ALBERT

Notes: In progressing from a granitoid mylonite to an ultramylonite in the Brevard shear zone in North Carolina, Ca and LOI (H2O) increase, Si, Mg, K, Na, Ba, Sr, Ta, Cs and Th decrease, while changes in Al, Ti, Fe, P, Sc, Rb, REE, Hf, Cr and U are relatively small. A volume loss of 44% is calculated for the Brevard ultramylonite relative to an Al–Ti–Fe isocon. The increase in Ca and LOI is related to a large increase in retrograde epidote and muscovite in the ultramylonite, the decreases in K, Na, Si, Ba and Sr reflect the destruction of feldspars, and the decrease in Mg is related to the destruction of biotite during mylonitization. In an amphibolite facies fault zone separating grey and pink granitic gneisses in the Hope Valley shear zone in New England, compositional similarity suggests the ultramylonite is composed chiefly of the pink gneisses. Utilizing an Al–Ti–Fe isocon for the pink gneisses, Sc, Cr, Hf, Ta, U, Th and M-HREE are relatively unchanged, Si, LOI, K, Mg, Rb, Cs and Ba are enriched, and Ca, Na, P, Sr and LREE are lost during deformation. In contrast to the Brevard mylonite, the Hope Valley mylonite appears to have increased in volume by about 70%, chiefly in response to an introduction of quartz.Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of granitoids from both shear zones are LREE-enriched and have prominent negative Eu anomalies. Although REE increase in abundance in the Brevard ultramylonites (reflecting the volume loss), the shape of the REE pattern remains unchanged. In contrast, REE and especially LREE decrease in abundance with increasing deformation of the Hope Valley gneisses. Mass balance calculations indicate that ≥95% of the REE in the Brevard rocks reside in titanite. In contrast, in the Hope Valley rocks only 15–40% of the REE can be accounted for collectively by titanite, apatite and zircon. Possible sites for the remaining REE are allanite, fluorite or grain boundaries. Loss of LREE from the pink gneisses during deformation may have resulted from decreases in allanite and perhaps apatite or by leaching ofy REE from grain boundaries by fluids moving through the shear zone.Among the element ratios most resistant to change during mylonitization in the Brevard shear zone are La/Yb, Eu/Eu*, Sm/Nd, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Yb, Cr/Th, Th/U and Hf/Ta, whereas the most stable ratios in the Hope Valley shear zone are K/Rb, Rb/Cs, Th/U, Eu/Eu*, Th/Sc, Th/Yb, Sm/Nd, Th/Ta, Hf/Ta and Hf/Yb. However, until more trace element data are available from other shear zones, these ratios should not be used alone to identify protoliths of deformed rocks.

Notes: Raman spectral analyses of carbonaceous material (CM) extracted from pelitic samples along two sections traversing the metamorphic belt of Taiwan were carried out in the present study. The results show similar spectral variations of CM with metamorphic grade as those documented in the literature. However, continuous sampling from zeolite facies through prehnite–pumpellyite facies to greenschist facies metamorphic rocks in the present study does reveal some interesting features on the Raman spectra of CM that were not noted before. Both the Raman D (disordered-)/O (ordered-) peak area (i.e. integrated intensity) ratio and the D/O peak width (i.e. full width at half maximum, FWHM) ratio of the CM decrease with progressive metamorphism, but the most prominent change in the D/O peak area ratio occurs in samples of lower greenschist facies metamorphic grade, while the most significant decrease in the D/O peak width ratio occurs in samples near the boundary of prehnite–pumpellyite facies and greenschist facies. This phenomenon is interpreted as a result of the decoupling of the changing rates of in-plane crystallite size and degree of defects of CM with progressive metamorphism. It is postulated that the Raman spectrum of CM can serve as a metamorphic grade indicator to distinguish samples of prehnite–pumpellyite facies metamorphic grade from those of greenschist facies metamorphic grade.

Notes: Moderately manganiferous siliceous pelagites near Meyers Pass, Torlesse Terrane, South Canterbury, New Zealand, have been metamorphosed in the prehnite–pumpellyite facies. A conodont colour index measurement suggests T max in the range 190–300 °C. Porphyroblastic manganaxinite, manganoan pumpellyite, manganoan chlorite and trace spessartine-rich garnet and sphalerite have formed in an extremely fine-grained quartz–albite–berthierine–phengite–titanite groundmass. Porphyroblastic manganaxinite semischists and schists are distinctive rocks in prehnite–pumpellyite to lower-grade greenschist and blueschist facies of New Zealand and Japan. Mn in the manganoan pumpellyites substitutes for Ca in W sites. Total Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios in chlorite are dependent on oxidation state, being ≤0.22 in red hematitic hemipelagites, and ≥0.61 in low-f O2 grey metapelagites. In the low-f O2 metapelagites, manganoan berthierine with little or no chlorite is inferred in the groundmass and iron-rich chlorite occurs as porphyroblasts and veinlets, whereas in the red rocks, Mg-rich chlorite occurs both in groundmasses and veinlets. Variably high Si in the manganoan chlorites correlates with evidence for contaminant phases. The Mn content of chlorite contributing to garnet growth is dependent on metamorphic grade; incipient spessartine indicates a saturation value of 6–8% MnO in chlorite in low-f O2 rocks at Meyers Pass. Lower MnO contents are recorded for otherwise analogous rocks with increasing metamorphic grade, but at a given grade coexisting chlorite and garnet are richer in Mn where f O2 is high. Manganaxinite and manganoan pumpellyite also contributed to reactions forming grossular–spessartine solid solutions. Formation of garnet in siliceous pelagites is dependent on both Mn and Ca content. The spessartine component increases with grade into the greenschist facies. Partial recrystallization of berthierine to chlorite and the growth of porphyroblastic patches of other minerals was facilitated by brittle fracture and access of fluids to an otherwise impermeable matrix; to this extent the very low-grade metamorphism was episodic.

Notes: Carbon isotope fractionations between calcite and graphite in the Panamint Mountains, California, USA, demonstrate the importance of mass balance on carbon isotope values in metamorphosed carbon-bearing minerals while recording the thermal conditions during peak regional metamorphism. Interbedded graphitic marbles and graphitic calcareous schists in the Kingston Peak Formation define distinct populations on a δ13C(gr)–δ13C(cc) diagram. The δ13C values of both graphite and calcite in the marbles are higher than the values of the respective minerals in the schists. δ13C values in both rock types were controlled by the relative proportions of the carbon-bearing minerals: calcite, the dominant carbon reservoir in the marble, largely controlled the δ13C values in this lithology, whereas the δ13C values in the schists were largely controlled by the dominant graphite. This is in contrast to graphite-poor calcsilicate systems where carbon isotope shifts in carbonate minerals are controlled by decarbonation reactions.The marbles record a peak temperature of 531±30 °C of a Jurassic low-pressure regional metamorphic event above the tremolite isograd. In the schists there is a much wider range of recorded temperatures. However, there is a mode of temperatures at c. 435 °C, which approximately corresponds to the temperatures of the principal decarbonation metamorphic reactions in the schists, suggesting that the carbon exchange was set by loss of calcite and armouring of graphite by newly formed silicate minerals. The armouring may explain the relatively large spread of apparent temperatures. Although the modal temperature also corresponds to the approximate temperature of the Cretaceous retrograde event, retrograde exchange is thought less likely due to very slow exchange rates involving well-crystallized graphite, armouring of graphite by silicates during the earlier event, and because of other barriers to retrograde carbon exchange. Thus, only the calcite–graphite carbon isotope fractionations recorded by the marbles demonstrate the high-temperature conditions of the low-pressure Jurassic metamorphic event that was associated with the emplacement of granitic plutons to the west of the Panamint Mountains.

Notes: Microstructural evidence commonly is used to infer metamorphic reactions, which are used to infer pressure–temperature–time (P–T–t) paths. However, this approach in low-P/high-T  (LPHT) granulite facies metamorphic terranes has two main problems. (1) Microstructural evidence may be inconclusive, so that reactions cannot be inferred with confidence. In particular, relative timing of mineral growth inferred from inclusions, moulding relationships and foliation–porphyroblast relationships is commonly ambiguous or invalid. The most reliable indicators of metamorphic reactions are partial pseudomorphs and corona structures, especially if symplectic intergrowths (indicating simultaneous growth of two or more minerals) are involved. (2) Even reactions that can be inferred with confidence do not indicate unique P–T  trends, owing to P–T  slopes of reaction curves. Where successive reactions can be shown to have occurred in the same rock, a line or curve joining reaction-curve intersections gives an apparent single-event path. However, isotopic evidence is needed to prove that polymetamorphism (involving more complex paths making fortuitous intersections with the apparent single-event path) did not occur. Although these problems are well known, their importance is not always emphasized in metamorphic investigations.The difficulties are illustrated by published work on P–T–t paths for Proterozoic LPHT granulite facies rocks of central Australia and Antarctica. Recent work in Antarctica has shown that P–T–t paths may be episodic and more complex than the simple, single-event paths commonly inferred from microstructural evidence alone.

Notes: A complete Barrovian sequence ranging from unmetamorphosed shales to sillimanite–K-feldspar zone metapelitic gneisses crops out in a region extending from the Hudson River in south-eastern New York state, USA, to the high-grade core of the Taconic range in western Connecticut. NNE-trending subparallel biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite and sillimanite–K-feldspar isograds have been identified, although the assignment of Barrovian zones in the high-grade rocks is complicated by the appearance of fibrolitic sillimanite at the kyanite isograd.Thermobarometric results and reaction textures are used to characterize the metamorphic history of the sequence. Pressure–temperature estimates indicate maximum metamorphic conditions of 475 °C, c. 3–4 kbar in the garnet zone to 〉720 °C, c. 5–6 kbar in the highest grade rocks exposed. Some samples in the kyanite zone record anomalous (low) peak conditions because garnet composition has been modified by fluid-assisted reactions.There is abundant petrographic and mineral chemical information indicating that the sequence (with the possible exception of the granulite facies zone) was infiltrated by a water-rich fluid after garnet growth was nearly completed. The truncation of fluid inclusion trails in garnet by rim growth or recrystallization, however, indicates that metamorphic reactions involving garnet continued subsequent to initial infiltration.The presence of these textures in some zones of a well-constrained Barrovian sequence allows determination of the timing of fluid infiltration relative to the P–T  paths. Thermobarometric results obtained using garnet compositions at the boundary between fluid–inclusion-rich and inclusion-free regions of the garnet are interpreted to represent peak metamorphic conditions, whereas rim compositions record slightly lower pressures and temperatures. Assuming that garnet grew during a single metamorphic event, infiltration must have occurred at or slightly after the peak of metamorphism, i.e. 4–5 kbar and a temperature of c. 525–550 °C for staurolite and kyanite zone rocks.

Notes: Samples of the calcite-rich Shelburne Marble collected at the Pfizer Quarry in Adams, Massachusetts, show an order of magnitude variation in grain size. Calcite grain size ranges from 94 to 1101 μm. Because these calcite marbles share the same pressure, temperature and strain histories, some other factor must be responsible for the grain size variation.Grain size appears to be controlled by the concentration of impurity or second-phase particles. Large calcite grain size occurs where the volume fraction of second-phase particles is low and grain size decreases as second-phase volume fraction increases. The relationship between calcite grain size (D), second-phase grain size (d ) and second-phase volume fraction ( f ) can be described by the power law D/d=1.4/f  0.36, a result that is consistent with models based upon short-term (hours or days) laboratory experiments with metals and ceramics and computer simulations of grain growth. Grain growth appears to be greatly restricted by as little as a few per cent of second-phase particles, with a transition from highly restricted to almost unrestricted grain growth occurring at ≈5% volume of second-phase particles. These results indicate that second-phase particles exercise an important control on grain size and can effectively inhibit grain growth in metamorphic rocks. The behaviour of second-phases in short-term laboratory experiments may closely approximate the behaviour of second-phases in grain growth lasting several orders of magnitude longer in the metamorphic environment.

Notes: Phase analysis in the model K2O-poor aluminous rock system (FMASH) illustrates the following sequence of reactions during retrograde metamorphism in the Botswanan Limpopo Central Zone:Opx+Sil+Qtz=Crd ,Opx+Sil=Spr+Crd ,Grt+Qtz=Opx+Crd ;Opx+Crd+W=Ged+Qtz ,Grt+Opx+Crd+W=Ged ;andGrt+Qtz+W=Ged+Crd .A quantitative petrogenetic grid with phase relations shows that sapphirine results from nearly isothermal decompression in the quartz-undersaturated portions of the grid, and that gedrite formation by reactions (4)–(6) records isobaric cooling from high temperature (c. 800° C) after the decompression. Conditions for hydration in the western part of the area were 700–800° C and c. 6 kbar, based on microthermometric data and the available garnet–cordierite geothermometer. On the basis of these conditions and predicted thermodynamic properties of gedrite, phase relations in T–XMg space were constructed to investigate the isobaric cooling event. The results are in good agreement with the hydration P–T  path. Further, the T–XMg topologies show that hydration of orthopyroxene in the central part of the area (reaction 4) occurred at about 800° C and c. 5 kbar. Therefore, we conclude that the Botswanan Limpopo Central Zone has suffered isothermal decompression, similar to the Central Zone in South Africa and Zimbabwe, followed by isobaric cooling. The isobaric cooling event in the western (at c. 6 kbar) and central (at c. 5 kbar) parts of the area commenced at nearly the same temperature (c. 800° C), and appear to be consistent with a tectonic model that involved westward movement (thrusting) of the Central Zone.

