is then applied to derive the concentration mean and variance, the concentration CDF, exceedance probabilities and exposure time CDF, which are required by various regulatory agencies for risk and performance assessment calculations. The dependence of the various statistics on elapsed travel time, location in space, the dimension of the detection volume, natural variability and pore-scale dispersion is investigated and discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01581390
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Stochastic space transforms in subsurface hydrology — Part 2: Generalized spectral decompositions and plancherel representations (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 117-138 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Stochastic hydrology ; random fields ; space transformations ; generalized functions
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract In earlier publications, certain applications of space transformation operators in subsurface hydrology were considered. These operators reduce the original multi-dimensional problem to the one-dimensional space, and can be used to study stochastic partial differential equations governing groundwater flow and solute transport processes. In the present work we discuss developments in the theoretical formulation of flow models with space-dependent coefficients in terms of space transformations. The formulation is based on stochastic Radon operator representations of generalized functions. A generalized spectral decomposition of the flow parameters is introduced, which leads to analytically tractable expressions of the space transformed flow equation. A Plancherel representation of the space transformation product of the head potential and the log-conductivity is also obtained. A test problem is first considered in detail and the solutions obtained by means of the proposed approach are compared with the exact solutions obtained by standard partial differential equation methods. Then, solutions of three-dimensional groundwater flow are derived starting from solutions of a one-dimensional model along various directions in space. A step-by-step numerical formulation of the approach to the flow problem is also discussed, which is useful for practical applications. Finally, the space transformation solutions are compared with local solutions obtained by means of series expansions of the log-conductivity gradient.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01589893
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Comparative evaluation of Poisson partial duration models for mixed flood populations (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 207-218 
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    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Partial duration ; Weibull ; nonhomogeneity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract Simple homogeneous formulations of two extreme value partial duration flood models are compared to more sophisticated compound formulations in terms of asymptotic performance of quantile estimates. The compound model formulations were developed to model flood series resulting from mixed climatological processes. It was found that only in the case of marked nonhomogeneity in the data samples did the compound formulation of the models offer significant advantages in terms of variance of quantile estimates. However, the estimates from the homogeneous model were significantly biased in the negative direction. This negative bias of quantile estimates from the simple model was even more pronounced when the more sophisticated Weibull model was used as the base.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01587235
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A stochastic integral equation analog of rainfall-runoff processes for evaluating modeling uncertainty (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 259-268 
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    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Rainfall ; runoff ; modeling ; uncertainty ; stochastics ; stochastic integral equations
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract In this paper a very general rainfall-runoff model structure (described below) is shown to reduce to a unit hydrograph model structure. For the general model, a multi-linear unit hydrograph approach is used to develop subarea runoff, and is coupled to a multi-linear channel flow routing method to develop a link-node rainfall-runoff model network. The spatial and temporal rainfall distribution over the catchment is probabilistically related to a known rainfall data source located in the catchment in order to account for the stochastic nature of rainfall with respect to the rain gauge measured data. The resulting link node model structure is a series of stochastic integral equations, one equation for each subarea. A cumulative stochastic integral equation is developed as a sum of the above series, and includes the complete spatial and temporal variabilities of the rainfall over the catchment. The resulting stochastic integral equation is seen to be an extension of the well-known single area unit hydrograph method, except that the model output of a runoff hydrograph is a distribution of outcomes (or realizations) when applied to problems involving prediction of storm runoff; that is, the model output is a set of probable runoff hydrographs, each outcome being the results of calibration to a known storm event.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01588756
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  • 19
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    Erratum (1994)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 8 (1994), S. 318-318 
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    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01588760
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  • 20
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    How sure are we? (1994)
    Springer
    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 97-97 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040991
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  • 21
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    Electronic Resource
    PCL's analysis of thermal hazards on offshore structures (PATHOS 2) (1994)
    Springer
    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 173-178 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040995
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  • 22
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A computer model to assess fire hazards in tunnels (FASIT) (1994)
    Springer
    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 134-154 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Keywords: Fire hazards ; tunnel ; multi-zone ; smoke movement
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract A computer model that simulates fire growth movement in tunnels is described, and a brief overview of tunnel systems is presented. The methods for predicting mass flows, velocities, smoke concentrations, and heat transfer are presented, along with a list of hazard output parameters. The validation of the model against experiment, and possible directions for future work are also presented.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040993
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  • 23
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    Full-scale fire tests and the development of design criteria for sprinkler protection of mobile shelving units (1994)
    Springer
    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 98-133 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract In early 1991, a new sprinkler system was planned for the existing National Archives/National Library of Canada building in Ottawa. A major challenge in the design and installation of the sprinkler systems was to protect mobile compact shelving units located in the three levels below grade. Storage of documents in these shelving units is typically within 178 mm of the concrete slab ceiling. The minimum clearance permitted by the sprinkler system installation standard is 457 mm from the sprinkler deflector to the top of the storage. To conform with the sprinkler design standard, the top level or levels of storage would have had to be removed and additional storage space acquired. Because of the annual cost of this additional storage, an investigation was begun to determine feasible alternatives that would permit a reduction in clearances between sprinklers and storage, while maintaining an acceptable level of fire safety. This paper describes the series of five full-scale fire tests that were conducted to assess various fire protection options. Based on these tests, design criteria were developed for a sprinkler system using quick response horizontal sidewall sprinklers to protect the mobile shelving units. An overview of this technically based fire protection system for use in protecting shelving units with reduced clearance is also presented.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040992
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  • 24
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    Russia's 1993 fire statistics (1994)
    Springer
    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 458-467 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01039944
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    Comments on heat release rate (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 478-479 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01039946
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    Economics of fire technology (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 468-477 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract In this article, we explain cost-benefit terms and how they apply to fire safety, then summarize the findings of several social fire safety cost-benefit analyses we have done in Sweden. We have found that smoke detectors and portable fire extinguishers are useful in the average single-family home, but sprinklers are not. Sprinkler systems are very helpful in the average manufacturing industry but too expensive. In most chemical plants, however, they are profitable. Sprinklers in the average hotel have higher costs than expected benefits and therefore are not profitable. In health-care facilities, particularly psychiatric wards, they are profitable. Our research also shows that chimney sweeping is carried out too frequently in Sweden and that in new residential areas, water from tanker vehicles is more effective against fires than water from hydrants.
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    Mathematical modeling of human egress from fires in residential buildings (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 338-340 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01038068
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    Performance parameters of fire detection systems (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 326-337 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Keywords: Detection ; fire detection ; probability ; fire research
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This report is a formal, functional analysis of fire detection systems' requirements. The performance parameters of fire detection systems are given as conditional probabilities. These parameters are identified by the objective analysis of the functions of a fire detection system. It is demonstrated that using the false alarm rate to specify the malfunctioning of a thresh-old-detection system is inadequate. The principal function of fire detection systems is identified as the notification of antifire agents of the probability of an unwanted fire. The evaluation of the information provided by a detector system is central to its worth.
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    FORUM for International Cooperation on Fire Research (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 357-365 
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    Notes: Abstract The FORUM for International Cooperation on Fire Research is an informal group of people committed to fire research and the application of fire-research results. Since it was formed in 1988, the FORUM has brought together organizational leaders who direct resources for fire research throughout the world. This article is reprinted from the Nordic Fire Safety Engineering Symposium, Development and Verification of Tools for Performance Codes, August 30–September 1, 1993, in Espoo, Finland.
