ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: Stable Isotope Geochemistry is an introduction to the use of stable isotopes in the geosciences. It is subdivided into three parts: theoretical and experimental principles; fractionation processes of light and heavy elements; the natural variations of geologically important reservoirs. Since the application of stable isotopes to earth sciences has grown in the last few years, a new edition appears necessary. Recent progress in analysing the rare isotopes of certain elements for instance allow the distinction between mass-dependent and mass-independent fractionations. Special emphasis has been given to the growing field of heavy elements. Many new references have been added, which will enable quick access to recent literature. For students and scientists alike the book will be a primary source of information with regard to how and where stable isotopes can be used to solve geological problems.

Description / Table of Contents: A new map of standardized, mesoscale (tens to thousands of hectares) terrestrial ecosystems for the conterminous United States was developed by using a biophysical stratification approach. The ecosystems delineated in this top-down, deductive modeling effort are described in NatureServe's classification of terrestrial ecological systems of the United States. The ecosystems were mapped as physically distinct areas and were associated with known distributions of vegetation assemblages by using a standardized methodology first developed for South America. This approach follows the geoecosystems concept of R.J. Huggett and the ecosystem geography approach of R.G. Bailey.Unique physical environments were delineated through a geospatial combination of national data layers for biogeography, bioclimate, surficial materials lithology, land surface forms, and topographic moisture potential. Combining these layers resulted in a comprehensive biophysical stratification of the conterminous United States, which produced 13,482 unique biophysical areas. These were considered as fundamental units of ecosystem structure and were aggregated into 419 potential terrestrial ecosystems.

Description / Table of Contents: Tracers in Hydrology and Water Research is a comprehensive overview of the application of natural and artificial tracers in hydrology and environmental research. Taking a unique approach by providing the reader with a systematic and state of the art description of natural and artificial tracers, the book also covers key analytical techniques and applications, and modern tracer methods in the context of systematic hydrology. Tracers have become a primary tool for process investigation, qualitative and quantitative system analysis and integrated resource management. This book will outline the fundamentals of the subject, and examine the latest research findings, clearly showing the entire process of tracer application through the inclusion of numerous integrated case studies.As many techniques derive from different scientific disciplines (chemistry, biology, physics), the effort of compilation and integration into modern hydrology and environmental science research and application requires substantial continuity and experience, which certifies this group of authors.This book will be an invaluable reference not only for students and researchers within the field of Hydrology and Hydrogeology but also for engineers and other tracer techniques applying users.

Description / Table of Contents: 1. Introduction to Hydrologic Science: Definition and Scope of Hydrology / Development of Scientific Hydrology. - 2. Basic Hydrologic Concepts: Physical Quantities and Laws / Hydrologic Systems / The Conservation Equations / The Watershed (Drainage Basin) / The Regional Water Balance / Spatial Variability / Temporal Variability / Storage, Storage Effects, and Residence Time / Hydrologic Modeling. - 3. Climate, the Hydrologic Cycle, Soils, and Vegetation: A Global Overview: Basic Aspects of Global Climate / The Global Hydrologic Cycle / Climate, Soils, and Vegetation. - 4. Precipitation: Meteorology of Precipitation / Measurement at a Point / Areal Estimation / Precipitation and Rainfall Climatology / Precipitation Quality. - 5. Snow and Snowmelt: Material Characteristics of Snow / Measurement of Snow and Snowmelt / Hydrologic Importance and Distribution of Snow / Snowmelt Processes / Snowmelt Modeling / Water-Quality Aspects. - 6. Water in Soils: Infiltration and Redistribution: Material Properties of Soil / Soil-Water Storage / Soil-Water Flow / Water Conditions in Natural Soils / Infiltration: Measurement and Qualitative Description / Quantitative Modeling of Infiltration at a Point / Redistribution. - 7. Evapotranspiration: Physics of Evaporation and Turbulent Energy Exchange / Classification of Evapotranspiration Processes / Free-Water, Lake, and Wetland Evaporation / Bare-Soil Evaporation / Transpiration / Interception and Interception Loss / Potential Evapotranspiration / Actual Evapotranspiration. - 8. Ground Water in the Hydrologic Cycle: Basic Principles of Ground-Water Flow / Regional Ground-Water Flow / Ground-WaterSurface-Water Reltions / Ground Water in the Regional Water Balance / Evaluation of Ground-Water-Balance Components / Impacts of Ground-Water Development on Basin Hydrology. - 9. Stream Response to Water-Input Events: Basic Aspects of Stream Response / Mechanisms Producing Event Response / Open-Channel Flow and Streamflow Routing / The Stream Network / Rainfall-Runoff Modeling / Rainfall-Runoff Models. - 10. Hydrology and Water-Resource Management: Water-Resource Management / Hydrologic Analysis: Water Supply and Demand / Hydrologic Analysis: Water Quality / Hydrologic Analysis: Floods / Hydrologic Analysis: Low Streamflows and Droughts / Current and Projected Water Use

