ALBERT

Description: There is a wide variation among humans and mice in airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in the absence of allergen sensitization, i.e., naïve AHR. Because mast cell (MC) activation is thought to mediate AHR in atopic asthmatic subjects, we asked whether MCs mediate naïve AHR in A/J mice. We generated an A/J congenic strain lacking c-Kit by introgression of the Wv mutation, which resulted in the elimination of MCs and the abrogation of naïve AHR. Imatinib, which disrupts Kit signaling, also abrogated AHR in A/J mice. Remarkably, introduction of the Vga9 Mitf mutation into the A/J background resulted in the ablation of MCs but did not ameliorate AHR. These results indicate that c-Kit is required for development of AHR in an MC-independent fashion.

Description: Impact craters on Triton are scarce owing to the relatively recent resurfacing by icy melts. The most heavily cratered surface has a crater density about the same as the lunar maria. The transition diameter from simple to complex craters occurs at a diameter of about 11 kilometers, and the depth-diameter relationship is similar to that of other icy satellites when gravity is taken into account. The crater size-frequency distribution has a differential -3 slope (cumulative -2 slope) and is the same as that for the fresh crater population on Miranda. The most heavily cratered region is on the leading hemisphere in Triton's orbit. Triton may have a leading-trailing asymmetry in its crater population. Based primarily on the similarity of size distributions on Triton and Miranda and the relatively young surface on Triton, the source of Triton's craters is probably comets. The very peculiar size distribution of sharp craters on the "cantaloupe" terrain and other evidence suggests they are volcanic explosion craters.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Strom, R G -- Croft, S K -- Boyce, J M -- New York, N.Y. -- Science. 1990 Oct 19;250(4979):437-9.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17793023" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: Voyager 2 images of Neptune reveal a windy planet characterized by bright clouds of methane ice suspended in an exceptionally clear atmosphere above a lower deck of hydrogen sulfide or ammonia ices. Neptune's atmosphere is dominated by a large anticyclonic storm system that has been named the Great Dark Spot (GDS). About the same size as Earth in extent, the GDS bears both many similarities and some differences to the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. Neptune's zonal wind profile is remarkably similar to that of Uranus. Neptune has three major rings at radii of 42,000, 53,000, and 63,000 kilometers. The outer ring contains three higher density arc-like segments that were apparently responsible for most of the ground-based occultation events observed during the current decade. Like the rings of Uranus, the Neptune rings are composed of very dark material; unlike that of Uranus, the Neptune system is very dusty. Six new regular satellites were found, with dark surfaces and radii ranging from 200 to 25 kilometers. All lie inside the orbit of Triton and the inner four are located within the ring system. Triton is seen to be a differentiated body, with a radius of 1350 kilometers and a density of 2.1 grams per cubic centimeter; it exhibits clear evidence of early episodes of surface melting. A now rigid crust of what is probably water ice is overlain with a brilliant coating of nitrogen frost, slightly darkened and reddened with organic polymer material. Streaks of organic polymer suggest seasonal winds strong enough to move particles of micrometer size or larger, once they become airborne. At least two active plumes were seen, carrying dark material 8 kilometers above the surface before being transported downstream by high level winds. The plumes may be driven by solar heating and the subsequent violent vaporization of subsurface nitrogen.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Smith, B A -- Soderblom, L A -- Banfield, D -- Barnet, C -- Basilevsky, A T -- Beebe, R F -- Bollinger, K -- Boyce, J M -- Brahic, A -- Briggs, G A -- Brown, R H -- Chyba, C -- Collins, S A -- Colvin, T -- Cook, A F 2nd -- Crisp, D -- Croft, S K -- Cruikshank, D -- Cuzzi, J N -- Danielson, G E -- Davies, M E -- De Jong, E -- Dones, L -- Godfrey, D -- Goguen, J -- Grenier, I -- Haemmerle, V R -- Hammel, H -- Hansen, C J -- Helfenstein, C P -- Howell, C -- Hunt, G E -- Ingersoll, A P -- Johnson, T V -- Kargel, J -- Kirk, R -- Kuehn, D I -- Limaye, S -- Masursky, H -- McEwen, A -- Morrison, D -- Owen, T -- Owen, W -- Pollack, J B -- Porco, C C -- Rages, K -- Rogers, P -- Rudy, D -- Sagan, C -- Schwartz, J -- Shoemaker, E M -- Showalter, M -- Sicardy, B -- Simonelli, D -- Spencer, J -- Sromovsky, L A -- Stoker, C -- Strom, R G -- Suomi, V E -- Synott, S P -- Terrile, R J -- Thomas, P -- Thompson, W R -- Verbiscer, A -- Veverka, J -- New York, N.Y. -- Science. 