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    Current research (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 374-375 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01038072
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    Letters to the Editor (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 179-182 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040996
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    Appreciation to referees (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 183-185 
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    Is this your personal copy? (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 193-194 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040001
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    News and meetings (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 186-190 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040998
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    The plate thermometer - a simple instrument for reaching harmonized fire resistance tests (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 195-208 
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    Keywords: Plate thermometer ; fire resistance ; furnace ; thermocouple
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
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    Notes: Abstract The measured fire resistance of a structure tested in different furnaces in accordance with ISO 834 may differ considerably. Similarly, the fire resistance of that same structure may be 25% longer when tested in accordance with ISO than it is when tested in accordance with ASTM. These anomalies complicate the evaluation of test results and must be eliminated to reach harmonized international testing. The heat transfer to a test specimen in a test furnace at high temperature depends primarily on radiant flux rather than convection. Temperature measurement devices used to control furnaces should therefore respond to this type of heating in a way similar to that in which test specimens respond. They should have a large area so that the radiant heat transfer dominates, and they must, at the same time, have a quick thermal response. The plate thermometer is designed to have these properties. It consists of a thin steel plate, 100 mm by 100 mm and 0.7 mm thick, with an insulating fiber board on one side. A thermocouple is welded to the center of the plate. It should be placed in front of the specimen, with the insulated side facing the specimen. The exposed side will then receive the same radiant heat flux as the specimen. This paper describes the plate thermometer and gives a basic theoretical analysis of the heat transfer conditions in furnaces. Measurements with the plate thermometer in several furnaces are also reported.
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    Heat flux from flames to vertical surfaces (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 209-231 
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    Notes: Abstract Dimensional analysis is used to examine heat transfer from flames to vertical surfaces. Configurations include a line fire against a wall, a square burner flame against a wall and in a corner, and window flames impinging on a wall. Dimensionless parameters that affect flame heat flux includeϰ/l f ,y/D,l f /D andkD whereϰ is vertical distance,y is horizontal distance,l f is flame length,D is burner dimension, andk is the flame absorption coefficient. Only the effect of these variables is shown. No general correlation is developed, and more data are needed before these results can be applied with confidence.
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    An airborne smoke sampling package for field measurements of fires (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 155-172 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Keywords: Airborne sampling ; field tests ; fire research ; fires ; measurement ; measuring instruments ; oils ; particulates ; pool fires ; sampling ; smoke ; smoke yield
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract A unique airborne smoke sample package (ASSP) for determining the smoke yield of large fires has been developed. The uncertainty in the average smoke yield at the 95% confidence interval is about ±7% of the average of three repeat measurements. The ASSP, which weighs less than 4 kg, is light enough to be flown suspended below a tethered helium-filled balloon or attached to a small radio-controlled aircraft. Measurements are made by flying the sampling equipment into a fire's smoke plume. Additional smoke plume measurements that can be made with the ASSP include particle size distribution using a cascade impactor, smoke agglomerate structure using transmission electron microscope (TEM) grids, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) analysis using various sorbent tubes. The application of the ASSP in measuring laboratory and large outdoors petroleum pool fires is discussed. Smoke yield values measured in field burns of Louisiana crude oil range from 0.080 to 0.137, and the primary sphere diameter of the agglomerates is as large as 0.15 µm.
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    Prioritisation methodologies in fire safety evaluation (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 232-249 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Many complex problems in commercial settings can be broken down into elements that can be arranged in a hierarchical network with a supreme policy level and subsequent lower levels. Several techniques can be used to quantify the relative importance of the lowest level components subject to the policy. In this paper, we compare three methodologies that have been used in fire safety evaluation (FSE) research and show how some of the problems in these can be overcome. Of particular interest is a modification to Saaty's analytic hierarchy process (AHP), which improves its consistency and robustness to enable more confident application of the method in the “fuzzy environment.” The comparative results for a practical example are provided as an illustration.
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    New methods for reducing the number of false alarms in fire detection systems (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 250-268 
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    Notes: Abstract In this paper, we present new methods of reducing the number of false alarms in smoke detectors and apply these methods to an ionization smoke detector. The detector is able to diagnose its working condition and its environment very precisely. When the detector's environment changes, the detector can automatically determine the cause, whether the change is fire-related or not. This is done by measuring the ionization current in two sensitivity ranges of the measurement chamber and analyzing the results with new algorithms. With the help of algorithms that use fuzzy logic, we can identify basically every potential problem an ionization detector can produce.
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    News and meetings (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 281-287 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040008
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    Comments on Lucht's "Changing the Way We Do Business" (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 278-280 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01040007
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    ...The winners of the 1994 Harry C. Bigglestone Award (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 288-288 
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    Young men and women and fire (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 289-290 
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01038064
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    Advances in positive pressure ventilation: Live fire tests and laboratory simulation (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 269-277 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Since the Fall of 1992, the University of Central Florida (UCF) and the Orange County Fire Rescue Division (OCFRD) have conducted a joint research program to evaluate the effectiveness of positive pressure ventilation (PPV) as a firefighting technique. The objectives of the research program are to quantitatively measure temperature, air quality, and visibility during actual live fire exercises. Using the data from three residential fires, a novel technique was developed to conduct underwater, scale-model PPV simulations. PPV is a technique that uses fans with high volumetric flow rates to create a slight positive gage pressure within a structure to force heat and combustion products from strategically selected exhaust openings. This rapidly reduces temperatures and retards the combustion process by hindering pyrolysis (the conversion of solid fuel to gaseous, combustible fuel). The removal of smoke improves visibility inside the structure, and the survivability potential for victims is increased by removing toxic gases, lowering temperatures, and introducing fresh air. Results suggest that PPV is an effective technique that can be of significant value when properly applied. Results, specific to this program, that exemplify advantages of PPV include: 1. Reduced temperatures for firefighters and victims. At key firefighting positions, for example, PPV contributed to temperature reductions from 860°F to 140°F within 1 minute. 2. Improved air quality for firefighters. PPV was shown to contribute to oxygen addition and carbon monoxide removal. 3. Faster smoke removal and faster restoration of visibility. When PPV was used, firefighters had water on a residential fire 6 minutes after it began and were walking upright in a cool, highvisibility environment. By contrast, 8 minutes after the start of a second, identical fire in which PPV was not used, firefighters were still crawling around in a hot, smoke-filled environment. 4. Reversal of the direction of flames away from the firefighting location. For example, flashover flames that entered a hallway were pushed back into the burning room soon after the start of PPV. 5. No spread of heat damage. Examination of lateral extent and depth of char on pine 2x4s placed in the path of the flames for PPV and non-PPV fires showed no spreading of heat or flame damage caused by PPV. Full-scale PPV research and training can be expensive. During the course of this project, a technique was developed to conduct scale-model PPV simulation. The simulations are conducted underwater with transparent scale models of residences. The thermodynamics of the fire and the fluid mechanics of PPV are simulated by injecting colored water dyes at rates determined from actual fire measurements. Results from the residential fires colorfully illustrate that the spread of heat and the effects of PPV can be accurately and safely simulated in the laboratory.
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    CALFIRE: An interactive model for fire calculations (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 304-325 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Keywords: fire model ; compartment fires ; roof vents ; sprinklers
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract CALFIRE, the acronym for CALculate Fire In Room and Enclosure, is a knowledge-based mathematical formulation of analytical and numerical procedures to predict the consequences of a fire in a room or enclosure. CALFIRE is a well-knit and integrated computer model that offers menu items such as heat release rate (HRR), flame height, vent size, and room temperatures of closed rooms, and rooms with natural and forced ventilation. Warnings and checks have been provided to prevent the misuse of the model. Care has been taken to require minimal keyboard responses in order to make CALFIRE a truly user-friendly, interactive fire model.
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    Temperature analysis using ABAQUS (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 291-303 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper describes the use of the general-purpose finite-element code ABAQUS to temperature analysis of concrete structures exposed to fire. Various structural members are studied, such as rectangular beams, slabs with circular enclosures, and steel-concrete composite slabs. The thermal analysis allows us to establish the temperature distribution in the structural members throughout the fire history. Influences of phase changes and other nonlinearities are taken into account. The results are compared with results from the computer codes TASEF and SUPER-TASEF.