Notes: We investigated the metamorphic cooling history of underplated magmatic rocks at midcrustal depth. Granulites and amphibolites occur within the Jurassic magmatic belt of the Coast Range south of Antofagasta in northern Chile between 23°25′ and 24°20′ S. The protoliths of the metamorphic rocks are basic intrusions of Early Mesozoic age. They are part of the magmatically formed crust, and the essentially dry magmas were emplaced in an extensional regime. The granulites (clinopyroxene–orthopyroxene–plagioclase) show all stages of fabric development from magmatic to granoblastic fabrics. Pyroxene compositions were reset at temperatures around 800° C independent of the stage of textural equilibration. The granulites were partially amphibolitized at upper amphibolite facies temperatures of 600–700° C. Following cooling, a possible reheating to greenschist facies temperatures around 500° C is indicated by prograde zoning in magnetite–ilmenite pairs. Mineral assemblages are not suitable for barometry, but a conservative estimation of the garnet-in reaction at given whole-rock compositions suggests maximum pressures in the granulite facies of around 5 kbar, and similar pressures are indicated by phengite barometry for the greenschist facies. The P–T  path of granulite–amphibolite metamorphism is one of slow cooling from magmatic temperatures with heterogeneous deformation. The thinning of the pre-Andean (Precambrian–Triassic) crust was apparently compensated by the magmatic underplating and this special tectonomagmatic setting caused the prolonged residence of the accreted rocks at midcrustal levels.

Notes: The purpose of the study was to investigate consumers’ perception of food packaging and its impact on food choices. The study population comprised 82 people who were ultimately consumers of packaged food products. The sample was drawn from six major supermarkets located in different geographical areas in Trinidad, West Indies. Data collection was carried out by using a questionnaire based on five topics: visual impact or attractiveness of the packaging; type of packaging material; labelling and nutritional information; new products; and fruit preserves. The packaging feature that influenced most of the respondents’ choice of products was information on the label (41.5%); it was followed by quality and type of packaging (24.4%), brand name/popularity (22.0%) and visual impact (12.2%). When asked if they would purchase a product that was most attractively packaged, 85.4% responded in the affirmative. Most respondents (92.7%) believed that packaging material could adversely affect the quality of performance of a food product. Also, 92.7% of respondents agreed that nutrition information should be shown on all food products, although 36.6% admitted that they do not read the label because of its complexity. Influence of gender was not significant (P 〈 0.05) on consumer perception of food packaging and on food choices. Although the sample was small, the data highlighted the need to educate consumers of packaged foods, so that informed decisions could be taken in respect to food quality, safety and nutrition.

Notes: Product placements in entertainment media are increasing, particularly in content targeted to adolescents. This marketing communication tactic is examined in the context of media socialization and individual differences in brand consciousness. The relative influence of commercial media (TV, radio, movies, online) and perceived peer and parent brand consciousness on US adolescent brand consciousness is assessed, as well as differences in how low and high brand-conscious adolescents view product placements. Awareness, liking and perceived effects of product placements on self and others (third-person perception) were measured. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses show that movies and perceived parent and peer brand consciousness were positively related to adolescent brand consciousness. Those adolescents considered to be highly brand-conscious were also those who were most aware of and favourable towards product placements. All adolescents demonstrated third-person perception of media effects in that they considered others to be more influenced by product placements than themselves, with peers influenced more than friends. Highly brand-conscious teens perceived the greatest effects of product placements on their own and others’ buying behaviours, yet low brand-conscious teens revealed the largest gap in perceptions of impact on self vs. peers. The results are discussed in view of media effects; ramifications for marketers and public policy makers are also appraised.

Notes: Consumer education is an integral part of the consumer empowerment mix. Over recent years the importance of consumer education as a vital tool for protecting consumers and making them better informed has been increasingly recognized in the UK. As part of the developing policy debate in the UK, the National Consumer Council (NCC), one of the key consumer champion bodies, has been arguing the case for a national strategy for consumer education. In order  to establish whether a national strategy was needed and, if so, how a strategy could be structured and introduced, the NCC carried out a national consultation. In excess of 100 responses were obtained from a very broad range of organizations. This paper provides a review of the secondary data gathered for the NCC research. It was found that although there are many organizations and networks involved in consumer education in the UK, it lacks focus, is fragmented and is not efficient or coordinated. The research highlighted a need for a strategic approach to place educated and empowered consumers at the heart of the marketplace.

Notes: Because employer-provided health coverage represents the main source of health insurance for Americans and its costs for employees are rising, accurate knowledge about health coverage would seem to be crucial for making sound decisions on choosing the plans that best meet the specific needs of a family. However, previous research suggests that most employees have little understanding of the scope and monetary value, or even the existence of many components of their health benefit package. This paper re-examines employees’ general financial learning efforts and knowledge level, and how they relate to participation in and importance attached to supplemental healthcare plans. We find that, while self-directed financial learning and general financial knowledge significantly predicted plan participation and the importance attached to them, demographic factors, such as gender, age and job classification, dominated the supplemental healthcare decisions.

Notes: The purpose of this study is to explore the factors that influence creative teaching and to find out what effective strategies are used by three award-winning teachers in the learning area of Integrated Activities. As creative thinking is crucial for the knowledge economy, it is essential that education serves its purpose in improving this important aspect. The methods used for data collection include in-depth interview, focus group interview, classroom observation and content analysis. Three teachers with a GreaTeach Creative Instruction Award for creative teaching in the Integrated Activities field were selected as subjects. Results were acquired by analysing the interview content, the teaching plans, teachers’ reflection and the classroom observation videotapes. The study found that: the factors influencing creative teaching in Integrative Activities are (a) personality traits: persistence, willingness to develop, acceptance of new experiences, self-confidence, sense of humour, curiosity, depth of ideas, imagination, etc.; (b) family factors: open and tolerant ways of teaching children, creative performance of parents, etc.; (c) experiences of growth and education: self-created games and stories, brainstorming between classmates, etc.; (d) beliefs in teaching, hard work, motivation and (e) the administrative side of school organization. Among these factors, beliefs in teaching, hard work and motivation are the main aspects. The effective teaching strategies used by the awarded teachers are: student-centred activities, a connection between teaching contents and real life, management of skills in class, open-ended questions, an encouragement of creative thinking and use of technology and multimedia. Integrated Activities are closely connected to life experience and a basis for the development of creative thinking within education.

Notes: Home economics and civics as school subjects in Japan have a common feature, in that both subjects nurture a sense of citizenship at home, in the workplace and in the wider society. In addition, both have the potential to help students recognize the gender bias around them and can empower them to help make a more gender-equal society. Focusing on this, the purpose of this report was to investigate home economics and civics teachers’ views, in order to analyse the features of the two subjects and the relationship between them. Questionnaires were sent to home economics and civics teachers of all the senior high schools in four prefectures around Japan in October 2001, and 357 samples were analysed. The results were as follows: (a) Home economics teachers and female teachers expressed more interest in lessons on gender than civics teachers and male teachers. Concerning lessons on citizenship, no statistical difference in teachers’ interest was found. (b) Topics on citizenship were learned in the fields of consumer, environment and social welfare issues in both subjects. More lessons were reported to take place in home economics than in civics. (c) In home economics, topics on gender were learned as core issues in the areas of family relations, family law and parenting. On the other hand, in family law, civics, topics on gender were taught as marginal issues in the area of basic human rights and labour issues. (d) Home economics teachers thought the goals of gender education were to empower students to overcome narrow gender roles and to strengthen self-respect. In contrast, civics teachers thought it would empower a sense of human rights. Concerning citizenship education, teachers of both home economics and civics thought the goals would enable students to recognize social problems as their own issues and try to solve them.

Notes: This paper reports the results of the estimation of a linear approximate almost ideal demand system for Jordan meat demand using cross-sectional data collected by the Department of Statistics in Jordan as part of the household expenditure survey. A censored regression method for the system of equation is used to analyse the meat consumption patterns. This method allows for inclusion of a large number of zero consumption for some foods. Two-step demand system was estimated. In the first stage, Inverse Mill Ratio is estimated by using probit regression model. In the second stage, the estimated variable is included in the AIDS model to estimate food demand elasticities. The objective of this work is to provide econometric estimates of the different types of demand elasticities for meats in Jordan. To be consistent with the demand theory, the homogeneity, symmetry and adding up restrictions were satisfied in the estimated models. The estimated model was used to obtain estimates of Hicksian, Marshallian and expenditure demand elasticities for meats in Jordan. The results revealed that the demand for mutton and poultry is elastic while the demand for beef and fish is inelastic. The cross-price elasticities indicate that poultry and beef are substitutes to mutton. The expenditure elasticities confirm that beef and mutton are luxury goods while poultry and fish are necessity goods.

Notes: A new programme of general family and consumer science for all high school students that can contribute to career education was proposed. The programme had three sessions: ‘single life’, ‘family life’ and ‘retired life’ from the typical three main life stages. Students were challenged to think about their future with regard to real life issues such as housing, location, budgeting time and finances, and family issues. Students were able to consider their future life concretely and specifically from various viewpoints after taking part in this programme. Students also found value in home economics education in developing life skills and knowledge, in considering their actual life and in considering their future life.

Notes: Despite the growth of the Internet, one area that has not really been discussed is the elderly's use of the Internet. Given the rapid growth of this population as well as the potential the Internet holds for them, it is a subject worth consideration. However, seniors cannot be defined simply by their chronological age, but by their cognitive age. This paper discusses the impact of cognitive age of a national random sample of American elderly consumers on their Internet use. The results suggest that those seniors with a younger cognitive age use the Internet more than those seniors with an older cognitive age. Additionally, seniors with a younger cognitive age have more social contact off-line (but not online) than those seniors with an older cognitive age. Finally, in terms of demographic variables, chronological age is positively associated with cognitive age and women report a younger cognitive age than men. These results suggest that for policy makers interested in increasing the participation of seniors, they can utilize the Internet to reach those who are younger in terms of cognitive age; however, they will not be able to reach all seniors in this manner and they need to utilize the Internet as a complementing media to their traditional communication sources.

Notes: Biotechnology stands out as a clear-cut example of an industry where legislation on new technologies has been shown to be linked with public attitudes. Indeed, consumer consultation has played a leading role in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) food as well as in government policy and legislation. This paper examines the issue of consumer consultation by analysing how public opinion has conditioned the acceptance of GM food in the European Union in general and specifically in Spain and the UK. We draw upon the evidence of two Eurobarometer surveys (46.1 and 52.1) to argue that consumer decision making on new technologies is an information-dependent factor explaining consumer rejection to non-transparent introduction of GM food. Individuals feel ill-prepared to make decisions and rely on trusted information advisors such as consumer organizations. Findings suggest significant information dependency as well as widespread heterogeneity in attitudes towards the applications of biotechnology. Finally, the role played by information channels indicates that consumer participation should precede the adoption of communication policies, as they might need to adapt to the specific cultural characteristics of each country.

Notes: In the fashion industry, one of the most important things is to accurately analyse the consumers’ emotional response to current fashion trends and to forecast trends for the forthcoming season based on the analysed results. In this study, it  was  assumed  that  a  more  accurate  trend-forecasting  for a market would be possible, if the fluctuation of consumer emotion could be represented on a kind of macroscopic model of recent fashion trends. For an exploratory attempt to acquire such macroscopic information on trends, this research aimed to (1) propose a systematic method to derive a macroscopic model on trends on the basis of consumer emotion; and (2) develop a macroscopic model on recent fashion trends, applying the method. This research was based on three assumptions: (1) Fashion trend is a representation of change in consumers’ emotions; (2) A linguistic representation can be a useful medium to access consumers’ emotions; and (3) Consumers’ emotions can be represented as a concrete model. As a method of developing the macroscopic model, a five-step procedure was proposed and executed in this research. According to the five-step procedure, a total of four surveys were serially conducted and the data sets were analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. As a result, a two-dimensional macroscopic model on recent fashion trend was developed, in which 79 major emotion descriptors were positioned and categorized into 14 subgroups. ‘artificial-natural’ (for the first dimension) and ‘simple-complicated’ (for the second dimension) appeared as the two-dimensional axes passing through the macroscopic model on recent fashion trends. The 14 subgroups in the model corresponded to the main themes of recent fashion trends reported in the literature on fashion.