Description / Table of Contents: Hydrogen may be the most abundant element in the universe, but in science and in nature oxygen has an importance that is disproportionate to its abundance. Human beings tend to take it for granted because it is all around us and we breathe it, but consider the fact that oxygen is so reactive that in a planetary setting it is largely unstable in its elemental state. Were it not for the constant activity of photosynthetic plants and a minor amount of photo dissociation in the upper atmosphere, we would not have an oxygen-bearing atmosphere and we would not be here. Equally, the most important compound of oxygen is water, without which life (in the sense that we know it) could not exist. The role of water in virtually all geologic processes is profound, from formation of ore deposits to igneous petrogenesis to metamorphism to erosion and sedimentation. In planetary science, oxygen has a dual importance. First and foremost is its critical role in so many fundamental Solar System processes. The very nature of the terrestrial planets in our own Solar System would be much different had the oxygen to carbon ratio in the early solar nebula been somewhat lower than it was, because elements such as calcium and iron and titanium would have been locked up during condensation as carbides, sulfides and nitrides and even (in the case of silicon) partly as metals rather than silicates and oxides. Equally, the role of water ice in the evolution of our Solar System is important in the early accretion and growth of the giant planets and especially Jupiter, which exerted a major control over how most of the other planets formed. On a smaller scale, oxygen plays a critical role in the diverse kinds of physical evolution of large rocky planets, because the internal oxidation state strongly influences the formation and evolution of the core, mantle and crust of differentiated planets such as the Earth. Consider that basaltic volcanism may be a nearly universal phenomenon among the evolved terrestrial planets, yet there are basalts and basalts. The basalts of Earth (mostly), Earth's Moon, Vesta (as represented by the HED meteorites) and Mars are all broadly tholeiitic and yet very different from one another, and one of the primary differences is in their relative oxidation states (for that matter, consider the differences between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline magma series on Earth). But there is another way that oxygen has proven to be hugely important in planetary science, and that is as a critical scientific clue to processes and conditions and even sources of materials. Understanding the formation and evolution of our Solar System involves reconstructing processes and events that occurred more than 4.5 Ga ago, and for which the only contemporary examples are occurring hundreds of light years away. It is a detective story in which most of the clues come from the laboratory analysis of the products of those ancient processes and events, especially those that have been preserved nearly unchanged since their formation at the Solar System's birth: meteorites; comets; and interplanetary dust particles. For example, the oxidation state of diverse early Solar System materials ranges from highly oxidized (ferric iron) to so reducing that some silicon exists in the metallic state and refractory lithophile elements such as calcium exist occur in sulfides rather than in silicates or carbonates. These variations reflect highly different environments that existed in different places and at different times. Even more crucial has been the use of oxygen 3-isotope variations, which began almost accidentally in 1973 with an attempt to do oxygen isotope thermometry on high-temperature solar nebula grains (Ca-, Al-rich inclusions) but ended with the remarkable discovery of non-mass-dependent oxygen isotope variations in high-temperature materials from the earliest Solar System. The presolar nebula was found to be very heterogeneous in its isotopic composition, and virtually every different planet and asteroid for which we have samples has a unique oxygen-isotopic fingerprint. The idea for this book originated with Jim Papike, who suggested the idea of a study initiative (and, ultimately, a published volume) focused on the element that is so critically important in so many ways to planetary science. He recognized that oxygen is such a constant theme through all aspects of planetary science that the proposed initiative would serve to bring together scientists from a wide range of disciplines for the kind of cross-cutting dialogue that occurs all too rarely these days. In this sense the Oxygen Initiative is modeled on the Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, which culminated in what remains to this day a hugely important reference volume (Basaltic Volcanism Study Project 1981). After obtaining community input and feedback, primarily through the Curation and Analysis Planning Team for Extraterrestrial Materials (CAPTEM) and the Management Operations Working Group for NASA's Cosmochemistry Program, a team of scientists was assembled who would serve as chapter writing leads, and the initiative was formally proposed to and accepted by the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI; Dr. Stephen Mackwell, Director) for sponsorship. A formal proposal was then submitted to and approved by the Mineralogical Society of America to publish the resulting volume in the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (RiMG) series. Three open workshops were held as preludes to the book: Oxygen in the Terrestrial Planets, held in Santa Fe, NM July 20-23, 2004; Oxygen in Asteroids and Meteorites, held in Flagstaff, AZ June 2-3, 2005; and Oxygen in Earliest Solar System Materials and Processes (and including the outer planets and comets), held in Gatlinburg, TN September 19-22, 2005. The workshops were each organized around a small number of sessions (typically 4-6), each focusing on a particular topic and consisting of invited talks, shorter contributed talks, and ample time for discussion after each talk. In all of the meetings, the extended discussion periods were lively and animated, often bubbling over into the breaks and later social events. As a consequence of the cross-cutting approach, the final book spans a wide range of fields relating to oxygen, from the stellar nucleosynthesis of oxygen, to its occurrence in the interstellar medium, to the oxidation and isotopic record preserved in 4.56 Ga grains formed at the Solar System's birth, to its abundance and speciation in planets large and small, to its role in the petrologic and physical evolution of the terrestrial planets.

Description / Table of Contents: Welcher Anteil des Niederschlagswassers gelangt von landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Bäche und Flüsse? Wie stark und mit welchen Stoffen ist dieses abfließende Wasser belastet? Wie sehen die langfristigen Folgen aus? Das Buch ist eine allgemeine und umfassende Darstellung von kleinräumigen hydrologischen Prozessen im punktuellen cm-Bereich bis hin zum kleinen Einzugsgebiet. Diese abgestimmte Kombination von Theorie, Feldmessung und numerischer Modellierung ist zukunftsweisend für die moderne Hydrologie.