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    A computer-vision-based and fuzzy-logic-aided security and fire-detection system (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 341-356 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The paper starts with the introduction of the basic requirements of classical intrusion detection and alarm systems, and fire detection systems. The drawbacks of such conventional systems are highlighted. Techniques of computer vision are employed to remove the drawbacks and at the same time, increase the reliability and response rate of the systems. For security and low-level fire detection, a fuzzy-logic-based image-comparison algorithm is deemed adequate. In order to confirm the existence of fire or smoke, techniques related to optical flow are employed as high-level fire or smoke detection which generate a velocity field for the image so that the decision can be judged using fuzzy logic. Details of implementation and some experimental results have been included in the paper for illustration.
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    The macro quality assurance system for fire safety engineering (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 366-373 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The comprehensive application of fire safety engineering in modern buildings makes the quality of fire safety equipment a very important aspect of the achievement of fire safety. With its direct relevance to the safety of human life and property, the quality of fire safety engineering in buildings is of concern not only to builders and their clients, but also to various social groups and organizations, ranging from government bodies and business organizations to the individual users of the buildings. Results of the recent research by the authors indicate that the government, insurers, quality certification bodies, building authorities, fire authorities, and trade and professional bodies significantly influence the development of quality assurance in the fire protection industry in the United Kingdom. In this article, the authors explore how these social groups and organizations play their roles in the development of a macro system for quality assurance in the fire protection industry in the U.K.
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    Book review (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 376-378 
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    News and mettings (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 379-381 
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    Conference report (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 382-383 
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    Comments on Greek Fire (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 384-384 
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    Performance-based codes (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 385-386 
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    Solid particulate aerosol fire suppressants (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 387-399 
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    Keywords: Solid particulate aerosols ; pyrotechnically generated aerosols ; fire suppression aerosols ; solid particulate fire suppression aerosols
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract A variety of private and public sector programs are developing a new class of fire suppressants, known generically as solid particulate aerosols. These have superior volumetric efficiency, low initial and life-cycle costs, low toxicity, no known global atmospheric environmental impacts (ODP/GWP), and the potential for a wide variety of applications. Researchers are developing solid compound formulations that, when pyrotechnically initiated, generate powerful fire suppressant aerosols that behave more lightly than do air gases. Preliminary indications show that these aerosols are up to four times more powerful as fire suppressants on a mass basis than Halon 1301. Using a solid, gel, or powder as the starting point for generating an aerosol eliminates the need for piping and pressure cylinders and creates a potential for a wide variety of fire suppression applications in facilities, aircraft cargo containers, portable rapid deployment shelters, fuel storage tanks, battery/UPS rooms, unstaffed telecommunications facilities, and armored vehicle engine compartments. The speed of aerosol formation depends upon system design and configuration. This paper covers mechanisms of aerosol fire suppression and presents the most recent test results.
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    Technological breakthroughs in material flammability evaluations (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 445-457 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract A number of major innovations have recently been achieved using techniques that employ small-scale flammability measurements to predict full-scale end-use applications. The principles used couple ignition characteristics with combustion characteristics to assess fire performance. These techniques have been developed to classify the flammability of aerosol products; characterize liquid fuel spray fires, such as those involving hydraulic fluids; evaluate the fire propagation behavior of electrical cables; classify conveyor belts; and determine the fire propagation behavior of wall/ceiling materials.
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    Rehearsal-plus: Coping with fire emergencies and reducing fire-related fears (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 432-444 
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    Notes: Abstract The relative impact of two experimental conditions—rehearsal-plus and behavioral rehearsal—was assessed to determine their influence on acquiring and maintaining fire evacuation skills, as well as reducing fire-related fears. These experimental conditions were compared with two control groups, attention control and wait-list control. The subjects were 40 second- and third-grade children who were randomly assigned to the four groups. Behavioral rehearsal subjects received fire evacuation skills training and verbally rehearsed these skills. Rehearsal-plus subjects were taught fire evacuation skills and a strategy targeting reduction of fire-related fears. Attention control and wait-list control subjects were not taught evacuations skills or fear reduction. All subjects' evacuation skills and fear of fire-related stimuli were assessed at pre-, post-, and follow-up tests. No pretest differences were observed. At post-test, the rehearsal-plus group reported significantly more fear reduction than the other three groups. Behavioral rehearsal and rehearsal-plus groups displayed significantly more evacuation skills than the control groups. At follow-up, the rehearsal-plus group had retained more of their evacuation skills than the control groups; no differences were found among groups concerning fear reduction at this time. We concluded that rehearsal-plus appears to be useful in acquiring and maintaining fire evacuation skills, as well as reducing fire-related fears.
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    Cigarette characteristics, smoker characteristics, and the relationship to cigarette fires (1994)
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    Fire technology 30 (1994), S. 400-431 
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    ISSN: 1572-8099
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Data were collected from eight cities on a wide range of cigarette and smoker characteristics for a sample of smokers. Of these, 564 smokers had had fires and were identified through fire department response to those fires, while the other 1,611 smokers had not had fires and were identified through a telephone sample survey of the communities. The characteristics analyzed included those that had shown evidence of a relationship to the risk of a cigarette-initiated fire, either in laboratory studies or in previous statistical analyses of fire experience. The smoker characteristics analyzed were household income, education, age, gender, and race. The cigarette characteristics analyzed were filter, tobacco column length, filter length, circumference, density, amount of tobacco, menthol, citrate, porosity, and pack type. In addition, a variable was used to control for the smoker's city. After controlling for all smoker characteristics and city, logistic regression modeling showed four cigarette characteristics to be significant: filter, filter length, porosity, and type of pack. Filter, filter length, and porosity all affect air intake, which, therefore, appears to be an important physical element in the combustion process associated with risk. Analysis limited to filtered cigarettes only showed the same characteristics to be significant, plus tobacco column length. Extension of the analysis to two-way interaction terms did not change any of the conclusions on which cigarette characteristics are important, but it did indicate that the role of pack type was different for men and women. Sensitivity analyses, shown in the appendix, supported the main conclusions that cigarette characteristics are significant after controlling for smoker characteristics and that the four specific cigarette characteristics—filter, filter length, porosity, and pack—are the ones that are significant. These analyses checked the impact of cluster sampling, sensitivity to missing data on smoker characteristics, and sensitivity to nonfire smoker cases with responses by people other than the smokers themselves. All this means that there are already cigarettes commercially available that exhibit a reduced propensity for ignition when one controls for smoker characteristics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01039941
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    Modal shift in Eastern Germany (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 1-22 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: Eastern Germany ; modal-split ; socialism ; transport policy ; urban transportation ; travel behavior
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The economic and political reunification of Germany in 1990 unleashed a transportation revolution in Eastern Germany. After forty years of public transport dominance under socialism, auto ownership and use skyrocketed with the transition to capitalism. In only three years, ridership on public transport fell by almost 50%, and auto registrations per 1,000 population rose by almost 60%. The main reason for the sudden shift in modal split is the large increase in real per-capita incomes of Eastern Germans. Their purchasing power rose dramatically thanks to massive financial aid from Western Germany and access to hard currency for the first time. In addition, the relative cost of auto use has fallen sharply since reunification because public transport fares rose ten-fold, while gasoline prices and auto prices fell. The massive shift from public transport to the auto has caused severe problems of pollution, safety, equity, and congestion in Eastern German cities, partly because of the suddenness of the modal shift. Urban transport policy in Eastern Germany should adopt some of the strategies used for years in Western Germany to tame the automobile, while at the same time allowing high levels of auto ownership. Such strategies include auto-free zones, traffic calming, extensive bicycle pathways, vehicle emission standards, and parking restrictions. Finally, large investments will have to be made in Eastern Germany's dilapidated roadway and public transport infrastructure.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01119632
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    Effects of household structure and selected travel characteristics on trip chaining (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 23-45 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: congestion ; life cycle ; travel demand management ; trip chaining
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper analyzes trip chaining, focusing on how households organize non-work travel. A trip chaining typology is developed using household survey data from Portland, Oregon. Households are organized according to demographic structure, allowing analysis of trip chaining differences among household types. A logit model of the propensity to link non-work trips to the work commute is estimated. A more general model of household allocation of non-work travel among three alternative chain types — work commutes, multi-stop non-work journeys, and unlinked trips — is also developed and estimated. Empirical results indicate that the likelihood of linking work and non-work travel, and the more general organization of non-work travel, varies with respect to household structure and other factors which previous studies have found to be important. The effects of two congestion indicators on trip chaining were mixed: workers who commuted in peak periods were found to have lower propensity to form work/non-work chains, while a more general congestion indicator had no effect on the allocation of non-work trips among alternative chains.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01119633