Notes: Nutrition is important for both healthy and sick people. Unfortunately for sick people, especially those living with HIV/AIDS, the emphasis has mostly been on drugs at the expense of nutritional aspects. People living with HIV/AIDS and related diseases need a lot of protein and energy-rich foods together with vitamins and minerals. Fish are particularly rich in these nutrients. In Malawi, fish are harvested in large numbers and to avoid deterioration, some are smoked, sun dried or partially boiled and then sun dried. Since the nutrient contents of the fresh and processed fish may differ, a study was carried out on four different fresh and processed fish species (Copadichromis inornatus, Rhamphochromis ferox, Engraulicypris sardella and Oreochromis lidole) in order to determine which species was the more nutritive. The results showed that E. sardella and C. inornatus species, fresh or processed, had relatively higher (P 〈 0.001) protein content (58.22 ± 0.6% and 57.78 ± 0.7% respectively), fat (25.2 ± 1.2 and 22.08 ± 0.4% respectively), energy (24086.7 ± 151.7 J/g and 22204.9 ± 84.7 J/g respectively) than either R. ferox or O. lidole. Although the R. ferox species had lower protein, fat and energy than E. sardella or C. inornatus, this species had higher available lysine content. Calcium and magnesium contents of E. sardella and C. inornatus were however, slightly lower (P 〈 0.001) than those of the other two species. There were variations between and within the species for all parameters analysed. The results obtained in this work suggest that people living with HIV/AIDS in Malawi can best build their muscle and get more energy and minerals from the E. sardella and C. inornatus fish species. It would therefore be recommended that appropriate technologies for improving the availability and productivity of such fish should be developed and tested for people living with HIV/AIDS or affected households. However, it is suggested that a larger group of the commonly available fish species should be analysed so as to offer a wider choice to consumers.

Notes: 1 We have investigated the actions of the α1D-adrenoceptor selective antagonist BMY 7378 in comparison with yohimbine at α1- and α2-adrenoceptors. 2 In rat aorta (α1D-adrenoceptor), BMY 7378 (pA2 of 8.67) was about 100 times more potent than yohimbine (pA2 of 6.62) at antagonizing the contractile response to noradrenaline. 3 In human saphenous vein (α2C-adrenoceptor), BMY 7378 (pA2 of 6.48) was approximately 10 times less potent than yohimbine (pA2 of 7.56) at antagonizing the contractile response to noradrenaline. 4 In prostatic portions of rat vas deferens, BMY 7378 (10 μm) did not significantly affect the concentration-dependent inhibition of single pulse nerve stimulation-evoked contractions by xylazine (an action at prejunctional α2D-adrenoceptors). 5 In ligand-binding studies, BMY 7378 showed 10-fold selectivity for α2C-adrenoceptors (pKi of 6.54) over other α2-adrenoceptors. 6 It is concluded that BMY 7378, in addition to α1D-adrenoceptor selectivity in terms of α1-adrenoceptors, shows selectivity for α2C-adrenoceptors in terms of α2-adrenoceptors.

Notes: 1 To investigate anti-inflammatory activity of organic germanium, we measured the effect of germanium-concentrated yeast on arachidonic acid release, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production, histamine release, and intracellular H2O2 or hydroperoxide generation in RBL 2H3 cells, and carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats. 2 Germanium-concentrated yeast dose-dependently inhibited carrageenan-induced paw oedema, suggesting that germanium-concentrated yeast has anti-inflammatory activity in acute inflammation. 3 Germanium-concentrated yeast significantly inhibited melittin-induced arachidonic acid release and PGE2 production in RBL 2H3 cells. 4 Germanium-concentrated yeast did not affect melittin-induced histamine release and silica-induced intracellular H2O2 or hydroperoxide generation in RBL 2H3 cells. 5 These results suggest that anti-inflammatory activity of germanium-concentrated yeast appears partly to be related to the inhibition of arachidonic acid release and PGE2 production in RBL 2H3 cells.

Notes: 1 The pressor action of noradrenaline and its blockade by selective α1-adrenoceptor antagonists in the pithed mouse were evaluated. 2 Chloroethylclonidine (α1B/D-adrenoceptor alkylating agent) or BMY 7378 (α1D-adrenoceptor antagonist), both at 1 mg kg−1, did not block the increase in blood pressure induced by noradrenaline. 3 5-Methylurapidil (α1A-adrenoceptor antagonist), at 0.1 mg kg−1, displaced the dose–response curve approximately six-fold to the right. 4 The results support the idea that the pithed mouse vasculature express α1A-adrenoceptors and suggest that it is a good model to study the roles of α1-adrenoceptors in gene knockout or overexpression.

Notes: 1 The aim of this paper was to determine the different signalling cascades involved in contraction of the rat urinary bladder detrusor muscle mediated via muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (muscarinic AChR). Contractile responses, phosphoinositides (IPs) accumulation, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and cyclic GMP (cGMP) production were measured to determine the reactions associated with the effect of cholinergic agonist carbachol. The specific muscarinic AChR subtype antagonists and different inhibitors of the enzymatic pathways involved in muscarinic receptor-dependent activation of NOS and cGMP were tested. 2 Carbachol stimulation of M3 and M4 muscarinic AChR increased contractility, IPs accumulation, NOS activity and cGMP production. All of these effects were selectively blunted by 4-DAMP and tropicamide, M3 and M4 antagonists respectively. 3 The inhibitors of phospholipase C (PLC), calcium/calmodulin (CaM), neuronal NOS (nNOS) and soluble guanylate cyclase, but not of protein kinase C and endothelial NOS (eNOS), inhibited the carbachol action on detrusor contractility. These inhibitors also attenuated the muscarinic receptor-dependent increase in cGMP and activation of NOS. 4 In addition, sodium nitroprusside and 8-bromo-cGMP, induced negative relaxant effect. 5 The results obtained suggest that carbachol activation of M3 and M4 muscarinic AChRs, exerts a contractile effect on rat detrusor that is accompanied by an increased production of cGMP and nNOS activity. The mechanism appears to occur secondarily to stimulation of IPs turnover via PLC activation. This in turn, triggers cascade reactions involving CaM, leading to activation of nNOS and soluble guanylate cyclase. They, in turn, exert a modulator inhibitory cGMP-mediated mechanism limiting the effect of muscarinic AChR stimulation of the bladder.

Notes: 1 The objective was to investigate a possible contribution of a nerve-derived hyperpolarizing factor to the differences between non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) nerve-mediated relaxations in different states of active tone in the rat gastric fundus. 2 NANC relaxations induced by electrical field stimulation (ES: 0.1, 0.5 and 1 Hz; 25 V; 1 ms; 10 s) in 40% contracted strips (S40) were greater when compared with those in 80% contracted strips (S80). 3 ES-induced relaxations were effectively attenuated by Nω-nitro-l-arginine (l-NNA; 100 μm) in S40 and S80. Percentage reduction of the responses obtained in the presence of l-NNA in S40 group was less than that of S80. 4 In S40 group, nifedipine (0.5–1 μm) and verapamil (0.5–1 μm) inhibited the responses to 0.1 and 0.5 Hz. Nifedipine (1 μm) and verapamil (0.5 μm) caused no change in the responses to ES in S80. 5 In S40, when l-NNA (100 μm) and nifedipine or verapamil, either in 1 μm concentration, were administered together, the inhibition on the electrical relaxations were more than that of each drug alone. 6 In conclusion, NANC nerve-mediated relaxations are increased when studied in an active state of 40%, and a factor, sensitive to nifedipine seems to be responsible for this distinction.

Notes: 1 Experiments were carried out to characterize the possible adrenergic properties of the 5-HT1A antagonists WAY 100635 and MM-77 using the mouse isolated vasa deferentia preparation. 2 When vasa deferentia were preincubated for 10 min in the presence of MM-77 (10−8–10−6 m) or WAY100635 (10−8–7 × 10−7 m), a concentration-dependent inhibition of the contractile response to submaximal electrical field stimulation (10 Hz, 50 V, 50 ms) was observed with pIC50 values of 7.05 ± 0.01 and 6.85 ± 0.1 respectively. 3 MM-77 (10−8–10−6 m) antagonized the contractile responses of the vasa deferentia to phenylephrine (PE) (10−6–10−3 m) in a concentration-dependent manner. Schild plots of these data were linear and yielded a mean ρA2 value of 6.81 ± 0.084. The mean slope was 1.42 ± 0.22. 4 WAY100635 (10−8–10−6 m) antagonized the contractile responses of the vasa deferentia to PE (10−6–10−3 m) in a concentration-dependent manner. Schild plots of these data were linear and yielded a mean ρA2 value of 7.05 ± 0.08. The mean slope was 0.97 ± 0.1. 5 The results suggest that while WAY100635 acts as a competitive antagonist at α1-adrenoceptors, MM-77 displays non-competitive antagonist characteristics at this receptor subtype. 6 These results may have important implications for the use of these compounds as 5-HT1A receptor antagonists in in vivo studies.

Notes: 1 The aim of the present study was to examine the modulator influence of muscarinic M2 receptors on responses of rat urinary bladder detrusor muscle evoked by endogenous stimuli, i.e. by stimulation of the bladder innervation. 2 Responses were evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS; 2–20 Hz, 0.8 ms, 60 V) of isolated strip preparations mounted in organ baths. The tension of the muscle strips was recorded digitally. EFS was performed by applying stimulation with either a short duration (5 s) or a longer duration (to reach peak response; approximately 20 s). 3 Effects of muscarinic receptor antagonists (muscarinic M1/M3 receptor selective: 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methobromide (4-DAMP); muscarinic M2 receptor selective: methoctramine), a β-adrenergic antagonist (propranolol) and an adenosine receptor antagonist (8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline) were assessed on contractile activity and on poststimulatory relaxations. 4 Low concentrations of methoctramine (10−8 m) reduced or tended to reduce the EFS-induced contraction, e.g. at 2 Hz by 12% while methoctramine at 10−7 m had no significant effect. In addition, in the presence of 4-DAMP (10−9 m), which tended to inhibit contractions at all frequencies (2–20 Hz; −17 to −25%), methoctramine at 10−8 and 10−7 m induced a further reduction of the contractile responses (−5 to −10%; 2–20 Hz). 5 The β-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol (10−6 m) and the adenosine receptor antagonist 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline (10−6 m) both increased contractile responses by 9–21% (2–10 Hz, long duration; P 〈 0.05–0.001) as a consequence of antagonizing relaxatory stimuli. Neither antagonist affected the contractile responses to EFS with the short duration stimulation. Poststimulatory relaxations were reduced by 30–60% (P 〈 0.05) by propranolol and by 40–60% (P 〈 0.001) by 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline, but for 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline only after stimulation with the short duration. 6 In the presence of methoctramine (10−7 m), the 8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline-induced increases of the contractile response to long duration EFS were significantly enhanced at 10 Hz (+12 ± 4%; P 〈 0.05), whereas no such enhancement of the propranolol inhibitory effect occurred in the presence of methoctramine. However, poststimulatory β-adrenoceptor-evoked relaxations after short duration EFS were increased by about 35% in the presence of methoctramine, but not those after long duration. 7 Thus, muscarinic M2 receptor activation inhibits adenosine receptor- and β-adrenoceptor-evoked relaxations of the rat detrusor muscle. The inhibition occurs via a transient postjunctional mechanism that mainly affects responses with a short latency.

Notes: 1 To clarify the effects of doxapram on the baroreflex, we recorded carotid sinus nerve (CSN) activity in isolated and perfused carotid artery bifurcations of rabbits. 2 The CSN activity due to chemoreceptor stimulation was blocked by resection of the nerve branches from the carotid body. After the resection, the CSN activity was correlated to increase of carotid sinus (CS) pressure. 3 Administration of doxapram reduced the CSN activity originating from baroreceptors. The effect of doxapram on baroreceptors was dose dependent and reversible. 4 It is unlikely that doxapram altered CS wall mechanics because CS pressure did not change in the presence of the drug. 5 We conclude that doxapram acts on the cardiovascular system in part by inhibiting the negative feedback loop that originates in CS baroreceptors.

Notes: 1 Cardiac glycosides have been used for centuries as therapeutic agents for the treatment of heart diaseases. In patients with heart failure, digoxin and the other glycosides exert their positive inotropic effect by inhibiting Na+–K+-ATPase, thereby increasing intracellular sodium, which, in turn, inhibits the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and increases intracellular calcium levels. As the therapeutic index of digitalis is narrow, arrhythmias are common problems in clinical practice. The mechanisms and mediators of these arrhythmias, however, are not completely understood. 2 The involvement of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system in digitalis cardiac toxicity is reviewed. 3 Receptors, channels, exchange systems or other cellular components involved in digitalis-induced cardiotoxicity are also reviewed. 4 Possible mediators of digitalis-induced cardiac toxicity are discussed. 5 Management of digitalis toxicity in patients is summarized. 6 The determination of the possible mediators of digitalis-induced cardiac toxicity will enhance our knowledge and lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies to treat these lethal arrhythmias.