1989 Dec 15;246(4936):1422-49.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17755997" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: Magellan radar images of 15 percent of the planet show 135 craters of probable impact origin. Craters more than 15 km across tend to contain central peaks, multiple central peaks, and peak rings. Many craters smaller than 15 km exhibit multiple floors or appear in clusters; these phenomena are attributed to atmospheric breakup of incoming meteoroids. Additionally, the atmosphere appears to have prevented the formation of primary impact craters smaller than about 3 km and produced a deficiency in the number of craters smaller than about 25 km across. Ejecta is found at greater distances than that predicted by simple ballistic emplacement, and the distal ends of some ejecta deposits are lobate. These characteristics may represent surface flows of material initially entrained in the atmosphere. Many craters are surrounded by zones of low radar albedo whose origin may have been deformation of the surface by the shock or pressure wave associated with the incoming meteoroid. Craters are absent from several large areas such as a 5 million square kilometer region around Sappho Patera, where the most likely explanation for the dearth of craters is volcanic resurfacing. There is apparently a spectrum of surface ages on Venus ranging approximately from 0 to 800 million years, and therefore Venus must be a geologically active planet.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Phillips, R J -- Arvidson, R E -- Boyce, J M -- Campbell, D B -- Guest, J E -- Schaber, G G -- Soderblom, L A -- New York, N.Y. -- Science. 1991 Apr 12;252(5003):288-97.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17769276" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: Voyager 2 images of the southern hemisphere of Uranus indicate that submicrometersize haze particles and particles of a methane condensation cloud produce faint patterns in the atmosphere. The alignment of the cloud bands is similar to that of bands on Jupiter and Saturn, but the zonal winds are nearly opposite. At mid-latitudes (-70 degrees to -27 degrees ), where winds were measured, the atmosphere rotates faster than the magnetic field; however, the rotation rate of the atmosphere decreases toward the equator, so that the two probably corotate at about -20 degrees . Voyager images confirm the extremely low albedo of the ring particles. High phase angle images reveal on the order of 10(2) new ringlike features of very low optical depth and relatively high dust abundance interspersed within the main rings, as well as a broad, diffuse, low optical depth ring just inside the main rings system. Nine of the newly discovered small satellites (40 to 165 kilometers in diameter) orbit between the rings and Miranda; the tenth is within the ring system. Two of these small objects may gravitationally confine the e ring. Oberon and Umbriel have heavily cratered surfaces resembling the ancient cratered highlands of Earth's moon, although Umbriel is almost completely covered with uniform dark material, which perhaps indicates some ongoing process. Titania and Ariel show crater populations different from those on Oberon and Umbriel; these were probably generated by collisions with debris confined to their orbits. Titania and Ariel also show many extensional fault systems; Ariel shows strong evidence for the presence of extrusive material. About halfof Miranda's surface is relatively bland, old, cratered terrain. The remainder comprises three large regions of younger terrain, each rectangular to ovoid in plan, that display complex sets of parallel and intersecting scarps and ridges as well as numerous outcrops of bright and dark materials, perhaps suggesting some exotic composition.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Smith, B A -- Soderblom, L A -- Beebe, R -- Bliss, D -- Boyce, J M -- Brahic, A -- Briggs, G A -- Brown, R H -- Collins, S A -- Cook, A F 2nd -- Croft, S K -- Cuzzi, J N -- Danielson, G E -- Davies, M E -- Dowling, T E -- Godfrey, D -- Hansen, C J -- Harris, C -- Hunt, G E -- Ingersoll, A P -- Johnson, T V -- Krauss, R J -- Masursky, H -- Morrison, D -- Owen, T -- Plescia, J B -- Pollack, J B -- Porco, C C -- Rages, K -- Sagan, C -- Shoemaker, E M -- Sromovsky, L A -- Stoker, C -- Strom, R G -- Suomi, V E -- Synnott, S P -- Terrile, R J -- Thomas, P -- Thompson, W R -- Veverka, J -- New York, N.Y. -- Science. 1986 Jul 4;233(4759):43-64.