Description / Table of Contents: Contens: Preface: H. S. Wheater, S. Sorooshian and K. D. Sharma; 1. Modelling hydrological processes in arid and semi-arid areas - an introduction H. Wheater; 2. Global precipitation estimation from satellite imagery using artificial neural networks S. Sorooshian, K.-L. Hsu, B. Imam and Y. Hong; 3. Modelling semi-arid and arid hydrology and water resources - the southern Africa experience D. A. Hughes; 4. Use of the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model in arid and semi-arid regions B. F. W. Croke and A. J. Jakeman; 5. KINEROS2 and the AGWA modelling framework D. J. Semmens, D. C. Goodrich, C. L. Unkrich, R. E. Smith, D. A. Woolhiser and S. N. Miller; 6. A distributed spatial sediment delivery model for arid regions K. D. Sharma; 7. The Modular Modeling System (MMS): a toolbox for water and environmental resources management G. H. Leavesley, S. L. Markstrom, R. J. Viger and L. E. Hay; 8. Calibration, uncertainty and regional analysis of conceptual rainfall-runoff models H. Wheater, T. Wagener and N. McIntyre; 9. Real-time flow forecasting P. C. Young; 10. Real-time flood forecasting - Indian experience R. D. Singh; 11. Groundwater modeling in hard-rock terrain in semi-arid areas: experience from India S. Ahmed, J.-C. Maréchal, E. Ledoux and G. de Marsily;

Description / Table of Contents: Sedimentary basins host, among others, most of our energy and fresh-water resources: they can be regarded as large geo-reactors in which many physical and chemical processes interact. Their complexity can only be well understood in well-organized interdisciplinary co-operations.This book documents how researchers from different geo-scientific disciplines have jointly analysed the structural, thermal, and sedimentary evolution as well as fluid dynamics of a complex sedimentary basin system which has experienced a variety of activation and reactivation impulses as well as intense salt tectonics. In this book we have summarized our geological, geophysical and geochemical understanding of some of the most important processes affecting sedimentary basins in general and our view on the evolution of one of the largest, best explored and most complex continental sedimentary basins on Earth: The Central European Basin System. - Characteristics of complex intracontinental sedimentary basins.- The Central European Basin System.- Strain and temperature in space and time.- Basin fill.- Salt dynamics.- Fluid systems.

Description / Table of Contents: Knowledge about soil water transport and groundwater renewal rates is crucial for groundwater research and risk assessment. Particularly the impact of preferential flow paths in the unsaturated zone on pollutant transport is an important topic, as it affects the vulnerability of the adjacent aquifer. However, in literature the determination of preferential flow is only partly solved and especially quantification attempts have been rare. Therefore, a new method combining mathematical modelling with hydrological and environmental isotope data was developed to estimate the heterogeneity of the unsaturated transport processes. For this purpose, environmental isotope transport (18O, 2H) was investigated in several lysimeter experiments. A conceptual model was applied, which separates preferential and matrix flow. Both flow components are quantified and their transit time distribution functions are determined to construct specific vulnerability diagrams.Water flow and transport of environmental isotopes through the soil matrix was calculated using both a transient modelling approach solving numerically Richards and Convection-Dispersion-Equation for single porous medium and a lumped parameter approach using the Dispersion Model. The preferential flow component is assumed by piston flow occurring within one week and having no interaction with the soil matrix.For quantification a two component flow approach was applied to the isotope and hydrological data. The mean transit time distribution functions were obtained from the lumped parameter approach and visualized in specific vulnerability diagrams, showing when infiltrating water reaches the groundwater. This method was applied to different lysimeter experiments that were conducted under natural atmospheric conditions. Different lysimeters, filled mostly with sandy soil material, were under investigation to study the impact of soil properties and vegetation on the transport heterogeneity and amount of preferential flow.It was shown that the lumped parameter approach yielded good results modelling the isotope transport in the soils with bare surface. An application to the soils with vegetation required a modification of the classical input function including evapotranspiration and thus considering the infiltration events contributing to the discharge. Additional separation into the single vegetation periods improved the modelling.Preferential flow was observed in all soils and quantified with the two component flow approach. In bare sandy and gravel soils the mean fractions of preferential flow varied between 17 and 30 %. Here, the crucial parameter influencing these fractions was found to be the saturated hydraulic conductivity. In the cropped soils the mean fractions of preferential were dependent on the discharge rate and varied according to the vegetation. Mean fractions of 3 % and 18 % were observed in a loamy sand during intercrop period and cultivation of maize monoculture, respectively. The same soil material but cultivated with crop rotation yielded mean fractions of 14 % during maize, 4 % during winter barley and 15 % during the intercrop vegetation period. In a third experimental setup with sandy soil a mean fraction of 8 % was found.Specific vulnerability diagrams were constructed showing the mean transit time distribution functions of both, preferential and matrix flow. Their patterns were closely related to soil parameters. They can be used as a helpful tool to develop groundwater protection strategies more efficiently.It was shown that the presented method enabled the estimation of transport heterogeneity and the quantification of preferential flow under natural atmospheric conditions in bare and cropped lysimeters using environmental isotope data. Such isotopes are adequate tracer to study the transport processes in the unsaturated zone. It was revealed that experiments with continuous natural application like environmental tracers over long time periods were necessary to cover a broad range of flux variability and to determine transport heterogeneity.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Isotopes and radioactivity; 2. The principles o radioactive dating; 3. Radiometric dating methods; 4. Dating by cosmogenic isotopes; 5. Uncertainties and results of radiometric dating; 6. Radiogenic isotope geochemistry; 7. Stable isotope geochemistry; 8. Isotope geology and dynamic reservoir analysis