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    A structural and empirical model of subsistence activity behavior and income (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 71-89 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: activity-based analysis ; grouped data ; subsistence activity behavior ; sample selection
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper develops a structural and empirical model of subsistence activity behavior and income. Subsistence activity decisions (work participation and hours of work decisions) and income have an important bearing on activity and travel behavior of individuals. The proposed structural model represents an effort to analyze subsistence activity behavior and income earnings to support a better understanding, and reliable forecasting, of individual travel behavior. The empirical model formulates and estimates an integrated model of employment, hours of work and income which takes account of interdependencies among these choices and their structural relationships with other relevant variables. Social factors that inhibit an individual's employment and work hours decision and affect an individual's income are incorporated in the model. A sample of households from the Dutch National Mobility Panel is used in the empirical analysis.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01119635
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    Editorial (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 105-105 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098787
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    Psychological benefits from vanpooling and group composition (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 47-69 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: marketing ; program management ; psychology ; vanpooling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Prospective carpool satisfaction varies with respect to carpool size, acquaintanceship and gender composition, at least for carpool arrangements of 2–4 members. It is not known whether such variations apply in the same kind or to the same degree for vanpools of 9–15 members. A study of 15 vanpool programs in Southern California operating over 700 vanpools with more than 8,000 members was used to test for such effects. Five measures of retrospective vanpool satisfaction were derived from 40 vanpool benefit items using factor analysis in LISREL. The five perceived vanpool satisfaction factors included reliability, social, relaxation, economic and environmental benefits. Variations in these five benefit factors were analyzed with respect to vanpool group composition using difference of means tests and correlation analysis. Perceived vanpool reliability showed the largest statistical association with most of the group composition variables studied, perhaps because it was better identified in the analysis in terms of the total number of individual items loading on it. Gender had the largest statistical association with most of the vanpool benefit factors, perhaps because it was most clearly identified with individual vanpool members in the data. Based on this analysis, it appears that perceived vanpool benefits are qualitatively as well as quantitatively different than perceived carpool benefits. Vanpool program marketing strategies may need to be rethought and recast based on these research findings.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01119634
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    Uncertain demand, modal competition and optimal price-capacity adjustments in air transportation (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 91-101 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: airlines ; demand uncertainty ; expected maximum utility ; load factor ; pricing
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract A new microeconomic model for the operation of an airline facing modal competition with uncertain total demand is developed to analyze optimal price capacity combinations. The novelty is the treatment of the capacity restriction, which is not viewed as affecting negatively individual preferences (e.g. probability of a full flight), but does influence aggregate utility. A mode choice model is used to represent unrestricted individual preferences assuming full availability (“phone call” demand); air capacity is treated as a variable that acts on the actual choice set. Restricted choices and total demand stochasticity are integrated in welfare calculations (users' benefits and profits). Numerical examples are given and results are analyzed in terms of load factors fare levels, and sensitivity to the stochasticity of requests.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01119636
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    Stated preference analysis of travel choices: the state of practice (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 107-133 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: choice situations ; models ; prediction ; stated preference (SP)
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Stated preference (SP) methods are widely used in travel behaviour research and practice to identify behavioural responses to choice situations which are not revealed in the market, and where the attribute levels offered by existing choices are modified to such an extent that the reliability of revealed preference models as predictors of response is brought into question. This paper reviews recent developments in the application of SP models which add to their growing relevance in demand modelling and prediction. The main themes addressed include a comparative assessment of choice models and preference models, the importance of scaling when pooling different types of data, especially the appeal of SP data as an enriching strategy in the context of revealed preference models, hierarchical designs when the number of attributes make single experiments too complex for the respondent, and ways of accommodating dynamics (i.e. serial correlation and state dependence) in SP modelling.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098788
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    Correcting state dependence and serial correlation in the RP/SP combined estimation method (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 153-165 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: combined estimation ; discrete choice ; revealed preference ; serial correlation ; stated preference
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Revealed preference (RP) data and stated preference (SP) data have complementary characteristics for model estimation. To enhance the advantages of both data types, a combined estimation method is proposed. This paper discusses the method and practical considerations in applying it, and introduces a new method of considering serial correlation of RP and SP data. An empirical analysis is also presented.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098790
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    Use of the logit scaling approach to test for rank-order and fatigue effects in stated preference data (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 167-184 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: discrete choice analysis ; logit analysis ; modelling ; ranked data ; stated preference ; survey design
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The scaling approach is a statistical estimation method which allows for differences in the amount of unexplained variation in different types of data which can then be used together in analysis. In recent years, this approach has been tested and recommended in the context of combining Stated Preference and Revealed Preference data. The paper provides a description of the approach and a historical overview. The scaling approach can also be used to identify systematic differences in the variance of choices within a single Stated Preference data set due to the way in which the hypothetical choice situations are presented or the responses are obtained. The paper presents the results of two case studies — one looking at rank order effect and the other at fatigue effect. Scale effects appear to exist in both cases: the amount of unexplained variance is shown to increase as rankings become lower, and as the number of pairwise choices completed becomes greater. The implications of these findings for the use of SP ranking tasks and repeated pairwise choice tasks are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098791
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    A sequential approach to exploiting the combined strengths of SP and RP data: Application to freight shipper choice (1994)
    Springer
    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 135-152 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: discrete choice models ; freight shipper behavior ; multinomial logit ; pooling stated and revealed preferences
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The possibility of and procedure for pooling RP and SP data have been discussed in recent research work. In that literature, the RP data has been viewed as the yardstick against which the SP data must be compared. In this paper we take a fresh look at the two data types. Based on the peculiar strengths and weaknesses of each we propose a new, sequential approach to exploiting the strengths and avoiding the weaknesses of each data source. This approach is based on the premise that SP data, characterized by a well-conditioned design matrix and a less constrained decision environment than the real world, is able to capture respondents' tradeoffs more robustly than is possible in RP data. (This, in turn, results in more robust estimates of share changes due to changes in independent variables.) The RP data, however, represent the current market situation better than the SP data, hence should be used to establish the aggregate equilibrium level represented by the final model. The approachfixes the RP parameters for independent variables at the estimated SP parameters but uses the RP data to establish alternative-specific constants. Simultaneously, the RP data are rescaled to correct for error-in-variables problems in the RP design matrixvis-à- vis the SP design matrix. All specifications tested are Multinomial Logit (MNL) models. The approach is tested with freight shippers' choice of carrier in three major North American cities. It is shown that the proposed sequential approach to using SP and RP data has the same or better predictive power as the model calibrated solely on the RP data (which is the best possible model for that data, in terms of goodness-of-fit figures of merit), when measured in terms of Pearson's Chi-squared ratio and the percent correctly predicted statistic. The sequential approach is also shown to produce predictions with lower error than produced by the more usual method of pooling the RP and SP data.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098789
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    On the semantic scale problem in stated preference rating experiments (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 185-201 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: choice modelling ; rating ; stated preferences ; value of time
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Stated preference (SP) rating experiments are easy to design and conduct. Furthermore, they constitute a generalisation of SP choice experiments in terms of the information about preferences that can be achieved. However, its results are sensitive to the numerical values assigned by the analyst to the semantic scale used by individuals to express their preferences. We consider this problem in depth using a variety of statistical techniques, including ordinal probit and a novel optimal scale linear regression approach.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098792
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    Contributors to this issue (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 229-230 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098794