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17812889" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: Many studies exist on magmatic volatiles (H, C, N, F, S, Cl) in and on the Moon, within the last several years, that have cast into question the post-Apollo view of lunar formation, the distribution and sources of volatiles in the Earth-Moon system, and the thermal and magmatic evolution of the Moon. However, these recent observations are not the first data on lunar volatiles. When Apollo samples were first returned, substantial efforts were made to understand volatile elements, and a wealth of data regarding volatile elements exists in this older literature. In this review paper, we approach volatiles in and on the Moon using new and old data derived from lunar samples and remote sensing. From combining these data sets, we identified many points of convergence, although numerous questions remain unanswered. The abundances of volatiles in the bulk silicate Moon (BSM), lunar mantle, and urKREEP [last ~1% of the lunar magma ocean (LMO)] were estimated and placed within the context of the LMO model. The lunar mantle is likely heterogeneous with respect to volatiles, and the relative abundances of F, Cl, and H 2 O in the lunar mantle (H 2 O 〉 F 〉〉 Cl) do not directly reflect those of BSM or urKREEP (Cl 〉 H 2 O F). In fact, the abundances of volatiles in the cumulate lunar mantle were likely controlled by partitioning of volatiles between LMO liquid and nominally anhydrous minerals instead of residual liquid trapped in the cumulate pile. An internally consistent model for lunar volatiles in BSM should reproduce the absolute and relative abundances of volatiles in urKREEP, the anorthositic primary crust, and the lunar mantle within the context of processes that occurred during the thermal and magmatic evolution of the Moon. Using this mass-balance constraint, we conducted LMO crystallization calculations with a specific focus on the distributions and abundances of F, Cl, and H 2 O to determine whether or not estimates of F, Cl, and H 2 O in urKREEP are consistent with those of the lunar mantle, estimated independently from the analysis of volatiles in mare volcanic materials. Our estimate of volatiles in the bulk lunar mantle are 0.54–4.5 ppm F, 0.15–5.3 ppm H 2 O, 0.26–2.9 ppm Cl, 0.014–0.57 ppm C, and 78.9 ppm S. Our estimates of H 2 O are depleted compared to independent estimates of H 2 O in the lunar mantle, which are largely biased toward the "wettest" samples. Although the lunar mantle is depleted in volatiles relative to Earth, unlike the Earth, the mantle is not the primary host for volatiles. The primary host of the Moon’s incompatible lithophile volatiles (F, Cl, H 2 O) is urKREEP, which we estimate to have 660 ppm F, 300–1250 ppm H 2 O, and 1100–1350 ppm Cl. This urKREEP composition implies a BSM with 7.1 ppm F, 3–13 ppm H 2 O, and 11–14 ppm Cl. An upper bound on the abundances of F, Cl, and H 2 O in urKREEP and the BSM, based on F abundances in CI carbonaceous chondrites, are reported to be 5500 ppm F, 0.26–1.09 wt% H 2 O, and 0.98–1.2 wt% Cl and 60 ppm F, 27–114 ppm H 2 O, and 100–123 ppm Cl, respectively. The role of volatiles in many lunar geologic processes was also determined and discussed. Specifically, analyses of volatiles from lunar glass beads as well as the phase assemblages present in coatings on those beads were used to infer that H 2 is likely the primary vapor component responsible for propelling the fire-fountain eruptions that produced the pyroclastic glass beads (as opposed to CO). The textural occurrences of some volatile-bearing minerals are used to identify hydrothermal alteration, which is manifested by sulfide veining and sulfide-replacement textures in silicates. Metasomatic alteration in lunar systems differs substantially from terrestrial alteration due to differences in oxygen fugacity between the two bodies that result in H 2 O as the primary solvent for alteration fluids on Earth and H 2 as the primary solvent for alteration fluids on the Moon (and other reduced planetary bodies). Additionally, volatile abundances in volatile-bearing materials are combined with isotopic data to determine possible secondary processes that have affected the primary magmatic volatile signatures of lunar rocks including degassing, assimilation, and terrestrial contamination; however, these processes prove difficult to untangle within individual data sets. Data from remote sensing and lunar soils are combined to understand the distribution, origin, and abundances of volatiles on the lunar surface, which can be explained largely by solar wind implantation and spallogenic processes, although some of the volatiles in the soils may also be either indigenous to the Moon or terrestrial contamination. We have also provided a complete inventory of volatile-bearing mineral phases indigenous to lunar samples and discuss some of the "unconfirmed" volatile-bearing minerals that have been reported. Finally, a compilation of unanswered questions and future avenues of research on the topic of lunar volatiles are presented, along with a critical analysis of approaches for answering these questions.