Description / Table of Contents: In recent years, there have been rapid strides in our understanding of plate-tectonic processes, many developments in methods of basin analysis, and the accumulation of much new surface and subsurface geological and geophysical data. Projects such as COCORP (in the United States) and Lithoprobe (in Canada) have provided essential insights into the deep crustal structure of the continent. Synthesis of all the available information about North America's geological regions has not been attempted systematically since the 'Decade of North American Geology' project undertaken by the Geological Society of America and the Geological Survey of Canada nearly twenty years ago. The book commences with a summary of the Phanerozoic geological history of the United States and Canada, illustrated with a suite of new paleogeographic maps, and tying in each of the subsequent regional chapters by the inclusion of numerous cross-references. This followed by a set of fifteen regional syntheses of the principal tectonic regions of the United States and Canada, focusing on the stratigraphic and tectonic history of the major sedimentary basins.Most of these chapters have been contributed by specialists, drawing on their own research, and providing interpretive summaries of a type not previously attempted. This book features: up to date synthesis of the sedimentary/tectonic history of the major areas of the United States and Canada; up to date references; and, many new coloured maps.

Description / Table of Contents: For several decades Peter Friend has been one of the leading figures in sedimentary geology and throughout that time he has helped scores of other people by supervising doctoral students, collaborating with colleagues, especially in developing countries, and selflessly sharing ideas with fellow geologists.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Hydrogeologic environment of fractured rock. 2. Conceptual models, groundwater flow and resources infractured rocks. 3. Groundwater quality in fractured rocks. 4. Investigation and interpretation methods in fractured environment. 5. Anthropogenic impacts on fractured environment. 6. Numerical modelling of fractured environment

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: INTRODUCTION TO KARST. - THE KARST ROCKS. - DISSOLUTION: CHEMICAL AND KINETIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE KARST ROCKS. - DISTRIBUTION AND RATE OF KARST DENUDATION. - KARST HYDROLOGY. - ANALYSIS OF KARST DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. - SPELEOGENESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVE SYSTEMS. - CAVE INTERIOR DEPOSITS. - KARST LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT IN HUMID REGIONS. - THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT. - KARST WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. - HUMAN IMPACTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Approaches to data integration. - Data integration for property characterization. - Data integration to understand hydrologic processes. - Meta analysis.

Description / Table of Contents: The idea for this book was conceived in early June, 2005 at a paleoaltimetry workshop held at Lehigh University, Lehigh, Pennsyalvania and organized by Dork Sahagian. The workshop was funded by the tectonics program at NSF, and was designed to bring together researchers in paleoaltimetry to discuss different techniques and focus the community on ways of improving paleoelevation estimates and consequent interpretations of geodynamics and tectonics. At this meeting, some commented that a comprehensive volume describing the different methods could help advance the field. I offered to contact the Mineralogical Society of America and the Geochemical Society about publishing a RiMG volume on paleoaltimetry. Because many of the techniques used to infer paleoelevations are geochemically-based or deal with thermodynamic principles, the GS and MSA agreed to the project. Two years and roughly 1000 e-mails later, our book has arrived. The book is organized into 4 sections: Geodynamic and geomorphologic rationale (Clark). This chapter provides the broad rationale behind paleoaltimetry, i.e., why we study it. Stable isotope proxies. These 4 chapters cover theory of stable isotopes in precipitation and their response to altitudinal gradients (Rowley), and stable isotopes sytematics in paleosols (Quade, Garzione and Eiler), silicates (Mulch and Chamberlain) and fossils (Kohn and Dettman). Proxies of atmospheric properties. These 4 chapters cover temperature lapse rates (Meyer), entropy (Forest), and atmospheric pressure proxies, including total atmospheric pressure from gas bubbles in basalt (Sahagian and Proussevitch), and the partial pressure of CO2 (Kouwenberg, Kürshner, and McElwain). Note that clumped isotope thermometry (Quade, Garzione and Eiler) also provides direct estimates of temperature. Radiogenic and cosmogenic nuclides. These 2 chapters cover low-temperature thermochronologic approaches (Reiners) and cosmogenic isotopes (Riihimaki and Libarkin). Some chapters overlap in general content (e.g., basic principles of stable isotopes in precipitation are covered to different degrees in all stable isotope chapters), but no attempt was made to limit authors' discussion of principles, or somehow attempt to arrive at a "consensus view" on any specific topic. Because science advances by critical discussion of concepts, such restrictions were viewed as counterproductive. This does mean that different chapters may present different views on reliability of paleoelevation estimates, and readers are advised to read other chapters in the book on related topics – they may be more closely linked than they might at first appear! I hope readers of this book will discover and appreciate the synergy among paleoaltimetry, climate change, and tectonic geomorphology. These interrelationships create a complex, yet rich field of scientific enquiry that in turn offers insights into climate and geodynamics.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction. 2. The water cycle 2.1 Distribution of water on earth 2.2 The Continental Water Cycle 2.2.1 Components of the Water CycleRainfall and hydrological characteristics of different climate zones 2.3 The vadose zone and its water balance for different climate zones 2.4 Rechargeable and "fossil" groundwater and water exploitation 2.5 The place of recharge in the water cycle 3. Mechanisms and processes of recharge 3.1 The input: precipitation and snow melt 3.2 Wet and dry deposition at the interface atmosphere/lithosphere/biosphere 3.3 Overland-flow and infiltration 3.4 Matrix-flow and preferential-flow 3.5 Inter-flow 3.6 River-infiltration. 3.7 Artificial recharge 3.8 Water vapour fluxes in the subsurface 4. Research tools and methods in the study of recharge 4.1 Water balance estimates 4.1.1 Estimate of evapo-transpiration 4.1.2 Hydrograph methods 4.2 Lysimeter studies 4.3 Hydraulic methods 4.4 Isotope and chemical tracers 4.4.1 Stable isotopes and dating methodologies 4.5 Water sampling and sample conservation 4.6 Comparison between tracers and conventional techniques 5. Recharge under different climate regimes and their chemical and isotope signatures 5.1 Humid tropical climates 5.2 Humid temperate climates 5.2.1 Conceptual models 5.2.2 Water balance and separation of discharge components 5.2.3 Chemistry of groundwater recharge 5.3 Semi-arid climates 5.4 Arid climates 5.5 Cold climates 6. Mans impact on the groundwater recharge 6.1 Land use changes: agricultural activities and urbanization 6.2 Return waters from irrigated areas, industrial activities and urban areas 6.3 Salinization and pollution 6.4 Imported waters 6.5 Global changes on the water cycle

