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  • Articles  (255)
  • climate change  (131)
  • air pollution  (74)
  • Wetlands  (51)
  • Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering  (255)
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Source
Keywords
Publisher
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Journal
Topic
  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The role of property rights in economic research on U.S. wetlands policy
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Ecological Economics 11 (1994), S. 27-33 
    Details
    ISSN: 0921-8009
    Keywords: Contingent valuation ; Optimal pollution ; Property rights ; Resource economics ; Wetlands
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0921-8009(94)90047-7
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Detention and mixing in free water wetlands
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Ecological Engineering 3 (1994), S. 345-380 
    Details
    ISSN: 0925-8574
    Keywords: Detention time ; Flow modeling ; Hydrology ; Mixing ; Tracer testing ; Wetlands
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-8574(94)00007-7
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The hydrology of four experimental constructed marshes
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Ecological Engineering 3 (1994), S. 319-343 
    Details
    ISSN: 0925-8574
    Keywords: Hydrology ; Water budgets ; Wetlands
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-8574(94)00006-9
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Water quality improvement by four experimental wetlands
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Ecological Engineering 3 (1994), S. 381-397 
    Details
    ISSN: 0925-8574
    Keywords: Nitrogen ; Phosphorus ; Suspended solid ; Water quality ; Wetlands
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-8574(94)00008-5
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Low-energy electron accelerators for industrial radiation processing
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Radiation Physics and Chemistry 42 (1993), S. 525-529 
    Details
    ISSN: 0969-806X
    Keywords: Electron accelerators ; air pollution ; curing ; radiation processing ; trichloroethylene
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0969-806X(93)90302-B
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alternative property rights to wetland externalities
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Ecological Economics 10 (1994), S. 61-68 
    Details
    ISSN: 0921-8009
    Keywords: Pigouvian tax and subsidy ; Property right ; Wetlands
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0921-8009(94)90037-X
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Global climate change in the instrumental period
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 23-36 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: climate change ; global precipitation ; global temperature ; global warming ; instrumental data
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90019-1
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The response of spruce shoot aphid Cinara pilicornis hartig to ambient and filtered air at two elevations and pollution climates
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 86 (1994), S. 233-238 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: Alps ; Norway spruce ; air pollution ; ozone
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90195-3
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Agriculture's share in the emission of trace gases affecting the climate and some cause-oriented proposals for sufficiently reducing this share
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 95-111 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: acidification ; agriculture ; climate change ; eutrophication ; greenhouse gases
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90027-2
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    An approach for treating the uncertainties in the impact of climate change
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 87-93 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: artificial intelligence ; climate change ; modelling ; potato ; uncertainty
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90026-4
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Climatic sensitivity of temperate forests
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 237-243 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: climate change ; drought ; forest distribution ; forest production ; temperate forests
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90038-8
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Iron content and its relations to the sulphur and titanium contents of epiphytic and terricolous lichens and pine bark in Finland
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 84 (1994), S. 131-138 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: air pollution ; bioindicators ; element ratios ; geochemical relations ; heavy metals
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90095-7
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The carbon budget of Canadian forests: A sensitivity analysis of changes in disturbance regimes, growth rates, and decomposition rates
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 55-61 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: Canada ; biospheric feedback ; carbon cycle ; climate change ; fire
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90022-1
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Climate change and human history. Some indications from Europe, ad 400-1400
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 37-43 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: Europe ; climate change ; impact ; medieval
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90020-5
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Chronic ozone exposure increases the susceptibility of hybrid Populus to disease caused by Septoria Musiva
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 86 (1994), S. 109-114 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: air pollution ; canker ; disease ; ozone ; plant
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90012-4
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The impact of climate change on the soil/moisture regime of Scottish mineral soils