Notes: 1 Microinjection of peptide YY (PYY) (0.23–2.3 nmol) into the posterior hypothalamic nucleus (PHN) of conscious rats evokes a dose-dependent pressor response and a bradycardia. 2 The increase in mean arterial pressure evoked by 2.3 nmol of PYY was not blocked by intravenous pretreatment with: (i) the nicotinic ganglionic receptor antagonist pentolinium (PENT, 10 mg kg−1) alone, or in combination with the muscarinic receptor antagonist methylatropine (MeATR, 1 mg kg−1); (ii) the α1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (PRAZ, 0.2 mg kg−1); (iii) the V1-vasopressin receptor antagonist [d(CH2)5Tyr(Me)]AVP (AVPX, 20 μg kg−1); (iv) the combination of AVPX, PENT and MeATR; (v) the combination of PRAZ, AVPX, PENT, MeATR, and the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine (0.3 mg kg−1); or (vi) the angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist ZD 7155 (1 mg kg−1). 3 Adrenal demedullation inhibited the PYY-evoked responses of drug-naïve rats, and rats pretreated with the combination of PENT, MeATR and AVPX. 4 Transection of the splanchnic nerve innervating the adrenal medullae attenuated the bradycardia, as did ZD 7155, but not the PYY-evoked pressor response. 5 Systemic pretreatment of rats with the neuropeptide Y1 receptor antagonist BIBP 3226 (1 mg kg−1) blocked the PYY-evoked cardiovascular changes, but not those evoked by microinjection of carbachol (5.5 nmol) into the PHN. 6 These results suggest that the cardiovascular changes evoked from the PHN by PYY requires the presence of the adrenal medullae, which are stimulated by: (i) a hormone to release an NPY-like substance that evokes the pressor response, and (ii) the splanchnic nerve to evoke the release of a substance that results in the bradycardia.

Notes: 1 We examined whether extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) affect the basal level of cardiovascular parameters and influence of drugs acting on the sympathetic nervous system. 2 Male rats were exposed to sham control and EMF (60 Hz, 20 G) for 1 (MF-1) or 5 days (MF-5). We evaluated the alterations of blood pressure (BP), pulse pressure (PP), heart rate (HR), and the PR interval, QRS interval and QT interval on the electrocardiogram and dysrhythmic ratio in basal level and dysrhythmia induced by β-adrenoceptor agonists. 3 In terms of the basal levels, there were no statistically significant differences among control, MF-1 and MF-5 in PR interval, QRS interval, mean BP, HR and PP. However, the QT interval, representing ventricular repolarization, was significantly reduced by MF-1 (P 〈 0.05). 4 (−)-Dobutamine (β1-adrenoceptor-selective agonist)-induced tachycardia was significantly suppressed by ELF-EMF exposure in MF-1 for the increase in HR (ΔHR), the decrease in QRS interval (ΔQRS) and the decrease in QT (ΔQT) interval. Adrenaline (nonselective β-receptor agonist)-induced dysrhythmia was also significantly suppressed by ELF-EMF in MF-1 for the number of missing beats, the dysrhythmic ratio, and the increase in BP and PP. 5 These results indicated that 1-day exposure to ELF-EMF (60 Hz, 20 G) could suppress the increase in HR by affecting ventricular repolarization and may have a down-regulatory effect on responses of the cardiovascular system induced by sympathetic agonists.

Notes: 1 Cyclic AMP formation has consistently been reported to be desensitized in various tissues including heart of animal models of end-stage renal failure (ESRF). In contrast, reports on desensitization of cAMP formation in ESRF patients remain contradictory. Whether this discrepancy results from a difference between human ESRF and its animal models or from the use of circulating blood cells in the human and various solid tissues in the animal studies, remains unclear. Therefore, we performed three studies with heart and platelets of ESRF patients undergoing haemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and age- and gender-matched controls with normal renal function (n = 11–13 each). 2 In platelets from haemodialysis patients adenylyl cyclase activity in response to receptor-dependent and -independent agonists was reduced by ≈30%, and this could be explained by an alteration at the level of adenylyl cyclase itself. However, no such desensitization was seen in platelets from peritoneal dialysis patients. 3 In hearts from ESRF patients undergoing haemodialysis, β-adrenoceptor density and subtype distribution, cAMP formation in response to the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoprenaline or various receptor-independent stimuli, were very similar to those in control patients but activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase was increased by ≈20%. 4 We conclude that conflicting reports on the desensitization of cAMP formation between ESRF patients and ESRF animal models are not explained by the use of solid tissues in animal studies vs. circulating blood cells in patient studies. Rather desensitization of cAMP formation seems to be a less consistent feature of human ESRF than of its animal models.

Notes: This paper contributes to the established literature on fiscal consolidations by investigating the distinct behaviour of central and sub-central tiers of government during general government consolidation attempts. In the light of different degrees of decentralisation across OECD countries, and the different responsibilities devolved to sub-central tiers, we believe that this approach offers an illuminating insight into the analysis of fiscal consolidations and their success.We show that the involvement of the sub-central tiers of government is crucial to achieving cuts in expenditure, particularly in relation to the overall size of the government wage bill. In addition, central governments appear to exert a strong influence on the expenditure of sub-central tiers through their grant allocations, and control of these allocations appears to have a considerable impact upon the overall success of consolidation attempts. Finally, we demonstrate that there is a skewness in cuts towards sub-central capital expenditure both when central governments cut grant allocations and when sub-central governments engage in lone consolidation attempts.

Notes: Regional grants have recently come under scrutiny and are controversial. Some estimates put the employment effect of these grants at no more than 6,000 jobs in the first half of the 1990s, against expenditure of £500 million. Other aspects of the grants are questioned, such as their ability to attract foreign direct investment and their effect on productivity. This paper reviews these issues, focusing on the recent evidence for the Regional Selective Assistance scheme. It describes the nature and difficulties involved in policy evaluation, and finds that differences over the employment effect of the grants result from possible biases induced by the evaluation methodology and from differences in the job measure used. Overall, the paper argues that the regional grants are cost-effective in employment terms, but that expenditure is small relative to the scale of the problem, so that an expansion of the grants may be desirable.

Notes: One of the main problems in pension policy is to develop an institutional framework that guarantees that public and private pensions promises are kept. This paper discusses how the governance of public and private pensions is key to making such promises credible. It argues that credibility concerns undermine the case for earnings-related pensions run by the state and private defined benefit plans.

Notes: We develop a simulation model of household behaviour in which both the consumption/saving and labour/leisure choices are endogenous. This model is used to explore the effects of the UK and Danish state tax and benefit systems on the labour supply of workers aged 50 or over. We find that, in broad terms, differences in labour force participation can be accounted for by differences in benefit structures. Furthermore, our simulations suggest that the UK system is preferred by young people while the Danish arrangement – which imposes a larger tax burden and provides larger welfare benefits – is chosen by people of 50 or older. Notably, people older than 60 are in the majority in the simulated population. The Danish system does not promote notably greater equality over the lifetime, but it does underpin a higher level of consumption for people of 50 or older.

Notes: 1 Our aim was to study the role of nitric oxide (NO) and arachidonic acid pathways in the α1-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction in mesenteric resistance arteries from 3–4 and 22 to 23-month-old Sprague-Dawley rats. 2 The expression of NO synthase (NOS), cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms, soluble guanylate cyclase, superoxide dismutase and the NAD(P)H oxidase subunits p22phox and p47phox were determined. 3 The NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, a non-selective NOS inhibitor, shifted to the left but indomethacin and NS 398, non-selective and selective COX-2 inhibitors, shifted to the right the concentration-response curve for the vasoconstriction by phenylephrine in both age groups. 4 Ageing up-regulated endothelial NOS and p22phox expression but did not modify COX, soluble guanylate cyclase, superoxide dismutase and p47phox expression. 5 These data suggest that the observed enhancement of eNOS protein expression could constitute a compensatory mechanism to counter-regulate a chronic loss of NO possibly through increased superoxide anion production from NAD(P)H oxidase induced by age.

Notes: 1 The effect of WAY 405 ((R)-N-(2-methyl-(4-indolyl-1-piperazinyl)ethyl)-N-(2-pyridinyl) cyclohexane carboxamide), a putative 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, on cardiovascular function was studied. 2 In anaesthetized rats, the i.v. injection of WAY 405 did not significantly modify basal heart rate nor blood pressure at doses of 1, 3, 10 and 30 μg kg−1; while the antagonist dose dependently antagonized the 5-HT1A receptor agonist, 8-OH-DPAT (8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin)-induced hypotension and bradycardia. 3 WAY 405 antagonized noradrenaline-induced contraction in isolated arteries, with pKB values of 6.6 ± 0.1, 6.5 ± 0.1 and 6.5 ± 0.1, for rat tail artery (α1A-adrenoceptors), rabbit aorta (α1B-adrenoceptors), and rat aorta (α1D-adrenoceptors) respectively. 4 The results show that in the control of blood pressure the new compound, WAY 405, behaves as a silent 5-HT1A receptor antagonist in the anaesthetized rat, also having low affinity for vascular α1-adrenoceptors.

Notes: 1 Chronic cold exposure of rats (7 days in a cold room at 4 °C) attenuated the sympathetic nerve stimulation (NS)-induced overflow of noradrenaline (NE) (measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, coupled to electrochemical detection) appearing in the perfusate/superfusate of the perfused mesenteric arterial bed as well as the increase in the perfusion pressure. 2 The same type of cold exposure resulted in an increase in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene expression measured in the superior cervical ganglion and NE content measured in the mesenteric artery obtained from cold-exposed rats. 3 Addition of sodium nitroprusside, a nitric oxide (NO) donor, to the buffer perfusing the mesenteric arterial bed obtained from rats maintained at room temperature also resulted in an attenuation of the NS-induced overflow of NE and increase in perfusion pressure. 4  N c-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), an NO synthase inhibitor, placed in the drinking water prevented the attenuation of the pre- and post-junctional responses to NS of the mesenteric arterial bed obtained from cold-exposed rats. 5  l-NAME treatment also increased the cold-induced elevation of blood pressure seen in whole animals. 6 The present results are consistent with the idea that cold exposure leads to a concomitant increase in sympathetic nerve activity and production of NO. We hypothesize that the increase in production and release of NO results in a decrease in the biologically active form of NE despite increased synthesis and release of the catecholamine. 7 It is concluded that the above-mentioned interactions serve as a protective mechanism offsetting the increased release and action of NE from sympathetic nerves and thus preventing the development of hypertension.

Notes: 1 G-protein-coupled receptor signalling, including transactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), has been implicated in vascular pathology. However, the role of specific RTKs in the development of diabetes-induced cardiovascular complications is not known. 2 We investigated the ability of a chronic administration of genistein, a broad-spectrum inhibitor of tyrosine kinases (TKs), AG1478, a specific inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) TK activity, and AG825, a specific inhibitor of Erb2, to modulate the altered vasoreactivity of isolated carotid artery ring segments to common vasoconstrictors and vasodilators in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. 3 In diabetic carotid artery, the vasoconstrictor responses induced by noradrenaline (NE), endothelin-1 (ET-1), and angiotensin II (Ang II), were significantly increased whereas vasodilator responses to carbachol and histamine were significantly reduced. Inhibition of TKs, EGFR or Erb2 pathway did not affect the body weight or agonist-induced vasoconstrictor and vasodilator responses in the non-diabetic control animals. However, inhibition of TKs by genistein, EGFR TK by AG1478 or Erb2 by AG825 treatment produced a significant normalization of the altered agonist-induced vasoconstrictor responses without affecting blood glucose levels. Treatment with diadzein, an inactive analogue of genistein, did not affect the vasoconstrictor and vasodilator responses in the diabetic animals. 4 Treatment with genistein, AG1478 or AG825 resulted in a significant improvement in diabetes-induced impairment in endothelium-dependent relaxation to carbachol and histamine. 5 These data suggest that activation of TK-mediated pathways, including EGFR TK signalling and Erb2 pathway, are involved in the development of diabetic vascular dysfunction in the carotid artery.

Notes: The UK Pension Protection Fund (PPF), established by the 2004 Pensions Act to protect beneficiaries of defined benefit pension schemes when the sponsor becomes insolvent and the scheme is underfunded, is required to finance itself through a levy on participating schemes. In July 2005, the PPF issued a consultative document setting out its proposal for the structure of the levy. In this paper, we provide a critique of the proposal and, in particular, its heavy reliance on securing levy income from the weakest schemes. We propose an alternative structure for the levy that recognises the limits on capacity to pay and also mitigates some other undesirable features of the proposal.

Notes: There are two overriding problems faced by ageing societies. One is the financing of public pension (social security in US terms) programmes. The other is paying for healthcare. This paper considers the healthcare issue briefly, emphasising that the issue arises primarily because of advances in medical technology. Better medical technology will improve healthcare in the future, but more advanced technologies also cost more. The focus of the rest of the paper is on the public pension problem. The emphasis is on the early retirement incentives inherent in the provisions of most public pension programmes around the world, the reduction in the labour force participation of older people caused by these incentives, and the large fiscal implication of the inducement of older people to leave the labour force. These results are based on the Gruber–Wise ongoing international social security comparison project.