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    The influence of travel time variability on the value of time (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 203-228 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: reliability ; SP experiments ; uncertainty ; users' benefits ; value of time ; variability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Current benefits from travel time savings have only been related to the benefits from reducing mean travel time. Some previous attempts of including variability in the generalised cost function have mainly assumed commuters with fixed arrival time. This paper presents a comprehensive framework for valuing travel time variability that allows for any journey purpose and arrival time constraint. The proposed model is based on the expected utility approach and the mean-standard deviation approach. Stated Preference methods are considered the best technique for providing the data for calibrating the models. The values of time derived from the models are highly influenced by the value of travel time variability and it strongly depends on the probability distribution function travellers are faced with.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01098793
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    Car-free city centres (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 231-247 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: necessary ; share of car traffic ; car ban ; pedestrian zone ; push-and-pull strategy ; retail trade
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract In a “car-free” city centre car traffic is limited by an area-wide ban to its functionally necessary share. This usually includes delivery and service vehicles and residents' cars. The lock-out of unnecessary car traffic must not be an isolated measure, but part of a pulland-push approach. The most important supporting measure concerns the provision of attractive public transport services. Case studies from Bologna, Lubeck, Aachen, York, and Nuremburg are reported.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099212
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    Use of duration models for predicting vehicular delay at a US/Canadian border crossing (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 249-270 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: duration models ; hazard functions ; queueing ; vehicle delay
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Delays caused by congestion at the US/Canadian border crossing between Washington state and British Columbia have underscored the need for some sort of intervention. One obvious congestion-mitigation measure would be to estimate delay times and then relay this information to motorists so that they could select among alternative border crossing sites, or delay their trips. This paper applies duration models to estimate vehicular delay and demonstrates the usefulness of such models as a basis for a fully automated motorist information system. The paper also explores the flexibility of duration models, in providing estimates of vehicle delay, by using alternate parametric forms and assessing prediction accuracy.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099213
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    A practical assessment of stated preferences methods (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 289-305 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: choice ; modelling ; ranking ; rating ; stated preferences ; value of time
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Stated preferences data in the form of rankings, ratings and choices were collected in Santiago and discrete choice models estimated with them. The models were compared in terms of accuracy v/s the cost of obtaining the information and models. All methods produced reasonable but different models and fairly close subjective values of time. In terms of production costs the ranking method was a clear looser although the experimental design was slightly biased against it. Finally, the use of computerised interviews is highly recommended particularly for dealing with low income people.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099215
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    Weekly mobility of life cycle groups (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 271-288 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: interpersonal variety ; intrapersonal variability ; multi-day analysis ; respondent fatigue
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper describes parts of a study of travel by urban residents on seven consecutive days. The conceptual structure of the research understands travel as a demand derived by a dynamic process of individuals and households allocating their budgets to activities within the framework posed by societal regimens. Societal rules have a time dimension which is repetitive with a weekly cycle. Thus, distinctive basic patterns of weekly mobility are expected for segments of the society and differences in the obligation to adhere to those basic patterns. The data used for testing these hypotheses is described and the issue of increasing reporting bias over the diary period is addressed. Sixteen life cycle groups of persons are selected here for the presentation of some findings. The profiles of trip rates for the groups over the seven days of the week (estimated with analysis of covariance) and the decomposition of the variances of trip rates into interindividual, intraindividual and systematic parts (by repeated measurement analysis) are reported. Characteristic differences in the volume of mobility, the shape of profiles and the variance components reflect different patterns of tripmaking for segments of the population over the week. It is concluded that even for well-defined person categories, interpersonal variety of mobility behavior is large but has to be seen in relation to even greater intrapersonal variability. Both components can best be understood within the period of one week which individuals use to organize their mobility.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099214
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    Contributors to this issue (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 325-326 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099217
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    The effectiveness of differential pricing on route choice (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 307-324 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: choice probabilities ; fare ; habit ; logit regressions ; route choice ; time ; time value ; East Harbour Crossing ; Mass Transit Railway ; Nathan Road Corridor
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The use of differential pricing as a means of traffic management has been advocated by specialists in the field of transport for quite some time. Because of technical and political reasons, a full-scale pricing scheme for the use of road space has yet to be introduced. Applying the principle to a highly automatic rail system, however, is technologically much more feasible. The Mass Transit Railway Corporation of Hong Kong has implemented a so-called “revenue neutral peal pricing policy” after the completion of a second cross-harbour route- the East Harbour Crossing — in May, 1990. Passengers travelling from Kowloon to the central business district (including Jordon and Tsim Sha Tsui on the Kowloon side and stations from Sheung Wan to Causeway Bay on the Island side) during the morning peak hour are confronted with the following choice: either (i) make use of the Nathan Road Corridor and pay 80 cents on top of normal face; or (ii) take the less congested but in general longer route via the East Harbour Crossing and get a 80 cents discount. The present paper attempts to analyse the effectiveness of this differential pricing policy in diverting passengers from the overcrowded section to the less heavily utilized route. A personal interview survey comprising a total of 1094 successful cases was conducted for this purpose. The logit regression model was employed to analyse the route choice. It is found that income, habit and journey time are the most important variables determining the route choice. The effect of cost or fare difference, although large in terms of magnitude, is only marginally significant in the statistical sense. It is suggested that efforts to change the passengers' habit and measures to shorten the train transfer time at the Quarry Bay Station for the East harbour Crossing users would be more effective in achieving this end. This is especially the case given the current political development in Hong King which renders further enlargement of the price difference a highly difficult proposition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01099216
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    Temporal stability of travelers' activity choice and home-stay duration: Some empirical evidence (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 371-392 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: activity models ; temporal stability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper explores the temporal stability of activity type-choice models and models of travelers' home-stay duration. To empirically evaluate this stability, a nested logit model of activity-type choice and a proportional hazards model of home-stay duration are estimated using data from two-day travel diaries collected in the fall of 1989 and again, from the same individuals, in the fall of 1990. The results show that the models are not temporally stable over the one year time period separating the two travel-diary samples. A number of possible reasons for this instability are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01110481
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    Competition policy and the liberalisation of European aviation (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 355-370 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: aviation ; competition-policy ; concentration ; liberalisation ; mergers
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The European aviation industry is undergoing a process of liberalisation. One of the important lessons of American deregulation was that the industry is not perfectly contestable. One implication of this is that actual competition on a route is important in order to be able to secure the benefits of deregulation or liberalisation. Another is that effective competition policy is important in order to prevent anti-competitive mergers or predatory behaviour. This paper reviews the merger investigations in European aviation which have accompanied the search by carriers to secure the benefits of market power, and considers the extent of route competition within the European Community and its relationship to the different route licensing policies of different national governments. The paper considers the extent of present competition on the busiest routes, and stresses the importance of cabotage rights in opening up the European market to effective competition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01110480
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    Bus accidents, bus deregulation and London (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 327-354 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: buses ; bus accidents ; deregulation ; London ; road accidents ; safety
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Local bus services were deregulated in October 1986 in all areas of Britain except London. Government policy is to extend deregulation to London, though not in the current parliament. This paper analyses statistics on bus accidents from the national road accident database from 1981 to 1991 to compare results for London and the rest of Great Britain, and to consider whether deregulation has affected safety. The conclusions depend on the assumption that accident recording practice was not itself affected by deregulation. Bus accident rates are higher in London than on built-up roads elsewhere, partly apparently because of road traffic conditions in London, and partly because open-platform buses have higher accident rates involving occupants, including boarding and alighting accidents, than buses with doors. The main safety effects of deregulation operate through its effects on bus activity, though there is also some evidence that the rate per bus-kilometre of accidents involving other road users fell slightly. This may be due in part to the trend towards smaller buses associated with deregulation. Deregulation has led to a fall in bus patronage, and thus to a fall in occupant casualties; and to a rise in bus-kilometres, and thus to a rise in casualties among other road users in accidents involving buses. The number of fatal and serious casualties among other road users involved in bus accidents is larger than the number among bus occupants, so deregulation in London could lead on balance to a small rise in fatalities involving buses. On the other hand, the number of slight casualties among other road users involved in bus accidents is smaller than the number among bus occupants, so deregulation in London could lead to a fall in the number of slight casualties involving buses. Although there were fears that changes in the management of bus operations or financial pressures might lead to increased accident rates following deregulation, there no evidence in the findings to support such fears.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01110479