Description / Table of Contents: This book offers a wide spectrum of papers concerning applications of sedimentary provenance tools to specific field studies. Papers are grouped by region, with an overwhelming European flavor, focusing on Italian areas, on the Iberian Peninsula, and on Transdanubian regions. Readers are transported from India to Mexico across the Indian Ocean, New Zealand, and Pacific Ocean. At the end, two papers use a great variety of study areas to illustrate the utility of apatite in provenance studies and a model of the system controlling sand composition. Along this journey, the readers will find incredibly diverse topics, such as the use of gypsarenites in Messinian salinity crisis to provenance shifts in Neolithic settlements; from carbonate particles to apatite geochemistry; from weathering in uplands to deep sea sedimentation. The common aim of all these papers is to shed light on our knowledge of the past from the sedimentary remains.

Description / Table of Contents: Over 25 years ago, Volume 9 of Reviews in Mineralogy: Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyriboles seemed to contain all that was possible to know about this group of fascinating minerals. The subsequent twenty-five years have shown that this assessment was wrong: Nature was keeping a lot in reserve, and has since revealed considerable new complexity in the constitution and behavior of amphiboles. Some of the advances in knowledge have been due to the use of new experimental techniques, some have been due to the investigation of hitherto neglected rock-types, and some have been due to the development of new ideas. The identification and systematic investigation of variable LLE (Light Lithophile Elements), particularly Li and H, led to the identification of several new amphibole species and the recognition that variable Li and H play an important role in chemical variations in amphiboles from both igneous and metamorphic parageneses. In turn, this work drove the development of microbeam SIMS to analyze LLE in amphiboles. Detailed mineralogical work on metasyenites showed hitherto unexpected solid-solution between Na and Li at the M(4) site in monoclinic amphiboles, a discovery that has upset the current scheme of amphibole classification and nomenclature and initiated new efforts in this direction. Systematic and well-planned synthesis of amphiboles, combined with careful spectroscopy, has greatly furthered our understanding of cation and anion order in amphiboles. The use of bond-valence theory to predict patterns of SRO (Short-Range Order) in amphiboles, and use of these predictions to understand the infrared spectra of well-characterized synthetic-amphibole solid-solutions, has shown that SRO is a major feature of the amphibole structure, and has resulted in major advances in our understanding of SRO in minerals. There has been significant progress relating changes in amphibole composition and cation ordering to petrogenetic conditions and trace-element behavior. Work on the nature of fibrous amphiboles and their toxicity and persistence in living organisms has emphasized the importance of accurate mineralogical characterization in environmental and health-related problems. The current volume has taken a different approach from previous volumes concerned with major groups of rock-forming minerals. Some of the contents have previously been organized by the investigative technique or groups of similar techniques: crystal-structure refinement, spectroscopy, TEM etc. Here, we have taken an approach that focuses on aspects of amphiboles rather than experimental techniques: crystal chemistry, new compositions, long-range order, short-range order etc., and all experimental results germane to these topics are discussed in each chapter. The intent of this approach is to focus on amphiboles, and to emphasize that many techniques are necessary to fully understand each aspect of the amphiboles and their behavior in both natural and industrial processes.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Part I. Background: 1. Introduction; 2. Types of rivers; 3. Non-regime channels; Part II. Upstream Controls: 4. History; 5. Tectonics and relief; 6. Lithology; 7. Climate: hydrology; 8. Humans; Part III. Fixed Local Controls: 9. Bedrock: alluvium; 10. Tributaries; 11. Active tectonics; 12. Valley morphology; Part IV. Variable Local Controls: 13. Floods; 14. Vegetation; 15. Accidents; Part V. Downstream Controls: 16. Base-level; 17. Length; Part VI. Rivers and Humans: 18. Applications; 19. Some unintended consequences; 20. River impact on ancient civilisations: a hypothesis