Notes: Unlike many tax and benefit changes, reforms to public pension programmes take many years to have their full effect. This paper examines the effect of reforms to the public pension programme in the United Kingdom on the state retirement incomes of current generations of pensioners and on the prospective state incomes of future generations of pensioners. We show that, for an individual with lifetime earnings close to male average earnings, the UK pension system is at its most generous to those reaching the state pension age around the year 2000, but that the introduction of the state second pension and the pension credit postpones this peak for individuals on lower incomes and for those with substantial periods out of paid employment spent with caring responsibilities. We also consider how the ‘mix’ of benefits, particularly between the contributory and income-tested sectors, could change over time, and the impact that this would have on incentives to save for retirement.

Notes: 1  The aim of the current study was to investigate the existence of P2Y4 purinergic receptors in the HT-29 human colon cancer cell line. 2  We utilized Western blots and immunocytochemistry for the analysis. 3  Western blotting demonstrated two bands that could not be found after the antibody had been preabsorbed with the control peptide, suggesting that both bands are related to the P2Y4 purinergic receptor. 4  Immunocytochemistry showed immunoreactivity for the P2Y4 purinergic receptor localized in the cytoplasm of the HT-29 cells. 5  This is the first demonstration of the protein expression of P2Y4 purinergic receptors in a human colon cancer cell line.

Notes: 1 The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of inhibition of the formation of cytochrome P450 metabolites of arachidonic acid with 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) on the development of hypertension and end-organ damage in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) chronically treated with nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor l-NAME (SHR-l-NAME). 2 Administration of l-NAME in drinking water (80 mg l−1) to SHR for 3 weeks significantly elevated mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) (223 ± 4 mmHg) as compared to SHR controls drinking regular water (165 ± 3 mmHg). The administration of ABT (50 mg kg−1 i.p. alt diem) for 6 days significantly attenuated elevation of blood pressure in SHR-l-NAME (204 ± 4 mmHg). 3 l-NAME-induced increase in urine volume and protein was significantly lower in ABT-treated animals. 4 The impaired vascular responsiveness to noradrenaline and isoprenaline in the perfused mesenteric vascular bed of SHR-l-NAME-treated animals was significantly improved by ABT treatment. 5 Morphological studies of the kidneys and hearts showed that treatment with ABT minimized the extensive arterial fibrinoid necrosis, arterial thrombosis, significant narrowing of arterial lumen with marked arterial hyperplastic arterial changes that were observed in vehicle treated SHR-l-NAME. 6 In isolated perfused hearts, recovery of left ventricular function from 40 min of global ischaemia was significantly better in ABT-treated SHR-l-NAME. 7 These results suggest that in hypertensive individuals with endothelial dysfunction and chronic NO deficiency, inhibitors of 20-HETE synthesis may be able to attenuate development of high blood pressure and end-organ damage.

Notes: 1 The airways of patients with asthma are hyperresponsive to adenosine. The phenomenon can be mimicked in the actively sensitized Brown Norway rat by exposure to allergen or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We wondered whether combined treatment with allergen and endotoxin would result in additive effects or synergism with respect to increasing the sensitivity of the airways of the Brown Norway rat to adenosine. 2 Animals actively sensitized to ovalbumin and challenged intratracheally with allergen or endotoxin manifested increased bronchoconstrictor responses to adenosine. A combination of ovalbumin and endotoxin also increased the response to adenosine but the effects were at best additive. 3 Changes in the response to adenosine were selective as responses to 5-hydroxytryptamine were unaltered following ovalbumin or LPS either alone or in combination. 4 Thus, endotoxin and allergen acting together could play a role in up-regulating the response of the human asthmatic airway to adenosine. However, our data suggest that the interaction would be additive rather than synergistic.

Notes: 1 We have characterized the α1-adrenoceptor subtypes present in isolated aorta of the α1D-adrenoceptor knockout (KO) mice, by chloroethylclonidine (CEC)-induced alkylation and their protection by selective α1-adrenoceptor antagonists. 2 The α1D-adrenoceptor is involved in the contractile response to noradrenaline in wild type (WT) mouse aorta. 3 In WT mice 5-methylurapidil (5-MU, an α1A-adrenoceptor antagonist) or BMY 7378 (8-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl] ethyl]-8-azaspiro[4.5] decane-7,9 dione, a selective α1D-adrenoceptor antagonist), protected the receptors from CEC-induced (α1B/D-adrenoceptor) alkylation, the combination of both antagonists resulted in complete protection, while AH11110A (1-[biphenyl-2-yloxy]-4-imino-4-piperidin-1-yl-butan-2-ol, an α1B-adrenoceptor antagonist) did not protect. 4 In aorta of KO mice there was a 19-fold rightward shift in noradrenaline effective concentration (EC50) compared with WT; while 5-MU alone or in combination with AH11110A protected α1-adrenoceptors to the same extent. 5 The data indicate that α1A-adrenoceptors mediate contraction and suggest their role in maintaining homeostasis in the α1D-adrenoceptors KO mice.

Notes: 1 This study evaluated the inhibitory action of apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucuronopyranoside (AGC), apigenin, and omeprazole on reflux oesophagitis and gastritis in rats. AGC was isolated from Clerodendron trichotomum leaves. 2 Oesophagitis and gastritis were induced by surgical procedure and the administration of indomethacin, respectively. The intraduodenal (i.d.) administration of AGC decreased the volume of gastric juice and increased the gastric pH compared with apigenin and omeprazole. The acid output was more inhibited by AGC in a dose-dependent manner than by apigenin and omeprazole. Compared with apigenin and omeprazole, AGC significantly decreased the size of gastric lesions, which were induced by exposure of the gastric mucosa to indomethacin. 3 Malondialdehyde (MDA) content, which is the end product of lipid peroxidation, was increased significantly after the induction of reflux oesophagitis. The MDA content was decreased by AGC (i.d. 3 mg kg−1), but not by either apigenin or omeprazole. This suggests that AGC has an antioxidative effect. In the oesophagitis group, the mucosal levels of glutathione (GSH) were significantly lower than that in the normal group. However, the GSH levels were preserved after administering the AGC, suggesting that AGC possesses scavenging activity. 4 In summary, AGC is more potent than apigenin and omeprazole at inhibiting reflux oesophagitis and gastritis and may therefore be a promising drug for their treatment.

Notes: The New Deal for Young People is the major welfare-to-work programme in the UK. It is a mandatory multistage policy targeted at 18- to 24-year-old unemployed people. This paper investigates the long-term effectiveness of the programme in terms of enhancing the (re-)employment probability of participating men. It exploits the eligibility rule to identify a suitable counterfactual relying upon a simple regression discontinuity design. The combination of job-search assistance, training, wage subsidies and job experience enhances employability by about 4.6 per cent and this effect lasts over different cohorts.

Notes: The relationship between the interest rate and the maturity of newly issued bonds provides information on the debt dynamics of an economy as well as on the sustainability of its debt. Such information is crucial especially for countries that have debt-rollover concerns due to financial stress and/or macroeconomic instability. This study investigates the relationship between treasury auction maturity, which also dictates the debt maturity, and auction interest rates. When the Turkish treasury auction data from 1988 to 2004 are analysed, a reciprocal linkage between auction interest rates and maturities can be observed, especially for the 1995–2000 period, when there were chronic high inflation, high political uncertainty, high public deficits and unsuccessful attempts at stabilisation. This suggests that under an adverse shock, the Treasury decreases the auction maturity in order not to increase interest rates too much. A change in this reciprocal relationship is also reported for the post-2001 era, which is characterised by decreasing inflation, higher political stability, lower public deficits and successful stabilisation attempts.

Notes: This paper looks at the policy debate surrounding private pensions and retirement patterns in the UK. Recent increases in longevity have led not only to increased pressures in public pensions but also to corresponding increases in the importance of private pensions in the UK and changes in the way in which they are structured. We consider the economic implications of these changes, and in particular the increased importance of defined contribution plans. In addition, we discuss the prospects for future trends in retirement ages.

Notes: A widespread objection to the introduction of consumption tax systems claims that this would lead to high tax revenue losses. This paper investigates the revenue effects of a consumption tax reform in Germany. Our results suggest that the revenue losses would be surprisingly low. We find a maximum revenue loss of 1.6 per cent of annual GDP. In some years, we even find tax revenue gains. This implies that the current tax system collects little revenue from taxing the normal return to capital. Based on these results, we calculate a macroeconomic measure of the effective tax rate on capital income.

Notes: Proposals for tax cuts on cultural goods represent an ongoing debate in cultural policy. The main aim of this paper is to shed some light on this debate using microsimulation tools. First, we have estimated an Almost Ideal Demand System for 19 different groups of goods, including cultural goods. Expenditure and price elasticities have been obtained from this model. Using this information, three alternative cuts in the VAT rate on cultural goods have been microsimulated and evaluated in terms of revenue and welfare. These types of fiscal reforms will lead to welfare and efficiency gains that can be described as regressive.

Notes: This paper attempts to uncover the effects of a UK welfare-to-work programme on individual wage growth by exploiting an expansion to this welfare programme. The conventional wisdom is that such programmes trap recipients into low-wage, low-quality work – this comes from the simple argument that the ‘poverty trap’, which a wage subsidy for low-income workers induces, reduces the benefits to investments, such as on-the-job training, and so reduces wage growth. In fact, a wage subsidy will also reduce the costs of, at least, general training because we would normally expect workers to pay for their own general training in the form of lower gross wages. So a wage subsidy is a way of sharing these costs with the taxpayer. Thus, the net effect on wage progression depends on whether it reduces costs by more or less than it reduces the benefits.

Notes: The main objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive description of the economic outcomes and performance of Britain's immigrant communities today and over the last two decades. We distinguish between males and females and, where possible and meaningful, between immigrants of different origins. Our comparison group is white British-born individuals. Our data source is the British Labour Force Survey. We first provide descriptive information on the composition of immigrants in Britain, and how this has changed over time, their socio-economic characteristics, their industry allocation and their labour market outcomes. We then investigate various labour market performance indicators (labour force participation, employment, wages and self-employment) for immigrants of different origins, and compare them with British-born whites of the same age, region and other background characteristics. We find that over the last 20 years, Britain's immigrant population has changed in origin composition and has dramatically improved in skill composition — not dissimilar from the trend in the British-born population. We find substantial differences in economic outcomes between white and ethnic minority immigrants. Within these groups, immigrants of different origins differ considerably with respect to their education and age structure, their regional distribution and their sector choice. In general, white immigrants are more successful in Britain, although there are differences between groups of different origins. The investigation shows that immigrants from some ethnic minority groups, and in particular females, are particularly disadvantaged, with Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at the lower end of this scale.

Notes: This paper deals with the problems encountered in defining and measuring the degree of fiscal decentralisation. Drawing on a recent analytical framework of the OECD, different measures of tax autonomy and revenue decentralisation are presented which consider the tax-raising powers of sub-central governments. Taking account of changes in the assignment of decision-making competencies over the course of time, new time series of annual data on the degree of fiscal decentralisation are provided for 23 OECD countries over the period between 1965 and 2001. It is shown that common measures usually employed tend to overestimate the extent of fiscal decentralisation considerably. Evidence is also provided of increasing fiscal decentralisation in a majority of OECD countries during the last three decades.

Notes: In social project appraisal, the policy profile of both distributional welfare weights and the social discount rate has risen considerably in recent years. This fact has important implications for the allocation of funds to social projects and policies in countries, and in unions of countries such as the EU. A key component in the formulae for both welfare weights and the social discount rate is the elasticity of marginal utility of consumption, e. A critical review of existing evidence on e suggests that the UK Treasury's preferred value of unity is too low. New evidence presented in this paper, based on the structure of personal income tax rates, suggests that, on average, for developed countries e is close to 1.4. This particular approach to the estimation of e has previously been under-utilised by researchers.