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Environmental Pollution 83 (1994), S. 245-250 
    Details
    ISSN: 0269-7491
    Keywords: GIS ; climate change ; moisture ; soil
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90039-6
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Methods for Detecting and Estimating Population Threshold Concentrations for Air Pollution–Related Mortality with Exposure Measurement Error (1999)
    Springer
    Risk analysis 19 (1999), S. 487-496 
    Details
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Keywords: Threshold ; measurement error ; mortality ; air pollution
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The association between daily fluctuations in ambient particulate matter and daily variations in nonaccidental mortality have been extensively investigated. Although it is now widely recognized that such an association exists, the form of the concentration–response model is still in question. Linear, no threshold and linear threshold models have been most commonly examined. In this paper we considered methods to detect and estimate threshold concentrations using time series data of daily mortality rates and air pollution concentrations. Because exposure is measured with error, we also considered the influence of measurement error in distinguishing between these two completing model specifications. The methods were illustrated on a 15-year daily time series of nonaccidental mortality and particulate air pollution data in Toronto, Canada. Nonparametric smoothed representations of the association between mortality and air pollution were adequate to graphically distinguish between these two forms. Weighted nonlinear regression methods for relative risk models were adequate to give nearly unbiased estimates of threshold concentrations even under conditions of extreme exposure measurement error. The uncertainty in the threshold estimates increased with the degree of exposure error. Regression models incorporating threshold concentrations could be clearly distinguished from linear relative risk models in the presence of exposure measurement error. The assumption of a linear model given that a threshold model was the correct form usually resulted in overestimates in the number of averted premature deaths, except for low threshold concentrations and large measurement error.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007008914354
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Risk Perceptions, General Environmental Beliefs, and Willingness to Address Climate Change (1999)
    Springer
    Risk analysis 19 (1999), S. 461-471 
    Details
    ISSN: 1539-6924
    Keywords: Risk perceptions ; climate change ; knowledge ; environmental beliefs
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The research reported here examines the relationship between risk perceptions and willingness to address climate change. The data are a national sample of 1225 mail surveys that include measures of risk perceptions and knowledge tied to climate change, support for voluntary and government actions to address the problem, general environmental beliefs, and demographic variables. Risk perceptions matter in predicting behavioral intentions. Risk perceptions are not a surrogate for general environmental beliefs, but have their own power to account for behavioral intentions. There are four secondary conclusions. First, behavioral intentions regarding climate change are complex and intriguing. People are neither “nonbelievers” who will take no initiatives themselves and oppose all government efforts, nor are they “believers” who promise both to make personal efforts and to vote for every government proposal that promises to address climate change. Second, there are separate demographic sources for voluntary actions compared with voting intentions. Third, recognizing the causes of global warming is a powerful predictor of behavioral intentions independent from believing that climate change will happen and have bad consequences. Finally, the success of the risk perception variables to account for behavioral intentions should encourage greater attention to risk perceptions as independent variables. Risk perceptions and knowledge, however, share the stage with general environmental beliefs and demographic characteristics. Although related, risk perceptions, knowledge, and general environmental beliefs are somewhat independent predictors of behavioral intentions.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007004813446
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  • 19
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A meta-analysis of wetland contingent valuation studies (1999)
    Springer
    Regional environmental change 1 (1999), S. 47-57 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-378X
    Keywords: Key words Meta-analysis ; Contingent valuation ; Wetlands ; Ecosystem functions
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract There is growing interest in the potential for producing generally applicable models for valuing non-market environmental services which do not rely upon expensive and time-consuming survey work, but rather extrapolate results from previous studies. This paper presents a meta-analysis for the use and non-use values generated by wetlands across North America and Europe. The study assesses the socio-economic values attributable to the hydrological, biogeochemical and ecological functions provided by such complex environmental assets. The clustering of multiple values derived from single studies is examined through the application of multilevel modelling methods allowing for the hierarchical structure of such data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s101130050007
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Statistical validation of GCM-simulated climates for the U.S. Great Lakes and the C.I.S. Emba and Ural River basins (1992)
    Springer
    Stochastic environmental research and risk assessment 6 (1992), S. 69-80 
    Details
    ISSN: 1436-3259