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    Contributors to this issue (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 405-405 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01110483
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    Bayesian updating of trip generation data: Combining national trip generation rates with local data (1994)
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    Transportation 21 (1994), S. 393-403 
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    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Keywords: Bayesian statistics ; local trip generation rates ; traffic impact analysis ; tripgeneration
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract With traffic impact analyses and impact fee assessment becoming more popular, the need for accurately estimating the trip generation rate of a proposed development is becoming more important. An overwhelming percentage of state transportation agencies depend either partly or entirely on the ITETrip Generation Report to predict the traffic that will be attracted to and/or produced from a proposed development. However, the rates obtained from the ITE publication have been derived from data collected throughout the United States. They represent a national average and fail to take into account the local trip generation characteristics that the site under consideration might have. This paper establishes a methodology for obtaining more reliable local trip generation rates using Bayesian statistics. In this method, the ITE rates are assumed to be the prior information, which are updated using limited local trip generation data that are available. The method also allows for temporal updating, incorporating subjective judgment and using “borrowed” data in the updating procedure. Sample calculations in this paper illustrate the developed methodology.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01110482
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    En echelon crack-arrays in potash salt rock (1994)
    Springer
    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 89-111 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary There are two types of fracture patterns in the yield pillars of the potash mines of Saskatchewan. The individual members of both patterns are tensile (extension) fractures that propagate parallel with the maximum principal stress trajectory (perpendicular to the minimum principal stress). The difference between the two patterns lies in the arrangement of the member fractures. In theen echelon tensile crack-array, the macroscopic fracture consists of individual tensile cracks that are slightly offset from each other. They have only a small overlap and the child crack seems to form randomly on either side of its parent. Consequently, the en echelon tensile crack-array inherits the axial orientation of its members. In contrast, the tensile cracks of anen echelon shear crack-array, have a larger overlap and their lateral displacement from each other is biased in one direction. Therefore, the crack-array is no longer axial but inclined 20–25 degrees from the maximum principal stress direction. With increasing stress, the shear crack-array often collapses, forming theenvelope orhourglass structures of the potash mines.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020207
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    Temperature predictions and predictive temperatures in deep tunnels (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 77-88 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary Reliable assessments of the underground temperature are needed for construction projects like deep tunnels, shafts and storage facilities. In areas of pronounced topographic relief, special attention must be given to the influence of three-dimensional topography on the subsurface temperature field. Further parameters for the prediction include ground surface temperature, local heat flow density, geological factors (structure/schistosity, thermal conductivity, erosion rate, water circulation). A first prediction was attempted for the planned Gotthard railroad tunnel (NEAT). This tunnel will have a total length of 56 km with a maximum cover of 2500 m. The temperature predictions were calculated, based on the RIMINI topography array, for points at 1-km-intervals along the planned axis. Maximum temperature (conservative upper limit) is about 45°C; the error of the predicted temperatures could be, in view of the uncertainties involved, in general ca. ±5–10°C. Since little is known at present about the deep water circulation system in the realm of the planned Gotthard tunnel, the prediction calculations assume heat transport by pure conduction. Significant subsurface water flow would mainly lead to the reduction of rock temperatures by cold infiltrations from the surface, as demonstrated by observations in the Simplon and Mont Blanc tunnels. In fact, the deviation of actual measurements (performed right behind the advancing face) from “conductive” previsions should be used as a predictive tool of large water flows which could be encountered during tunnel construction.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020206
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    Acoustic emission from failing rock behaviour (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 173-182 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020309
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    Shear sliding failure of the jointed roof in laminated rock mass (1994)
    Springer
    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 235-251 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary The jointed roof in laminated rock mass may be capable of self-support and sustaining transverse load and can be analysed by the voussoir beam notation. There are three main failure modes of a voussoir beam structure: crushing in the high stress areas, buckling without localised material failure and shear sliding along the joints. Previous studies on the voussoir beam have concentrated on the crushing failure mode, assuming that the voussoir beam would not fail by shear sliding prior to reaching its crushing strength. However, the possibility exists that the voussoir beam may collapse by shear sliding along the joints with a strength much lower than that predicted by the estimation method for crushing failure, depending upon the joint properties. Hence the stability analysis of a jointed roof without considering the shear sliding failure may lead to disastrous consequences. In this paper a numerical and experimental study has been carried out to analyse the shear sliding failure of voussoir beams containing vertical and inclined joints with one or more mid joints. Equations for verification of shear sliding are proposed and effects of the voussoir beam geometry and material properties on the shear sliding failure are also discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020201
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    A fracto-emission memory effect and subharmonic vibrations in rock samples stressed at sonic frequencies (1994)
    Springer
    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 253-261 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020202
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    Modeling of subsidence and stress-dependent hydraulic conductivity for intact and fractured porous media (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 209-234 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary This study investigates the changes in deformation and stress dependent hydraulic conductivities that occur as a result of underground mining in intact and fractured porous media. The intact porous medium is assumed to be comprised of regularly packed spherical grains of uniform size. The variation in grain size or pore space due to the effect of changing intergranular stresses results in a change in rock hydraulic conductivity. A model is developed to describe the sensitivity of hydraulic conductivity to effective stresses through Hertzian contact of spherical grains. The fractured porous medium is approximated as an equivalent fracture network in which a single fracture is idealized as a planar opening having a constant equivalent thickness or aperture. Changes in fracture aperture as a result of changes in elastic deformation control the variation of hydraulic conductivity. A model is presented to illustrate the coupling between strain and hydraulic conductivity. Subsidence induced deformations that result from mining induced changes in hydraulic conductivity in both intact and fractured media. These changes are examined and compared with results from a mining case study.
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    Announcements (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 264-264 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01020204
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    A system of monitoring and dimensioning tunnel support (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 23-36 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary In this paper a general numerical approach is proposed for the identification of loads acting on tunnel linings made by shotcrete, as a temporary lining, and concrete as a permanent one so as to form a system of monitoring and dimensioning these linings. This method requires a set of in situ displacement measurements of shotcrete layer for back calculation, and the constitutive relationship of the structural materials which are shotcrete, and concrete here is assumed to be linear elastic. The advantage of this method is that it avoids those complicated characteristics of rock masses and the loads from back calculation can reflect the combinative effects of rock surrounding the tunnel. An example was demonstrated for this method.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01025954
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    Effects of water on strength and failure mode of coarse-grained granites at 300°C (1994)
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 27 (1994), S. 1-21 
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    ISSN: 1434-453X
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geosciences
    Notes: Summary Deformation experiments have been performed in a triaxial compression cell at a temperature of 300°C and confining pressures up to 65 MPa using samples of homogeneous, fresh two-mica-granite (RM) and monzogranite (CM). The cylindrical specimens (d=70 mm, h=140 mm, V=540 cm3) were tested undrained under “dry” (105°C), “as received”, and “water saturated” conditions at deformation rates between $$\dot \varepsilon = 12 \times 10^{ - 6} s^{ - 1} $$ and $$\dot \varepsilon = 0.3 \times 10^{ - 6} s^{ - 1} $$ . The mechanical behaviour of the two types of coarse-grained, crystalloblastic granites is critically influenced by mineralogical composition, porosity, and the amount of intergranular water present in the samples. The failure stress of the CM granite is at about 65% of that of the RM granite; in both rocks strength decreases with increasing porosity and water content. The presence of interstitial water causes a failure mode of non-localized, homogeneously distributed microcracking in the central parts of the samples, whereas, in runs with dry granites, strain localization along a single shear fracture was observed. When aqueous fluids are present, the macroscopic style of deformation of granites appears to be “ductile” even at lowP andT conditions. Strength and angle of internal friction are reduced to very low values. The style of deformation, as well as the reduction of strength of the water-saturated rock samples, is due to mechanical and chemical effects of intergranular water at elevated temperatures. The maximum differential stresses measured for these coarse-grained granites are much lower than the strength commonly reported for other granites, e. g. Westerly and Charcoal granites. Our data suggest that the strength of the granitic crust under differential stress is lower than currently deduced from laboratory experiments.