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Why we should care: the impact of anthropogenic carbon dioxide on the carbon cycle.2. The thermodynamic background.3. Carbon dioxide and CO2-H2O mixtures.4. The aqueous electrolytic solution.5. The product solid phases.6. The kinetics of mineral carbonation.7. Reaction path modeling of geological CO2 sequestration.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Part 1. Water in the Universe: From the Big Bang to the Appearance of Man 1. Beginnings2. The Churning of the Earth3. Origin and Evolution of Life4. Cosmic Catastrophes5. Ice, Moon, and PlanetsPart 2: Water in Today's World 6. Water and Energy Cycles7. Winds, waves, and currents8. Water's deep memories9. Clouds, rain, and angry skies10. Earth's water, between sky and seaPart 3: Water in Human History: Past and Future 11. Water and Man's Rise to Civilization12. Problems for the 21st Century13. Butterflies and humans in a warming greenhouse14. Back to the ice age?15. The end of the story

Description / Table of Contents: In this paper, the hydrologic basis of the water balance model LARSIM and application examples are presented. LARSIM allows a process- and area-detailed simulation of the water cycle. It uses system data, which are readily available in most cases.Fundamental approaches used in LARSIM are described in detail for the following hydrological subprocesses: interception, actual evapotranspiration, snow accumulation, metamorphosis of snow and snow melt, soil water and groundwater storage, lateral water transport to streams (run-off concentration), water temperature and routing in channel networks. Furthermore, procedures for regionalisation of model parameters of LARSIM and methods of spatial interpolation of me-teorological input data are discussed.Various applications of LARSIM are described: the impact of climate change on water balance in south-western Germany, water budget of the Baltic Sea catchment in connection with coupled atmosphere-hydrology simulations, hydrologic effects of land use change and the operational forecasts of low flow, flood and water temperature by the Flood Forecast Centre (HVZ) of the federal state of Baden-Württemberg (Germany).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: New techniques in sediment core analysis: an introduction, R G Rothwell and F R Rack .- The Eagle III BKA system, a novel sediment core X-ray fluorescence analyser with very high spatial resolution, M Haschke. - The AVAATECH XRF Core Scanner: technical description and applications to NE Atlantic sediments, T O Richter, S Van Der Gaast, R Koster, A Vaars, R Gieles, H C de Stigter, H de Haas and T C E van Weering . - ITRAX: description and evaluation of a new multi-function X-ray core scanner, I W Croudace, A Rindby and R G Rothwell. - A geochemical application of the ITRAX scanner to a sediment core containing eastern Mediterranean sapropel units, J Thomson, I W Croudace and R G Rothwell . - Turbidite emplacement on the southern Balearic Abyssal Plain (western Mediterranean Sea) during Marine Isotope Stages 1-3: an application of ITRAX XRF scanning of sediment cores to lithostratigraphic analysis, R G Rothwell, B Hoogakker, J Thomson, I W Croudace and M Frenz. - Colour logging as a tool in high-resolution palaeoceanography, M Rogerson, P P E Weaver, E J Rohling, L J Lourens, J W Murray and A Hayes . - Sediment colour analysis from digital images and correlation with sediment composition, A J Nederbragt, R B Dunbar, A T Osborn, A Palmer, J W Thurow and T Wagner . - Sediment mineralogy based on visible and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy, R D Jarrard and M D Vanden Berg . - Applications of confocal macroscope microscope luminescence imaging to sediment cores, A C Ribes, F R Rack, G Tsintzouras, S Damaskinos and A E Dixon . - Pressure coring, logging and sub-sampling with the HYACINTH system, P J Schultheiss, T J G Francis, M Holland, J A Roberts, H Amann, Thjunjoto, R J Parkes, D Martin, M Rothfuss, F Tyunder, and P D Jackson . - On-site geological core analysis using a portable X-ray computed tomographic system, B M Freifeld, T J Kneafsey and F R Rack . - Nuclear magnetic resonance pore-scale investigation of permafrost and gas hydrate sediments, R L Kleinberg . - Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging methods for core analysis, Q Chen, F R Rack and B J Balcom . - Rapid non-contacting resistivity logging of core, P D Jackson, M A Lovell, J A Roberts, P J Schultheiss, D Gunn, R C Flint, A Wood, R Holmes and T Frederichs . - Logging-while-coring - new technology from the simultaneous recovery of downhole cores and geophysical measurements, D Goldberg, G Myers, G J Iturrino, K Grigar, T Pettigrew and S Mrozewski . - Integration of the stratigraphic aspects of the very large sea-floor databases using information processing, C Jenkins, J Flocks and M Kulp . - Core data stewardship: a long-term perspective, C J Moore and R E Habermann. - The Janus database: providing worldwide access to ODP and IODP data, R Mithal and D G Becker.