    Keywords: Hydrology ; global circulation models ; statistics ; climate change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract Many researchers use outputs from large-scale global circulation models of the atmosphere to assess hydrological and other impacts associated with climate change. However, these models cannot capture all climate variations since the physical processes are imperfectly understood and are poorly represented at smaller regional scales. This paper statistically compares model outputs from the global circulation model of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory to historical data for the United States' Laurentian Great Lakes and for the Emba and Ural River basins in the Commonwealth of Independent States (C.I.S.). We use maximum entropy spectral analysis to compare model and data time series, allowing us to both assess statistical predictabilities and to describe the time series in both time and frequency domains. This comparison initiates assessments of the model's representation of the real world and suggests areas of model improvement.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01581676
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  • 21
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Biotechniques for air pollution control (1993)
    Springer
    Biodegradation 4 (1993), S. 283-301 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-9729
    Keywords: air pollution ; biofiltration ; bioremediation ; bioscrubbing ; off-gas treatment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract This paper gives an overview of present biological techniques for the treatment of off-gases and the techniques that are being developed at the moment. The characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, costs and application area are discussed and compared. Biological off-gas treatment is based on the absorption of volatile contaminants in an aqueous phase or biofilm followed by oxidation by the action of microorganisms. Biofilters, bioscrubbers and biotrickling filters are used for elimination of odour and bioconvertable volatile organic and inorganic compounds and are enjoying increasing popularity. This popularity is a result of the low investment and operational costs involved compared to physico-chemical techniques and the elimination efficiencies that can be obtained. The operational envelop is still extending to higher concentrations and gas flow rates (exceeding 200,000 m3 h−1) and a broader spectrum of degradable compounds. Research and development on the use of membranes and the addition of activated carbon or a second liquid phase to the biological systems may lead to a more efficient elimination of hydrophobic compounds and buffering of fluctuating loads. Shorter adaptation periods can be obtained by inoculation with specialized microorganisms. Improved design and operation are made possible by the growing insights in the kinetics and microbiology and supported by the development of models describing biological off-gas treatment. In conclusion, biotechniques are efficient and cost effective in treating off-gases with concentrations of biodegradable contaminants up to 1–5 g/m3. They could play a justified and important role in air pollution control in the coming years.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00695975
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  • 22
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of forest fire and drought on acidity of a base-poor boreal forest stream: similarities between climatic warming and acidic precipitation (1992)
    Springer
    Biodegradation 17 (1992), S. 191-204 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-9729
    Keywords: fire ; climate change ; boreal forest ; stream ; sulfate ; acidity ; watershed
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract In a boreal forest catchment in the Experimental Lakes Area in northwestern Ontario, wildfire caused an increase in the concentrations of strong acid anions and base cations of the stream. In the naturally base-poor Northwest (NW) Subbasin, a 1980 wildfire caused exports of strong acid anions to increase more than export of base cations, causing a 2.5 fold increase in the acidity of the stream. Mean annual stream pH declined from 5.15 prior to fire to 4.76 two years after fire. Acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC), calculated as the difference between total base cations and strong acid anions, decreased to 20% of pre-fire values. Sulfate and chloride were the strong acid anions responsible for the decline in ANC, increasing four-fold. While nitrate increased eleven-fold, concentrations were too low to significantly affect ANC. There was a significant correlation between weekly sulfate concentration and base cation concentration (r 2 = 0.83) in the two years after fire. Recovery of ANC was caused by the more rapid decline in concentration of sulfate than by changes in base cations. Drought produced a similar but weaker response than fire, with increased sulfate concentrations and decreased stream pH. Climatic warming that increases drought and fire frequency would have effects that mimic the impacts of acidic precipitation (i.e. higher sulfate concentrations and acidic stream waters). Areas which have higher concentrations of stored S from past acid precipitation or have large areas of peatlands in the watershed may have aggravated losses of S and H+ after drought and fire.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00004041
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  • 23
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Environmental gradients in northwest freshwater wetlands (1986)
    Springer
    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 125-134 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Environmental characteristics ; Boundary definition ; Zonal properties
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Wetland environmental characteristics are examined to determine their spatial and temporal relationships. Two very different Oregon freshwater wetlands provided a range of wetland types. Results are evaluated to determine the possible use of environmental characteristics in defining wetlands and their boundaries. Representative physical, hydrological, and edaphic properties were periodically measured in microplots along upland/wetland transects. A multivariate approach is stressed in the data analysis; correlation, cluster analysis, and principal components analyses were used. The results indicate the environmental characteristics change in a quantifiable manner both spatially and temporally. The controlling mechanism is moisture, spatially in terms of the upland/wetland transect and temporally with respect to seasonal response. These changes do not correlate well with vegetation. Several hypotheses are offered as an explanation. Correlation within environmental characteristics is variable but definite patterns are discernible. These data suggest both single and combinations of environmental characteristics that could serve as “keys” in wetland identification and boundary determination. However, before extensive use is made of this information additional long-term monitoring of wetland environmental characteristics will be required.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01866425