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    Cement content in concretes made with aluminous cement (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 285-287 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume On propose une équation pour calculer la quantité de ciment dans les bétons de ciment alumineux fondu. La méthode calcule la teneur en Fe2O3 du béton, attendu que les concentrations de cet oxide sont très constants pour le ciment alumineux. Ou décompte le taux de Fe2O3 des granulats. Pour l'analyse du Fe on a appliqué la fluorescence x. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A00G7067 00003
    Notes: Abstract An equation for calculating the cement content in concretes made with aluminous cement is proposed, based on determining the Fe2O3 content of the concrete, assuming that the proportions of this oxide, as provided by the manufacturing company, throughout the production process are very stable. The values are corrected according to the Fe2O3 content of the aggregates. The Fe content is determined by x-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF).
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02473045
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    Barrier performance of concrete: A review of fluid transport theory (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 291-306 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02473048
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    Performance of natural fibre reinforced mortar roofing tiles (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 347-352 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume L'intérêt pour les fibres naturelles en tant que renforcement s'est manifesté dans les pays en voie de développement (quand l'utilisation de fibres d'acier et de verre était recherchée et développée dans les pays industrialisés à la fin des années 60) surtout en raison de leur moindre coût et de leur disponibilité dans ces pays. On a longtemps débattu de l'utilisation de fibres naturelles pour renforcer le mortier pour les toitures. A l'origine, on a pensé à juste titre que les fibres naturelle nuiraient à la prise du ciment Portland et qu'il fallait donc y renoncer. Par la suite, on s'est aperçu que les fibres naturelles étaient fragilisées par les produits d'hydratation du ciment Portland, et bientôt inefficaces, en particulier dans les pays chauds. Cependant, les larges plaques de tôle ondulée de couverture utilisées à l'origine se révélèrent impracticables, surtout en raison de problèmes de manutention et de conservation, et leur taille fut progressivement diminuée. Dans cet article, on discute des difficultés liées à la production et à l'utilisation de tuiles de couverture en mortier renforcé de fibres naturelles, et des moyens de réduire les effets nocifs des produits d'hydratation du ciment Portland sur la performance de ces fibres.
    Notes: Abstract Interest in natural fibres as reinforcement in developing countries arose (when the use of steel and glass fibres in the industrialized countries was being researched and developed in the late 1960s) mostly because of their lower cost and better availability in the developing world. The use of natural fibres as reinforcement for mortar to be used mainly for roofing has been debated for a long time. Initially, it was rightly thought that natural fibres will adversely affect the setting of Portland cement and as such they should not be used. Later on it was found that natural fibres are embrittled by the hydration products of Portland cement and made ineffective within a short time, especially in hot climates. While such discussions were going on, the initially adopted large corrugated roofing sheet (corrugated iron sheet size) was being found impractical (mainly because of handling and curing problems) and its size was being reduced gradually. The present paper discusses difficulties encountered in the production and use of natural fibre reinforced mortar roofing tiles and means of reducing the adverse effects of Portland cement hydration products on the performance of natural fibres in mortar.
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    Quantification of high alumina cement content in concrete by means of gamma ray spectrometry (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 399-400 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume On décrit ici une méthode permettant de determiner la quantité de ciment alumineux dans les bétons, par spectrométrie gamma de haute résolution. On a utilisé l'activité spécifique du214Pb et214Bi de la série du238U et celle du228Ac de la série du232Th. La méthode a été essayée sur une série de six échantillons fabriqués avec du ciment alumineux et trois échantillons fabriqués avec un mélange de ciment alumineux et de ciment Portland.
    Notes: Abstract A method is proposed to quantify the amount of high alumina cement (HAC) in concrete using high resolution gamma ray spectrometry. The method was tested using six samples of concrete composed of HAC and aggregates and three samples of concrete made up of aggregates and a mixture of HAC and Portland cement. The specific acitivities in Bq per kg of two isotopes of the decay series of238U (214Pb and214Bi) and one of the decay series of232Th (228Ac) were used for the quantification.
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    Stiffness associated with quasi-concentrated loads (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 311-318 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume L'emploi de charges ponctuelles est très répandu aussi bien dans le champ numérique que dans l'activité expérimentale, probablement parce que c'est la façon la plus simple d'obtenir des conditions de bord bien contrôlées. Il est bien connu, d'autre part, que—dans le cas expérimental—les charges appliquées ne sont jamais strictement ponctuelles, mais s'étendent sur une aire plus ou moins petite, mais finie, de la surface de l'éprouvette. C'est ce que l'on appelle charge presque-ponctuelle. De façon similaire, dans le cas des simulations numériques, c'est l'élément fini lui-même qui, grâce aux fonctions de forme, fait une distribution (virtuelle, si l'on veut) d'une force appliquée sur un noeud. Du point de vue des contraintes, la différence entre l'appui strictement ponctuel et l'appui presque-ponctuel est insignifiant dès que l'on parle de distances à l'appui plusieurs fois la taille de l'aire sur laquelle la charge est distribuée. La différence est aussi négligeable quand on évalue les déplacements de points éloignés de l'appui; mais il n'en est pas ainsi quand ce que l'on mesure sont les déplacements des points sous la charge elle-même. Dans ce cas, les déplacements dépendent notablement de la taille et de la forme de l'appui. Et par contre, il est tout à fait courant d'employer les déplacements de points sous les charges pour l'interprétation des essais, surtout parce que ce déplacement-ci est termodynamiquement conjugué avec la force en termes énergétiques. Les problèmes jaillissent quand on veut calculer la rigidité de la structure ou le travail des forces extérieures parce que, si elles sont strictement ponctuelles, les déplacements conjugués sont infiniment grands et, si on admet que les forces sont réparties, les déplacements dépendent de la taille du support (une mesure généralement mal connue). Dans cet article on étudie, au point de vue de l'élasticité linéaire, l'influence de la taille et la forme de l'appui sur le déplacement du point de charge. Le problème auquel on fait face est un problème élastique plan qui apparaît fréquemment dans les dispositifs de charge: la charge linéaire. On étudie d'abord le déplacement produit par une distribution arbitraire de forces sur la surface d'un demi-espace élastique. Le résultat est ensuite appliqué à un essai très étendu, la flexion à trois points de charge, pour lequel on obtient des expressions intégrées prenant en compte l'effet de la taille du support. Par ailleurs, on montre comment les éléments finis introduisent toujours une distribution virtuelle d'une force appliquée sur un noeud, et l'on obtient pour cette situation des relations très simples qui permettent d'estimer en avance la taille effective de l'aire sur laquelle la force est distribuée, toujours en fonction de la taille et du type d'élément fini.
    Notes: Abstract This paper analyses the effect on their associate displacements of quasi-concentrated loads like those used frequently for stiffness or work measurements. The use of point forces is widely extended when testing structures, and is the common way of applying external loads. Strictly speaking, these loads do not act at a point: they spread over a very small area on the surface, acting as quasi-concentrated loads. Displacements are computed on the basis of linear elasticity, and their dependence on the contact area is shown explicitly. The results are applied to the three point bending of beams and to the numerical modelling of concentrated loads. The paper closes with some practical recommendations for computing the displacements.