Description / Table of Contents: In situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides can provide chronologies of environmental change over the past few thousand to several millions of years and may be used to quantify a wide range of weathering and sediment transport processes. These nuclides are thus now used across a broad spectrum of earth science disciplines, including paleoclimatology, geomorphology, and active tectonics. This book is organized around sections that focus on specific aspects of the utilization of cosmogenic nuclides in earth sciences: (1) development of new methods for application of in situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides (burial dating methods, extending their utilization to carbonate-rich and mafic environments); (2) glacial geology (Laurentide Ice Sheet, northern Alps); (3) active tectonics, focusing on applications to constrain slip rates of active faults in Asia (Tibet and Mongolian Gobi-Altay); and (4) landscape development (quantifying sediment production or erosion rates and processes and application of exposure dating to landslides in Hong Kong).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Petrophysical Properties of Permeable and Low-permeable Rocks.- Seismic Methods.- Geoelectrical Methods.- Complex Conductivity Measurements.- Electromagnetic Methods.- The Transient Electromagnetic Method.- Ground Penetrating Radar.- Magnetic Resonance Sounding.- Magnetic, Geothermal, and Radioactivity Methods.- Microgravimetry.- Direct Push-Technology.- Aquifer Structures-Pore Aquifers.- Aquifer Structures: Fracture Zones and Caves.- Groundwater Quality-Saltwater Intrusions.- Geophysical Characterisation of Aquifers.- Groundwater Protection: Vulnerability of Aquifers.- Groundwater Protection: Mapping of Contaminations.

Description / Table of Contents: Earth is a water planet. Oceans of liquid water dominate the surface processes of the planet. On the surface, water controls weathering as well as transport and deposition of sediments. Liquid water is necessary for life. In the interior, water fluxes melting and controls the solid-state viscosity of the convecting mantle and so controls volcanism and tectonics. Oceans cover more than 70% of the surface but make up only about 0.025% of the planet's mass. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the cosmos, but in the bulk Earth, it is one of the most poorly constrained chemical compositional variables. Almost all of the nominally anhydrous minerals that compose the Earth's crust and mantle can incorporate measurable amounts of hydrogen. Because these are minerals that contain oxygen as the principal anion, the major incorporation mechanism is as hydroxyl, OH-, and the chemical component is equivalent to water, H2O. Although the hydrogen proton can be considered a monovalent cation, it does not occupy same structural position as a typical cation in a mineral structure, but rather forms a hydrogen bond with the oxygens on the edge of the coordination polyhedron. The amount incorporated is thus quite sensitive to pressure and the amount of H that can be incorporated in these phases generally increases with pressure and sometimes with temperature. Hydrogen solubility in nominally anhydrous minerals is thus much more sensitive to temperature and pressure than that of other elements. Because the mass of rock in the mantle is so large relative to ocean mass, the amount that is incorporated the nominally anhydrous phases of the interior may constitute the largest reservoir of water in the planet. Understanding the behavior and chemistry of hydrogen in minerals at the atomic scale is thus central to understanding the geology of the planet. There have been significant recent advances in the detection, measurement, and location of H in the nominally anhydrous silicate and oxide minerals that compose the planet. There have also been advances in experimental methods for measurement of H diffusion and the effects of H on the phase boundaries and physical properties whereby the presence of H in the interior may be inferred from seismic or other geophysical studies. It is the objective of this volume to consolidate these advances with reviews of recent research in the geochemistry and mineral physics of hydrogen in the principal mineral phases of the Earth's crust and mantle. The Chapters We begin with a review of analytical methods for measuring and calibrating water contents in nominally anhydrous minerals by George Rossman. While infrared spectroscopy is still the most sensitive and most convenient method for detecting water in minerals, it is not intrinsically quantitative but requires calibration by some other, independent analytical method, such as nuclear reaction analysis, hydrogen manometry, or SIMS. A particular advantage of infrared spectroscopy, however, is the fact that it does not only probe the concentration, but also the structure of hydrous species in a mineral and in many cases the precise location of a proton in a mineral structure can be worked out based on infrared spectra alone. The methods and principles behind this are reviewed by Eugen Libowitzky and Anton Beran, with many illustrative examples. Compared to infrared spectroscopy, NMR is much less used in studying hydrogen in minerals, mostly due to its lower sensitivity, the requirement of samples free of paramagnetic ions such as Fe2+ and because of the more complicated instrumentation required for NMR measurements. However, NMR could be very useful under some circumstances. It could detect any hydrogen species in a sample, including such species as H2 that would be invisible with infrared. Potential applications of NMR to the study of hydrogen in minerals are reviewed by Simon Kohn. While structural models of "water" in minerals have already been deduced from infrared spectra several decades ago, in recent years atomistic modeling has become a powerful tool for predicting potential sites for hydrogen in minerals. The review by Kate Wright gives an overview over both quantum mechanical methods and classical methods based on interatomic potentials. Joseph Smyth then summarizes the crystal chemistry of hydrogen in high-pressure silicate and oxide minerals. As a general rule, the incorporation of hydrogen is not controlled by the size of potential sites in the crystal lattice; rather, the protons will preferentially attach to oxygen atoms that are electrostatically underbonded, such as the non-silicate oxygen atoms in some high-pressure phases. Moreover, heterovalent substitutions, e.g., the substitution of Al3+ for Si4+, can have a major effect on the incorporation of hydrogen. Data on water in natural minerals from crust and mantle are compiled and discussed in three reviews by Elisabeth Johnson, Henrik Skogby and by Anton Beran and Eugen Libowitzky. Among the major mantle minerals, clinopyroxenes usually retain the highest water contents, followed by orthopyroxenes and olivine, while the water contents in garnets are generally low. Most of these water contents need to be considered as minimum values, as many of the mantle xenoliths may have lost water during ascent. However, there are some cases where the correlation