Notes: 1 The fish somatostatin receptor 3 (fsst3) is one of the few somatostatin (SRIF) receptors cloned from a non-mammalian species so far. Here we extended our earlier characterization of this receptor by investigating the guanine nucleotide sensitivity of agonist radioligand binding at the fsst3 receptor recombinantly expressed in CCL39 (Chinese hamster lung fibroblast) cells. Further, we measured somatostatin (SRIF) and cortistatin (CST) analogues stimulated GTPγS binding, inhibition of forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase (FSAC) and stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) activities. The present transductional data were then compared with previous radioligand binding and/or second messenger features determined for fsst3 and/or human SRIF receptors (hsst2, hsst3 and hsst5). 2 The GTP analogue guanylylimidodiphosphate (GppNHp) inhibited binding of [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3octreotide by 72 and 83% suggesting preferential labelling of G-protein-coupled fsst3 receptors. By contrast, [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 binding was rather GppNHp insensitive (42 and 35% inhibition) suggesting labelling of both coupled and non-coupled receptor states. These results might explain the apparent higher receptor densities determined in saturation experiments with [125I]LTT-SRIF28 and [125I][Tyr10]CST14 (4470 and 4030 fmol mg−1) compared with [125I]CGP 23996 and [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (3420 and 1520 fmol mg−1). 3 SRIF14 (10 μm)-stimulated specific [35S]GTPγS binding by three-fold; SRIF28 and octreotide displayed full agonism, whereas most other ligands displayed 60–80% intrinsic activity compared with SRIF14. SRIF14 and SRIF28 inhibited forskolin-stimulated AC (FSAC) activity by 60%; all tested ligands except BIM 23056 inhibited FSAC with comparable high intrinsic activities. SRIF14 stimulated PLC activity five- to six-fold, as determined by measuring total [3H] IPx accumulation; it was rather insensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX, 100 ng ml−1, 21% inhibition), which suggests the Gq-family proteins couple to PLC activity. SRIF14, SRIF28 and [Tyr10]CST14 showed full agonism at PLC, whereas all other ligands behaved as partial agonists (20–70% intrinsic activity). BIM 23056, which showed weak partial or no agonism, antagonized SRIF14-induced total [3H]-IPx production (pKB = 6.83), but failed to block competitively agonist-stimulated [35S]GTPγS binding or agonist-induced inhibition of FSAC activity. 4 Comparison of the pharmacological profiles of fsst3 receptors established in GTPγS binding, FSAC inhibition and PLC stimulation resulted in low correlations (r = 0.410–0.594). Both rank orders of potency and rank orders of relative efficacy varied in the three second messenger experiments. Significant, although variable correlations were obtained comparing GTPγS binding and inhibition of FSAC activity with previously reported affinity profiles of [125I]LTT-SRIF28, [125I][Tyr10]CST14, [125I]CGP 23996, [125I][Tyr3]octreotide (r = 0.75–0.83; 0.68–0.89). By contrast, the PLC stimulation and radioligand-binding profiles did not correlate. 5 Comparison of the functional data (GTPγS binding, FSAC inhibition, PLC stimulation) of fsst3 receptors with those of human sst2, sst3, sst5 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells resulted in highest correlation with the hsst5 receptor (r = 0.94, 0.97, 0.49) 〉 hsst2 (0.80, 0.50, n.d.) 〉 hsst3 (0.25, 0.19, 0.17). 6 In summary, fsst3 receptors expressed in CCL39 cells are involved in signalling cascades similar to those reported for mammalian SRIF receptors, suggesting SRIF receptors to be highly conserved in evolution. Binding and functional data showed highest similarity of fsst3 receptors with the human sst5 receptor subtype. Different affinities, receptor densities and GppNHp-sensitivities determined with the four radioligands (agonists) are assumed to results from ligand-specific states of the fsst3-ligand complex. The differences in the rank orders of potency and relative efficacy in the various signalling cascades may be explained by agonist-induced receptor trafficking.

Notes: This paper analyses the problem of water affordability in Great Britain. The use and meaning of the term ‘affordability’ are discussed in relation to the domestic or household customers of the British water industry. Using microeconomic data from the Family Resources Survey, affordability is calibrated by income group and household composition for Scotland, England and Wales. Whilst measurement or calibration is the primary focus of the paper, the related question of the way in which an affordability threshold or benchmark might be established is considered. A critique of the various financial support mechanisms currently available to households encountering difficulties in paying water and sewerage charges is followed by a discussion of the policy implications of the research and the way in which it relates to the wider social inclusion agenda of central government.

Notes: We develop a model of the Pension Protection Fund (PPF), a defined benefit pension guarantee system for the UK, based on an analogy between pension liabilities and corporate debt obligations. We show that the PPF is likely to face many years of low claims interspersed irregularly with periods of very large claims. There is a significant chance that these claims will be so large that the PPF will default on its liabilities, leaving the government with no option but to bail it out. The cause of this problem is the double impact of a fall in equity prices on the PPF: it makes sponsor firms more likely to default and it makes defaulted plans more likely to be underfunded. We use our model to derive a fair premium for PPF insurance under different circumstances, to estimate the extent of cross-subsidies in the PPF between strong and weak sponsors, and to show that risk-rated premiums are unlikely to have a substantial effect on either the size or the lumpiness of claims. We argue that for the PPF to operate effectively, it should be introduced in tandem with strong minimum funding requirements and a lower level of benefit guarantee than at present.

Notes: This essay discusses the merits of public intervention in the provision of television broadcasting services. I argue that intervention was justified in the past, when there were just a few channels and when advertising was the sole source of commercial funds. However, the advent of subscription television overcomes many of the market failures that once existed. Moreover, asymmetric treatment of broadcasters acts to distort the incentives of commercial broadcasters. Finally, viewers have an increasing ability to avoid unappealing, but perhaps socially desirable, content, which further weakens the case for public intervention in the market.

Notes: We evaluate the effects of undergoing any early education (before the compulsory starting age of 5) and of pre-school on a cohort of British children born in 1958. In contrast to most available studies, we are able to assess whether any effects on cognition and socialisation are long-lasting, as well as to estimate their net impact on subsequent educational attainment and labour market performance.Controlling for a particularly rich set of child, parental, family and neighbourhood characteristics, we find some positive and long-lasting effects from early education. Specifically, pre-compulsory education (preschool or school entry prior to age 5) was found to yield large improvements in cognitive tests at age 7, which, though diminished in size, remained significant throughout the schooling years, up to age 16. By contrast, attendance of pre-school (nursery or playgroup) was found to yield a positive but short-lived impact on test scores. The effects on socialisation appear to be more mixed: we found some positive, though short-lasting, effects of pre-compulsory education on teachers' reports of social adjustment (only at age 7); on the other hand, we found some adverse behavioural effects according to parental reports at age 7 which persisted up to age 11.In adulthood, pre-compulsory education was found to increase the probabilities of obtaining qualifications and of being employed at age 33. For both pre-compulsory education and pre-school per se, we found evidence of a marginally significant 3–4 per cent wage gain at age 33.

Notes: Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon (DOC) are significant in the C and N cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. Little is known about their dynamics in the field and the factors regulating their concentrations and fluxes. We followed the fluxes and concentrations of the two in a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forest ecosystem in Germany from 1995 to 1997 by sampling at fortnightly intervals. Bulk precipitation, throughfall, forest floor percolates from different horizons and soil solutions from different depths were analysed for major ions, dissolved organic N and DOC. The largest fluxes and concentrations were observed in percolates of the Oi layer, which contain amino N and amino sugar N as the major components. The average ratio of dissolved organic C to N in forest floor percolates corresponded to the C/N ratio of the solid phase. Concentrations and fluxes were highly dynamic with time and decreased with depth. The largest fluxes in forest floor percolates occurred when the snow melted. The concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic N were significantly correlated with DOC, but the correlation was weak, indicating different mechanisms of release and consumption. The dynamics of dissolved organic N and DOC in forest floor percolates were not explained by pH and ionic strength of the soil solution nor by the water flux, despite large variations in these. Furthermore, the release of these fractions from the forest floor was not related to the quality and amount of throughfall. Concentrations of dissolved organic N in forest floor percolates increased with soil temperature, while temperature effects on DOC were less pronounced, but their fluxes from the forest floor were not correlated with temperature. In the growing season concentrations of both dissolved organic N and C in forest floor percolates decreased with increasing intensity of throughfall. Thus, the average throughfall intensity was more important than the amount of percolate in regulating their concentrations in forest floor percolates. Our data emphasize the role of dissolved organic N and DOC in the N and C cycle of forest ecosystems.

Notes: The migration of colloidal particles in the unsaturated zone may enhance leaching of sorbing contaminants to surface waters and groundwaters. This paper describes a simple model of particle leaching and translocation based on the dual-porosity model MACRO. The model includes descriptions of processes such as ‘source-limited’ particle detachment due to the kinetic energy of rain, replenishment of the depleted store of particles up to a maximum value determined by the amount of dispersible clay in the soil, and convective transport of particles in macropores subject to a filter sink term varying as a function of pore water velocity. Estimates of model parameter values are obtained by comparing simulations with measurements of particle concentrations in the discharge from tile drains made in a silty clay soil in southwest Sweden. Calibrated in this way, the model is shown to reproduce satisfactorily the observations. A sensitivity analysis suggests that the critical parameters in the model are those related to particle filtering during vertical transport in soil macropores.

Notes: The stabilization of organic matter in soil by interaction with aluminium (Al) or allophane is important in maintaining soil quality, and in retarding the decomposition of soil organic matter. Complexation of Al by soil organic matter may also ameliorate Al toxicity. Here we use 13C-NMR spectroscopy to assess the interaction of soil organic matter with both Al and allophane in two poorly drained podzols containing only trace amounts of iron. The 13C-NMR spectrum of the subsoil of the allophane-rich One Tree Point podzol shows an intense peak at 179 p.p.m., assigned to carbon in carboxylic acids. This peak shifts to 177 p.p.m. after removal of allophane (11% of the soil mass) by treatment with HF. We infer that the carboxyl groups in the organic matter are bonded to structural Al on the surface of allophane spherules. In the non-allophanic Te Kopuru podzol, on the other hand, the organic matter apparently interacts with Al ions in the soil solution. This soil also has more aromatic carbon and fewer carbons in carboxyl and carbohydrate structures than the allophanic sample. There is an indication that allophane stabilizes carbohydrate groups as well as carboxyl groups.

Notes: Soil profiles under beech, spruce and a grassland have been analysed to study the evolution of natural n-alkanes in pollution-free ecosystems. The soils had all developed on granitic bedrock, at an altitude of 1300–1500 m in the region of Mont-Lozère (southern Massif-Central, France). In contrast to the grassland soil, the two forest soils both possessed a well-developed acidic moder humus-type horizon. This could be subdivided as follows: fresh litter (OL), fragmentation (OF) and humification (OH) layers; two litters, one fresh (OL1) and one old (OL2) could actually be distinguished in the beech forest soil. The n-alkane signature of the parent plants was preserved in the top litter. Immediately underneath, in the OF layer(s) the original n-alkane signatures were progressively but rapidly replaced by a common signature composed of n-C27 and n-C25 with larger proportions of the former than of the latter. These two hydrocarbons were most probably produced in situ by fungi. These results appear to illustrate the action of soil microorganisms which metabolize the inherited n-alkanes and produce new compounds of the same family. Unlike the alkanes and the low molecular weight fatty acids ≤ C20 (which increase greatly in the OL2 layer under beech as a result of intense microbial activity), the heavy fatty acids (〉 C20) show no significant change in the organic horizon.

Notes: This paper reports a procedure for determining the content of strongly fixed NH4+ in soil. The procedure consists of a Kjeldahl digestion followed by an acid attack of the residue with a 5 m HF:1 m HCl solution. Distillations after each of the two treatments recover different forms of NH4+. The procedure was tested on fine earth (〈 2 mm) and skeleton (〉 2 mm) fractions of two forest soils developed on sandstone parent material. In both soil fractions we evaluated three different forms of NH4+-N: (i) Kjeldahl, (ii) non-exchangeable and (iii) micaceous. The last is located in the interlayer of mica flakes larger than 50 μm that resist the Kjeldahl digestion and is considered strongly fixed. The total NH4+-N content of a soil is obtained by the summation of the Kjeldahl and the micaceous NH4+-N. In the soils under consideration, the micaceous form prevails in the skeleton because this fraction is richer in micas of sand size (〉 50 μm). Following the proposed procedure, we found that micas (muscovite and biotite) contain about 3000 mg kg–1 of NH4+-N in the interlayer. The presence of micaceous NH4+-N in soil is generally ignored because the skeleton is usually excluded from analyses, and the micas larger than 50 μm cannot be dissolved by the Kjeldahl treatments. The micaceous NH4+ is the least extractable form of NH4+-N, and we infer that it is the least available to plants.

Notes: Hardsetting of soil comprises two contrasting, unfavourable physical conditions at different water contents, namely extreme hardness when dry and complete slaking when wet. This behaviour was changed by adding small amounts of ferrihydrite and aluminium hydroxide to the soil. The aggregation and its stability in the wet state increased, whereas the tensile strength of the dry soils decreased. Both resulted mainly by making the fine particles less mobile by aggregation. In some cases adding large amounts of Al hydroxide caused a resuspension of soil particles by reversing the charge, resulting in instability when wet and high stability when dry. We postulate that aggregation results from the interaction between negatively charged siliceous surfaces and positively charged oxides. In addition we think that newly formed Si–O–Fe bonds play a role in binding particles together as a result of a positive relation between the amount of ferrihydrite added and the oxalate-soluble Si. We conclude that hardsetting resulting from weak structure is caused by lack of aggregating agents such as metal hydroxides.