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    Dynamic behaviour of concretes: from the material to the structure (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 319-323 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume Dans le cadre d'une coopération européenne entre l'Université de Technologie de Delft (Pays-Bas) et le Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées (LCPC), une étude expérimentale a été réalisée pour étudier le comportement dynamique en traction de différents bétons. Parallèlement, des travaux sur le comportement au choc d'éléments structuraux ont été menés dans différents laboratoires étrangers. L'objet du présent article est de proposer des hypothèses concernant les mécanismes physiques qui régissent les effets de vitesse au sein du béton, et d'analyser, au regard de ces hypothèses, les résultats expérimentaux obtenus à l'échelle du matériau, et à l'échelle de la structure. L'échelle du matériau correspond, dans notre approche, au fait que l'on s'intéresse aux lois de comportement intrinsèques. Il est également proposé un modèle mécanique relatif aux effets de vitesse. Les principaux points à retenir sont les suivants. 1. L'eau libre existant au sein de la porosité intrinsèque des hydrates est responsable des effets de vitesse dans le béton. 2. Le changement de mécanisme de ruine d'une structure en béton armé, c'est à dire le passage d'un mécanisme de ruine par flexion à un mécanisme de ruine par effort tranchant ou par poinçonnement quand on augmente la vitesse de sollicitation, pourrait s'expliquer par la combinaison de deux phénomène intervenant à deux échelles: la mise en vitesse des points matériels au voisinage de la zone d'application de la sollicitation dynamique pourrait générer des pics de contrainte très localement, provoquant la création de fissures, le comportement dynamique de la structure génère des champs de contrainte et de déformation qui, suivant le type et la vitesse de sollicitation, et les conditions aux limites, favoriseraient une rupture par flexion ou par effort tranchant.
    Notes: Abstract The dynamic behaviour of concrete involves both material and structural aspects. Concerning the material level, the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées has cooperated with Delft University of Technology within the framework of a European project. Two problems were studied: the influence of free water in the concrete pores on the rate effects (dynamic strength and static strength) observed in the mechanical behaviour of the material, and the influence of the water/cement ratio on these rate effects. It was found that the rate effects are due to the influence of free water in the hydrate pores. Also, the rate effects depend on the water/cement ratio. They decrease with increasing ratio, but are independent of the absolute value (dynamic strength—static strength). Concerning the structural level, the LCPC has cooperated with LEA (Shelter Testing Laboratory) to carry out a study on the shock behaviour of concrete slabs using a shock tube. At a structural level, the rate effects on the mechanical behaviour of the slabs seem to be due to the presence of water in the material. It was further found that there is a change of failure mechanism in the slabs, i.e., a transition from a bending failure mechanism to a shear failure mechanism, with increasing loading rate and with decreasing water/cement ratio.
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    Prediction of long term chloride concentration in concrete (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 338-346 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume On présente, dans cet article, un large éventail de données expérimentales recueillies par les auteurs et par d'autres chercheurs sur la diffusion du chlorure soluble dans l'acide dans différents mélanges de béton, et on montre, en conclusion, que le coefficient de diffusion du chlorure Dc dépend fortement du temps d'exposition du béton à l'action du chlorure. Par conséquent, la prédiction à long terme de la concentration en chlorure sur la base de la seconde loi de diffusion de Fick, qui implique une valeur constante de D, n'est pas une méthode précise. On a élaboré ici une équation différentielle modifiée sur la base de la loi de diffusion en question, qui prend en compte la variation de Dc avec le temps. On définit une méthode permettant de prédire avec sûreté les concentrations de chlorure dans le béton. Les profils de concentration en chlorure obtenus par cette méthode montrent une bonne concordance avec les résultats d'essai.
    Notes: Abstract The paper presents a wide range of experimental data of the authors and of other researchers on acid-soluble chloride diffusion in different mixes of concrete, and shows conclusively that the chloride diffusion coefficient Dc is strongly dependent on the period of exposure of concrete to a chloride environment. Consequently, long term prediction of chloride concentrations on the basis of Fick's second law of diffusion, which inherently assumes a constant value of Dc, is not an accurate procedure. A differential equation is derived based on the above law of diffusion, which takes into account the time variation of Dc, and a procedure is outlined for the accurate prediction of long term chloride concentrations in concrete. The chloride concentration profiles derived using this procedure show good correlation with experimental data.
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    Draft recommendation for damage classification of concrete structures (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 362-369 
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    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02473430
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    A study of the behaviour of volume change cracking in base restrained concrete walls (1994)
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    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 383-392 
    Details
    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume Dans ce travail, on étudie le problème de la fissuration due au changement de volume de murs en béton armé encastrés à leur base. On a examiné le comportement en fissuration de quelque 61 murs grandeur nature et de 14 murs expérimentaux. On a comparé l'espacement et la largeur des fissures primaires et secondaires avec les valeurs obtenues à l'aide de formules récemeent développées et de formules antérieurement établies. On a trouvé une bonne concordance entre les valeurs observées et celles qui ont été prédites à l'aide de formules. D'un point de vue pratique, les résultats ont montré clairement que l'espacement et, par voie de conséquence, la largeur des fissures augmentaient avec la hauteur du mur. Donc, leur contrôle nécessite un plus fort pourcentage d'armatures ou des joints plus rapprochés. En outre, la largeur des fissures n'était pas uniforme sur toute la hauteur du mur, mais changeait en fonction de la variation de l'encastrement associée à la fissuration. Par conséquent, le pourcentage d'armature peut varier avec la hauteur du mur si l'on veut obtenir des largeurs de fissuration approximativement uniformes, ce qui peut entraîner des économies sur les armatures.
    Notes: Abstract The present work studies the problem of cracking due to volume change of base restrained reinforced concrete walls. The cracking behaviour of some 61 full size walls and 14 experimental walls was investigated. The observed primary and secondary crack spacings and widths were compared with the values obtained using recently developed formulas and with formulas developed previously. Good agreement was found between the observed values and those predicted using the developed formulas. On the practical side, the results showed clearly that crack spacing and, consequently, the crack width increased with increase of wall height and, therefore, a higher percentage of reinforcement or closer joints are required for their control. Furthermore, crack width was not uniform with the wall height, but varied according to the change of restraint associated with cracking and, therefore, the percentage of reinforcement may be varied with the wall height to obtain approximately uniform crack widths. This may lead to savings in reinforcement cost.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02473441
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    Modelling lime mortar carbonation (1994)
    Springer
    Materials and structures 27 (1994), S. 393-398 
    Details
    ISSN: 1359-5997
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Description / Table of Contents: Resume On donne un aperçu général des différents facteurs qui influencent la carbonatation du mortier à la chaux. On démontre que le contenu d'eau dans le matériau influence la carbonatation aussi bien par un changement de la diffusivité à travers le matériau que par un changement de la réaction entre le gaz carbonique et la chaux. Un modèle mathématique a été développé qui permet la simulation du processus de la carbonatation en tenant compte de l'évolution de séchage du matériau dans son environnement. Des simulations avec des concentrations de gaz carbonique différentes montrent une bonne corrélation entre les expériences et les prédictions mathématiques.
    Notes: Abstract The carbonation process in lime mortar is influenced by the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the mortar pore system, by the kinetics of the lime carbonation reaction, and by the drying and wetting process in the mortar. All these phenomena depend on the presence of water in the mortar. Water is present in liquid form as well as vapour. Physical models and their mathematical basis are given for the factors influencing carbonation. The mathematical description of the carbonation process in lime mortar completes the information necessary to model the simulation of carbonation in conjunction with the drying process. Simulations at different carbon dioxide concentrations showed a good correlation between experiment and mathematical prediction.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02473442
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