between the water contents and other geochemical parameters suggest that the measured water concentrations reflect the true original water content in the mantle. The basic thermodynamics as well as experimental data on water solubility and partitioning are reviewed by Hans Keppler and Nathalie Bolfan Casanova. Water solubility in minerals depends in a complicated way on pressure, temperature, water fugacity and bulk composition. For example, water solubility in the same mineral can increase or decrease with temperature, depending on the pressure of the experiments. Nevertheless, the pressure and temperature dependence of water solubility can be described by a rather simple thermodynamic formalism and for most minerals of the upper mantle, the relevant thermodynamic parameters are known. The highest water solubilities are reached in the minerals wadsleyite and ringwoodite stable in the transition zone, while the minerals of the lower mantle are probably mostly dry. The rather limited experimental data on water partitioning between silicate melts and minerals are reviewed by Simon Kohn and Kevin Grant. One important observation here is that comparing the compatibility of hydrogen with that of some rare earth element is misleading, as such correlations are always limited to a small range of pressure and temperature for a given mineral. The stabilities of hydrous phases in the peridotite mantle and in subducted slabs are reviewed by Daniel Frost and by Tatsuhiko Kawamoto. While most of the water in the mantle is certainly stored in the nominally anhydrous minerals, hydrous phases can be important storage sites of water in certain environments. Amphibole and phlogopite require a significant metasomatic enrichment of Na and K in order to be stabilized in the upper mantle, but serpentine may be an important carrier of water in cold subducted slabs. The diffusion of hydrogen in minerals is reviewed by Jannick Ingrin and Marc Blanchard. An important general observation here is that natural minerals usually do not loose hydrogen as water, but as H2 generated by redox reaction of OH with Fe2+. Moreover, diffusion coefficients of different mantle minerals can vary by orders of magnitude, often with significant anisotropy. While some minerals in a mantle xenolith may therefore have lost virtually all of their water during ascent, other minerals may still preserve the original water content and in general, the apparent partition coefficients of water between the minerals of the same xenolith can be totally out of equilibrium. Accordingly, it would be highly desirable to directly deduce the water content in the mantle from geophysical data. One strategy, based on seismic velocities and therefore ultimately on the effect of water on the equation of state of minerals, is outlined by Steve Jacobsen. The dissolution of water in minerals usually increases the number of cation vacancies, yielding reduced bulk and shear moduli and seismic velocities. Particularly, the effect on shear velocities is strong and probably larger than the effect expected from local temperature variations. Accordingly, the vs/vp ratio could be a sensitive indicator of mantle hydration. A more general approach towards remote sensing of hydrogen in the Earth's mantle, including effects of seismic anisotropy due to lattice preferred orientation and the use of electrical conductivity data is presented by Shun-ichiro Karato. Probably the most important effect of water on geodynamics is related to the fact that even traces of water dramatically reduce the mechanical strength of rocks during deformation. The physics behind this effect is discussed by David Kohlstedt. Interestingly, it appears that the main mechanism behind "hydrolytic weakening" is related to the effect of water on the concentration and mobility of Si vacancies, rather than to the protons themselves. Water may have major effects on the location of mantle discontinuities, as reviewed by Eiji Ohtani and Konstantin Litasov. Most of these effects can be rationalized as being due to the expansion of the stability fields of those phases (e.g., wadsleyite) that preferentially incorporate water. Together with other geophysical data, the changes in the depths of discontinuities are a promising tool for the remote sensing of water contents in the mantle. The global effects of water on the evolution of our planet are reviewed in the last two chapters by Bernard Marty, Reika Yokochi and Klaus Regenauer-Lieb. By combining hydrogen und nitrogen isotope data, Marty and Yokochi demonstrate convincingly that most of the Earth's water very likely originated from a chondritic source. Water may have had a profound effect on the early evolution of our planet, since a water-rich dense atmosphere could have favored melting by a thermal blanketing effect. However, Marty and Yokochi also show very clearly that it is pretty much impossible to derive reliable estimates of the Earth's present-day water content from cosmochemical arguments, since many factors affecting the loss of water during and after accretion are poorly constrained or not constrained at all. In the last chapter, Klaus Regenauer-Lieb investigates the effect of water on the style of global tectonics. He demonstrates that plate tectonics as we know it is only possible if the water content of the mantle is above a threshold value. The different tectonic style observed on Mars and Venus may therefore be directly related to differences in mantle water content. Earth is the water planet — not just because of it's oceans, but also because of its tectonic evolution.

Description / Table of Contents: This book brings together the essential theory required to understand the behaviour of trace elements in magmas, and magma-derived rocks.

Description / Table of Contents: This is a thorough, up-to-date guide to groundwater science and technology. Our understanding of the occurrence and movement of water under the Earth's surface is constantly advancing, with new models, improved drilling equipment, new research, and refined techniques for managing this vital resource. Responding to these tremendous changes, David Todd and new coauthor Larry Mays equip readers with a thorough and up-to-date grounding in the science and technology of groundwater hydrology. "Groundwater Hydrology, Third Edition" offers a unified presentation of the field, treating fundamental principles, methods, and problems as a whole. With this new edition, you'll be able to stay current with recent developments in groundwater hydrology, learn modern modeling methods, and apply what you've learned to realistic situations. Highlights of the Third Edition include: new example problems and case studies, as well as problem sets at the end of each chapter; a special focus on modern groundwater modeling methods, including a new chapter on modeling (Chapter 9), which describes the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model; over 300 new figures and photos; both SI and U.S. customary units in the example problems; expanded coverage of groundwater contamination by chemicals; and new references at the end of each chapter, which provide sources for research and graduate study.