Notes: Simple models describing nitrogen processes are required both to estimate nitrogen mineralization in field conditions and to predict nitrate leaching at large scales. We have evaluated such a model called LIXIM, which allows calculation of nitrogen mineralization and leaching from bare soils, assuming that these are the dominant processes affecting N in bare soil. LIXIM is a layered, functional model, with a 1-day time step. Input data consist of frequent measurements of water and mineral N contents in soil cores, standard meteorological data and simple soil characteristics. The nitrate transport is simulated using the ‘mixing-cells’ approach. The variations in N mineralization with temperature and moisture are accounted for, providing calculation of the ‘normalized time’. An optimization routine is used to estimate the actual evaporation and the N mineralization rates that provide the best fit between observed and simulated values of water and nitrate contents in all measured soil layers.The model was evaluated in two field experiments (on loamy and chalky soils) including treatments, lasting 9–20 months. The water and nitrate contents in soil were satisfactorily simulated in both sites, and all treatments, including a 15N tracer experiment performed in the loamy soil. In the chalky soil, the calculated water balance agreed well with drainage results obtained in lysimeters and independent estimates of evaporation. At both sites, N mineralization was reduced by the incorporation of crop residues (wheat or oilseed rape straw); the amounts of nitrogen immobilized varied between 20 and 35 kg N ha−1. In the treatments without crop residues, the mineralization rate followed first-order kinetics (against normalized time) in the loamy soil, and zero-order kinetics in the chalky soil. In the latter soil, the mineralization kinetics calculated in situ were close to the kinetics measured in laboratory conditions when both were expressed against normalized time.

Notes: Predictions of changes in soil solution chemistry and exchangeable cations which occur on ash deposition after slash burning are complex and may be facilitated by the use of chemical models. Multi-ion sorption in the topsoil of an Amazonian Acrisol was studied by sequentially adding small amounts of electrolytes to soil and mixtures of soil and ash in batch experiments. A chemical equilibrium model that included inorganic complexation, multiple cation exchange and sparingly soluble salts (aluminium hydroxide and magnesian calcites) was used to interpret the results. The model predicted well the pH and sorption values in all experiments in which there was no addition of ash. The model suggested that cation exchange was the main process determining concentrations of soil solutions in all cases where neutral salt solutions were added, and that proton buffering was achieved by the dissolution of Al(OH)3 which was followed by Al3+ adsorption. Calculation of ion activity products in solutions from various batch experiments in soil + ash mixtures suggested that magnesian calcites of differing solubility may be in equilibrium with the activities of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in solution. An incongruent dissolution of Mg resulted in less soluble magnesian calcites in the ash. The model estimated satisfactorily the pH and the sorption of ions for all experiments with differing ash additions to the soil. Most of the Ca and significant amounts of Mg added in the ash are expected to remain for a long time in the soil and may determine the Ca and Mg status of the soil solution, primarily controlled by principles of solubility products.

Notes: To understand the process and the kinetics of potassium release from the clay interlayer in natural and arable soils in more detail, I tested the hypotheses that large, monovalent cations, especially NH4+ and Cs+, can reduce the release rates of K+ which is exchanged by Ca2+, even if these monovalent cations are present in concentrations of only a few μm. Percolation experiments were carried out with different illitic soil materials, some containing vermiculite, with 5 m m CaCl2 at pH 5.8 and 20°C, in some cases for over 7000 h. NH4+ and Cs+ both caused a large decrease in the rate at which K+ was released, Cs+ especially. Suppression began at 5 μm NH4+ Blocking by 20 μm NH4+ was easily reversible: the release rates readily increased when NH4+ was omitted from the exchange solution. Blocking by 2 μm Cs+ was equal to approximately 90% of that at 10 μm Cs+. Larger concentrations of Cs+ than 10 μm did not further reduce release but rather caused a slight increase, probably because of enhanced exchange of K+ by Cs+ without exfoliation of the interlayer space. Blocking by Cs+ was not reversible within 〉 7000 h of percolation by 5 m m CaCl2. The blocking effect was reproduced in several different soil materials using 10 μm Cs+ but was most pronounced in vermiculite-rich samples. As NH4+ is present in most arable soils, at least in concentrations of a few μm, I conclude that the observed effects are of significance in the K dynamics processes in soils, for example near the roots of plants. Further, very small concentrations of Cs+ in exchange solutions containing a large background of Ca2+ appear to be useful for suppressing K+ release from the interlayer in laboratory studies, probably without significantly altering the exchange at outer mineral surfaces.

Notes: Burning vegetation produces partly charred plant material which subsequently could contribute to the highly refractory proportion of soil organic matter. The presence of charred organic carbon (COC) was investigated in 17 horizons originating from nine soils from Germany and the Netherlands using a suite of complementary methods (high-energy ultraviolet photo-oxidation, scanning electron microscopy, solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance, lignin analysis by CuO oxidation). Charred organic carbon could not be detected in the A horizons of an Alisol and a Gleysol, but it contributed up to 45% of the organic carbon and up to about 8 g kg–1 of the soil in a range of grey to black soils (Cambisol, Luvisol, Phaeozem, Chernozem and Greyzem). All these soils have chernozemic soil properties (dark colour, A–C profile, high base saturation, bioturbation). A 10-km colour sequence of four chernozemic soils, which were very similar in chemical and physical properties, showed a strong relation between colour and the content of COC. This suggests that the COC affects mainly soil colour in the sequence studied. Finely divided COC seems to be a major constituent of many chernozemic soils in Germany. These results suggest that besides climate, vegetation and bioturbation, fire has played an important role in the pedogenesis of chernozemic soils.

Notes: Accessibility of adsorbates to internal active sites of soils depends mainly on the porous structure of the material. We aimed to determine the distribution of pore sizes in soils with varied physico-chemical properties, by combining adsorption of gases and mercury porosimetry. Microporosity was studied by physical adsorption of N2 at 77 K and CO2 at 273 K; mercury intrusion porosimetry allowed us to evaluate the macroporosity; and mesoporosity was determined by capillary condensation of N2 and mercury porosimetry. The soils investigated were essentially macroporous, with volumes between 0.33 and 0.73 cm3 g–1; the maxima in the differential pore-size distribution were in the range 1500–4000 nm. Volumes of meso- or micropores were always less than 10% of macropore volumes. Calculations based on the theory of Dubinin and the αs-method (for N2 at 77 K) provided, generally, coincident results. In a soil containing much organic matter, N2 adsorption was only one-ninth that of CO2 adsorption, showing that N2 adsorption into the narrow micropores of organic matter was kinetically restricted. When accessibility to micropores was not restricted, the total volume of micropores could be deduced from N2 adsorption, whereas CO2 measured exclusively the narrowest microporosity.

Notes: A study was conducted to determine the influence of switchgrass roots on the mobility, adsorption–desorption and mineralization of atrazine in Cullen clay loam and Emporia loamy sand soils. Bromide and atrazine distribution profiles in the leachates indicated greater preferential movement in columns with roots than in columns without roots. Larger concentrations of atrazine were detected at lower depths of Emporia soil with switchgrass roots than without. Adsorption of atrazine was greater in Cullen than in Emporia soil and conformed to Freundlich isotherms. In both Cullen and Emporia soils, adsorption and desorption were not different between soil with or without switchgrass roots. After 84 days of incubation, less than 6% of the applied atrazine was mineralized in the Cullen soil and 2% in Emporia soil. Mineralization was greater in the Cullen soil than in the Emporia soil at 42, 56, 70 and 84 days of sampling. The presence of switchgrass roots did not affect the mineralization of atrazine in Emporia soil. The presence of switchgrass roots caused preferential movement of atrazine, but did not affect its adsorption and mineralization in either soil type.

Notes: Infiltration and sheet flow depend mainly on hydraulic conductivity under nearly saturated conditions which can vary in space and time. We have studied the variation in relation to the topography at different stages of a cultivation year to understand the origin of sheet flow over the land where maize is grown. The sampling was done to a complete factorial design with two landscape positions, upslope and downslope, two sites in relation to wheeling, no and under wheeling, and three dates in relation to soil surface changes and agricultural operations, June and October 1995 and April 1996. Four measurements were randomly distributed on each of the four sites and each of the three dates. The hydraulic conductivity was measured with a tension disc infiltrometer controlling tension at the soil surface. Steady-state infiltration rates were measured at four soil water tensions: 0.1, 0.3, 0.6 and 1.5 kPa. We also measured bulk density and soil moisture content. Hydraulic conductivity decreased during the year at all tensions by a factor of 2–3 where there was no wheeling, and a factor of 4–6 under wheeling. This decrease was greater downslope than upslope, particularly under traffic. The topographic effect was less than that of time but significant. Whereas the hydraulic conductivity was similar over the field at the beginning of the crop cycle (June), it differed according to the landscape position at the end (April), especially under traffic. These topographic variations of the hydraulic conductivity may be due to slight variations of soil components and hydric conditions in the particular case studied. They are important in relation to the characteristics of rainfall and runoff and help explain the spatial and temporal distributions of sheet flow and erosional processes that themselves may contribute to a redistribution of soil particles and induce feedback effects on sheet flow and infiltration.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Variations topographiques et saisonnières de la conductivité hydraulique en condition non saturée mesurée à l’échelle parcellaire par infiltrométrie Résumé La répartition des pluies entre infiltration et ruissellement dépend principalement de la conductivité hydraulique proche de la saturation qui varie à la fois dans l’espace et le temps. Les variations de la conductivité hydraulique selon la topographie sont analysées dans l’objectif de mieux comprendre la distribution spatiale du ruissellement dans le versant. Ces variations spatiales ont été quantifiées durant une année culturale sur une parcelle de maïs, en relation avec la topographie de la parcelle et la succession des opérations culturales. Le plan d’échantillonnage est un plan factoriel complet prenant en compte la position topographique, amont et aval, la localisation relative aux traces de roue, avec et sans trace de roue, et trois dates relatives à la dynamique des états de surface et aux opérations culturales, juin et octobre 1995 et avril 1996. Quatre mesures de la conductivité hydraulique ont été réalisées sur chaque site avec un infiltromètre à succion appliquéà la surface du sol. Les flux infiltrés ont été mesurés à l’équilibre et à quatre potentiels: –0.1, –0.3, –0.6 et –1.5 kPa. Ces mesures ont été complétées par un suivides teneurs en eau et des densités apparentes sur l’ensemble du versant et de la période d’étude. La conductivité hydraulique décroît au cours de l’année quel que soit le potentiel. Elle est divisée par un facteur deux à trois durant toute la période d’étude sans trace de roue, par un facteur quatre à six avec trace de roue. Cette diminution de la conductivité hydraulique dépend de la position topographique: elle est plus forte en aval qu’en amont, en particulier sur passage de roue. Tandis que la conductivité hydraulique apparaît relativement homogène sur le champ en début de cycle cultural, elle varie fortement de l’amont à l’aval en fin de cycle cultural, en particulier sur trace de roue. Ces variations spatiales de la conductivité hydraulique semblent liées à de faibles variations des constituants du sol qui interagissent avec des conditions hydriques très différentes. Ces variations de la conductivité hydraulique sont importantes au regard des caractéristiques des pluies et du ruissellement sur ce site. Elles expliquent pour partie la distribution spatiale et temporelle du ruissellement et des processus d’érosion qui eux-même peuvent contribuer à la redistribution des constituants dans le versant et induire des effets retour sur les processus de ruissellement et d’infiltration.

Notes: Heavy density fractions of soil contain organic matter tightly bound to the surface of soil minerals. The chemical composition and ecological meaning of non-metabolic decomposition products and microbial metabolites in organic–mineral bonds is poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated the heavy fraction (density 〉 2 g cm–3) from the topsoil of a Gleysol (Bainsville, Ottawa, Canada). It accounted for 952 g kg–1 of soil and contained 19 g kg–1 of organic C. Pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectra showed intensive signals of carbohydrates, and phenols and lignin monomers, alkylaromatics (mostly aromatic) N-containing compounds, and peptides. These classes of compound have been proposed as structural building blocks of soil organic matter. In comparison, the light fraction (density 〉 2 g cm–3) was richer in lignin dimers, lipids, sterols, suberin and fatty acids which clearly indicate residues of plants and biota. To confirm the composition and stability of mineral-bound organic matter, we also investigated the heavy fraction (density 〉 2.2 g cm–3) from clay-, silt- and sand-sized separates of the topsoil of a Chernozem (Bad Lauchstädt, Germany). These heavy size separates differed in their mass spectra but were generally characterized by volatilization maxima of alkylaromatics, lipids and sterols at about 500°C. We think that the observed high-temperature volatilization of these structural building blocks of soil organic matter is indicative of the organic–mineral bonds. Some unexpected low-temperature volatilization of carbohydrates, N-containing compounds, peptides, and phenols and lignin monomers was assigned to hot-water-extractable organic matter which accounted for 7–27% of the carbon and nitrogen in the heavy fractions. As this material is known to be mineralizable, our study indicates that these constituents of the heavy density fractions are degradable by micro-organisms and involved in the turnover of soil organic matter.

Notes: A wavelet is a compact analysing kernel that can be moved over a sequence of data to measure variation locally. There are several families of wavelet, and within any one family wavelets of different lengths and therefore smoothness and their corresponding scaling functions can be assembled into a collection of orthogonal functions. Such an assemblage can then be applied to filter spatial data into a series of independent components at varying scales in a single coherent analysis. The application requires no assumptions other than that of finite variance. The methods have been developed for processing signals and remote imagery in which data are abundant, and they need modification for data from field sampling. The paper describes the theory of wavelets. It introduces the pyramid algorithm for multiresolution analysis and shows how it can be adapted for fairly small sets of transect data such as one might obtain in soil survey. It then illustrates the application using Daubechies’s wavelets to two soil transects, one of gilgai on plain land in Australia and the other across a sedimentary sequence in England. In both examples the technique revealed strongly contrasting local features of the variation that had been lost by averaging in previous analyses and expressed them quantitatively in combinations of both scale and magnitude. Further, the results could be explained as the spatial effects of change in topography or geology underlying the variation in the soil.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Analyse et éclairissement sur la variation du sol en utilisant les ondelettes RésuméUne ondelette est un noyau compact d’analyse qu’on peut passer sur une séquence de données pour quantifier la variation localement. Plusieurs familles d’ondelettes existent. Chaque famille est caractérisée par des fonctions d’échelle de longueurs d’ondes et de degrés de lissage différents, le tout constituant un ensemble de fonctions orthogonales. L’application de ces fonctions sur des données spatiales est une méthode d’analyse unique et cohérente qui permet de filtrer des données spatiales en identifiant des composantes indépendentes à différentes échelles. L’application n’éxige que l’hypothése d’une variance bornée. Ces méthodes ont été developpées pour le traitement de signaux qui contiennent énormement de données comme des images de télédétection. Elles necessitent des modifications avant de les appliquer sur des données d’échantillonage provenant du terrain. Cet article décrit la théorie d’ondelettes. Il introduit l’algorithme pyramidal pour une analyse à quelques résolutions. Il montre ensuite comment on peut adapter l’algorithme pour un ensemble de données peu nombreuses comme celles qu’on peut obtenir lors d’une prospection du sol sur des transects.Les resultats montrent l’application des ondelettes de Daubechies à deux transects pédologiques, lepremier situé sur une plaine marquée de gilgaï en Australie, et le second à travers une séquence de sediments jurassiques en Angleterre. Dans les deux exemples, la technique a révélé des contrastes bien marqués de certain traits locaux qui ont été totalement occultés dans des analyses antérieures basées sur le calcul des moyennes. La technique des ondelettes permet aussi une quantification de ces traits locaux, en fonction de l’échelle d’observation et de la magnitude. De plus, ces résultats peuvent être interprétés par les effets d’une variation spatiale de la topographie ou de la géologie qui sont à l’origine de la variation du sol.

Notes: Data from two Podzol O and E horizons, sampled in 1-cm layers at 13 points within 2 m × 2 m plots, were used to test the hypothesis that the composition of hydrogen ions (H) and aluminium (Al) adsorbed to the solid-phase soil organic matter (SOM) determines pH and Al solubility in organic-rich acidic forest soils. Organically adsorbed Al was extracted sequentially with 0.5 m CuCl2 and organically adsorbed H was determined as the difference between total acidity titrated to pH 8.2 and Al extracted in 0.5 m CuCl2. The quotient between fractions of SOM sites binding Al and H (NAl/NH) is shown to determine the variation in pH and Al solubility. It is furthermore shown that models in which pH and Al solubility are linked via a pH-dependent solubility of an Al hydroxide and in which cation exchange between Al3+ and Ca2+, rather than cation exchange between Al3+ and H+, is the main pH-buffering process cannot be used to simulate pH or Al solubility in O and E horizons. The fraction of SOM sites adsorbing Al increased by depth in the lower O and throughout the E horizon at the same magnitude as sites adsorbing H decreased. The fraction of sites binding the cations Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + Na+ remained constant. It is suggested that a net reaction between Al silicates (proton acceptors) and protonated functional groups in SOM (proton donors) is the long-term chemical process determining the composition of organically adsorbed H and Al in the lower part of the O and in the E horizon of Podzols. Thus, in the long term, pH and Al solubility are determined by the interaction between organic acidity and Al alkalinity.

Notes: The sequence of palaeosols and intervening loess units in North China provides a sensitive, detailed record of global climatic changes over the last 2.5 million years. Although various depth functions of properties, notably magnetic susceptibility, have been successfully correlated with oxygen isotope records from the deep oceans, there is a need to improve our understanding of such proxy measures used to infer past climates. For instance, pedologists are well placed to address some of the uncertainties surrounding the origin of the enhanced magnetic susceptibility (MS) values in palaeosols, and the reconstruction of palaeoprecipitation patterns by application of MS climofunctions. There are few published field descriptions of the soils buried in the loess, and those available often fail to recognize their accretionary and polycyclic nature. Field and micromorphological techniques enable finely detailed reconstructions of the pedogenic and sedimentary signals held in both palaeosol and loess units. Micromorphology, in particular, has provided detailed environmental information on successive pedosedimentary developmental stages at several sites in the Loess Plateau of China. This approach re-focuses attention on the local, climatically sensitive mechanisms that underpin the inferred global patterns of climate.

Notes: The hierarchical nature of soil structure is examined by measuring the physical properties of a range of aggregate sizes obtained using repetitive fracture. Fractals are used to assess the change with aggregate size of the specific volume, the proportion of pre-existing cracks which link to form the aggregate failure surface, and the aggregate failure stress. The pore size distribution, evaluated using mercury porosimetry and the application of the box counting algorithm to thin sections and thick sections, is also used to obtain a fractal dimension, D. Our results show that D depends upon the measurement approach for mass fractal scaling. This finding may limit the application of fractals to predict the scaling behaviour of soil physical properties.

Notes: Laboratory experiments were conducted on artificially weathered mudrocks (i) to measure changes in the roughness following cycles of freezing and thawing, and (ii) to find a simple method to calculate roughness as an alternative method to standard deviation methods. Surface roughness was measured with a laser profile meter and the resulting measurements were analysed by a program written for the purpose. The analysis is based on calculation of the fractal dimension of the profile for selected ranges of scale, and estimated by linear regression. Results revealed distinct micro- and macrotopographic variations of artificially weathered surface samples.

Notes: La diversité des conditions d’environnement (roche-mère, climat, végétation) prévalant dans un massif de moyenne montagne (Vosges, France) nous a permis d’établir leur rôle dans la manifestation à des degrés divers des propriétés andiques dans le sol. Nous avons examiné un lot de 13 profils sélectionnés à partir de critères lithologiques, climatiques et morphologiques présumés favorables à l’expression de ces propriétés andiques: roches-mères basiques d’origine volcanique ou non, climat montagnard très humide, abondance de matière organique sur une grande profondeur. Ces profils se subdivisent en deux populations. Quatre d’entre eux peuvent être classés comme des Andisols (Alic Fulvudands) alors que les autres ont des propriétés andiques trop faiblement exprimées pour appartenir à cet ordre et doivent être classés comme des Andic Haplumbrepts. Tous ces sols sont dépourvus d’allophanes. Dans cet environnement de moyenne montagne, les facteurs favorables à la manifestation de propriétés andiques sont d’une part, les altitudes et les expositions qui induisent de faibles températures et de fortes précipitations et d’autre part, l’altérabilité des roches-mères déterminée par leur composition chimique et minéralogique. Comme les vieux matériaux volcaniques sur lesquels se développent la plupart des sols étudiés sont pauvres en verres, voire complètement dévitrifiés, les Andisols vosgiens présentent beaucoup d’analogies avec les Andisols non-allophaniques non-volcaniques identifiés dans d’autres environnements. Leurs propriétés andiques sont faiblement exprimées et elles sont dues à la présence de complexes organo-métalliques associée à des teneurs élevées en carbone organique.The diverse environmental conditions (parent material, climate, vegetation) in the Vosges Mountains (France) allow us to investigate their role in the development of soils with varying degrees of andic properties. We studied 13 profiles selected on the basis of lithological, ecological and morphological criteria assumed to favour the formation of andic properties, i.e. basic parent materials of volcanic and other origins, wet montane climates and accumulation of thick layers of organic matter. The profiles belong to two classes: four are Andisols, more precisely Alic Fulvudands, and the others are Andic Haplumbrepts with only weakly expressed andic properties. In this montane environment the factors favouring the andic properties seem to be on the one hand height and exposure inducing cold and humid microclimates, and on the other the chemical and mineralogical composition controlling the weatherability of the soil’s parent materials. For example, the old volcanic rocks on which most of the soils occur are poor in glassy material or are even completely devitrified. Accordingly, Andisols in the Vosges are like those of non-volcanic, non-allophanic Andisols elsewhere in the world: their andic properties are weakly expressed and are caused by organo-metallic complexes associated with their upper organic-rich horizons rather than by allophanes.

Notes: Soil minerals are known to influence the biological stability of soil organic matter (SOM). Our study aimed to relate properties of the mineral matrix to its ability to protect organic C against decomposition in acid soils. We used the amount of hydroxyl ions released after exposure to NaF solution to establish a reactivity gradient spanning 12 subsoil horizons collected from 10 different locations. The subsoil horizons represent six soil orders and diverse geological parent materials. Phyllosilicates were characterized by X-ray diffraction and pedogenic oxides by selective dissolution procedures. The organic carbon (C) remaining after chemical removal of an oxidizable fraction of SOM with NaOCl solution was taken to represent a stable organic carbon pool. Stable organic carbon was confirmed as older than bulk organic carbon by a smaller radiocarbon (14C) content after oxidation in all 12 soils. The amount of stable organic C did not depend on clay content or the content of dithionite–citrate-extractable Fe. The combination of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al explained the greatest amount of variation in stable organic C (R2 = 0.78). Our results suggest that in acid soils, organic matter is preferentially protected by interaction with poorly crystalline minerals represented by the oxalate-soluble Fe and Al fraction. This evidence suggests that ligand exchange between mineral surface hydroxyl groups and negatively charged organic functional groups is a quantitatively important mechanism in the stabilization of SOM in acid soils. The results imply a finite stabilization capacity of soil minerals for organic matter, limited by the area density of reactive surface sites.

Notes: Increasing cropping intensity (i.e. number of crops per year) of irrigated rice seems to cause an accumulation of phenolic compounds in the soil organic matter (SOM). We have studied the chemical nature of SOM in a broad range of soil types at different sites with long-term double- and triple-crop irrigated rice trials. Accumulation of phenols, as measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, was found in both the mobile humic acid (MHA) and calcium humate (CaHA) fractions at all sites, regardless of soil type, hydrology during the fallow, and with and without inorganic fertilizer or green manures. Although phenols accumulated consistently in MHA and CaHA, the C, N and hydrolysable amino acid concentrations, degree of humification and amounts of MHA and CaHA were significantly altered by crop management, and they varied from site to site. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that the accumulation of phenols is a characteristic of the anaerobic, or nearly anaerobic, soil conditions that exist at the initial stages of SOM formation in submerged irrigated rice soils. By contrast, other SOM properties are additionally influenced by soil conditions that govern the degradation and turnover of existing SOM. The chemical properties of MHA and CaHA indicated that they are labile, and the quantities of these HA fractions were more sensitive to recent management than were total soil C or N.

Notes: Organo-mineral associations stabilize soil organic matter, though the mechanisms by which they do so are unclear. We used particle-size fractions 〈 6.3 μm of two soils to examine the importance of Fe oxides, short-range order Al silicates and the surface areas of minerals and micropores on the formation of organo-mineral associations. In the subsoil Fe oxides were most strongly statistically correlated with the mineral-bound organic carbon. We therefore assume that they are the most important substrates for the formation of organo-mineral associations. There is no indication that this is caused by physical protection of organic matter in their micropores (〈 2 nm). In the Haplic Podzol, dithionite–citrate–bicarbonate-soluble short-range order Al silicates may also play a role. Fe oxide particles were calculated to offer specific surface areas of ∼ 200 m2 g−1 (goethite) and ∼ 800 m2 g−1 (ferrihydrite), corresponding to crystal diameters of only a few nm. We assume that the resulting large amount of oxide-specific reactive surface sites (conditionally charged hydroxyl groups) is responsible for their dominant role as sorbents. With maximum C loadings of 1.3 mg C per m2 Fe oxide for the Dystric Cambisol and 1.1 mg C per m2 Fe oxide + short-range order Al silicates for the Haplic Podzol the subsoils of both soils seem to have reached saturation with respect to organic matter sorption. In contrast to subsoil horizons, organo-mineral associations from topsoils contain much larger amounts of organic matter. Here a larger C loading on Fe oxides or a greater importance of other sorbents in addition to the oxides must be assumed.

Notes: If biospheric sinks, such as soil organic carbon, are to be used to meet obligations for greenhouse gas emission reduction under the Kyoto Protocol, the permanence of these sinks needs to be considered. Further, since only direct human-induced carbon sinks can be included, and sinks resulting from indirect and natural effects cannot be used, there is a pressing need to separate direct human-induced effects from indirect and natural effects. Since these effects also influence the permanence of soil organic stocks, this paper attempts to synthesize existing knowledge in soil science, and use models to examine the likely influence of direct, indirect and natural effects on the permanence of soil organic carbon stocks.