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  • 24
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Impact of power utility rights-of-way on wooded wetland (1986)
    Springer
    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 809-814 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Swamp ; Rights-of-way ; Vegetation ; Environmental impact
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This study documents the effects of power utility right-of-way construction and maintenance on the vegetation of a wooded wetland in North Reading, Massachusetts, USA. Neither activity had a substantial, long-term negative impact. Except for differences in size and maturity, the vegetation recovered in two years from nearly total destruction caused by construction. Maintenance that included the periodic removal of high-growing species led to the formation of a plant association different from the one occurring naturally, but as diverse and species rich.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01867733
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  • 25
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Louisiana wetland loss: A regional water management approach to the problem (1988)
    Springer
    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 181-192 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Louisiana ; Mississippi Delta ; Sediment ; Accretion deficit ; Land loss ; Wetlands ; Management
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Loss of Louisiana's coastal wetlands has reached catastrophic proportions. The loss rate is approximately 150 km2/yr (100 acres/day) and is increasing exponentially. Total wetland loss since the turn of the century has been almost 0.5 million ha (1.1 million acres) and represents an area larger than Rhode Island. The physical cause of the problem lies in man's attempts to control the Mississippi River's flooding, while enhancing navigation and extracting minerals. Levee systems and control structures confine sediments that once nourished the wetlands to the river channel. As a consequence, the ultimate sediment deposition is in deep Gulf waters off the Louisiana coast. The lack of sediment input to the interdistributary wetlands results in an accretion deficit. Natural and human-induced subsidence exceeds accretion so that the wetlands sink below sea level and convert to water. The solution is to provide a thin veneer of sediment (approximately 0.6 cm/yr; an average of 1450 g m−2 yr−1) over the coastal marshes and swamps and thus prevent the submergence of vegetation. The sediment source is the Mississippi River system. Calculations show that 9.2% of the river's annual suspended sediment load would be required to sustain the deltaic plain wetlands. It should be distributed during the six high-water months (December–June) through as disaggregated a network as possible. The problem is one of distribution: how can the maximum acres of marsh be nourished with the least cost? At present, the river is managed through federal policy for the benefit of navigation and flood control. A new policy structure, recognizing the new role for the river-sediment distribution, is recommended.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01873387
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  • 26
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Cumulative impacts on water quality functions of wetlands (1988)
    Springer
    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 639-653 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Water quality ; Cumulative impact
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The total effect of cumulative impacts on the water quality functions of wetlands cannot be predicted from the sum of the effects each individual impact would have by itself. The wetland is not a simple filter; it embodies chemical, physical, and biotic processes that can detain, transform, release, or produce a wide variety of substances. Because wetland water quality functions result from the operation of many individual, distinct, and quite dissimilar mechanisms, it is necessary to consider the nature of each individual process. Sound knowledge of the various wetland processes is needed to make guided judgements about the probable effects of a given suite of impacts. Consideration of these processes suggests that many common wetland alterations probably do entail cumulative impact. In addition to traditional assessment methods, the wetland manager may need to obtain appropriate field measurements of water quality-related parameters at specific sites; such data can aid in predicting the effects of cumulative impact or assessing the results of past wetland management.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01867542
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  • 27
    Electronic Resource
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    Issues and approaches in assessing cumulative impacts on waterbird habitat in wetlands (1988)
    Springer
    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 695-701 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Wildlife ; Habitat ; Cumulative impacts ; Losses ; Perturbations ; Waterbirds
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Wetlands are attractive to vertebrates because of their abundant nutrient resources and habitat diversity. Because they are conspicuous, vertebrates commonly are used as indicators of changes in wetlands produced by environmental impacts. Such impacts take place at the landscape level where extensive areas are lost; at the wetland complex level where some (usually small) units of a closely spaced group of wetlands are drained or modified; or at the level of the individual wetland through modification or fragmentation that impacts its habitat value. Vertebrates utilize habitats differently according to age, sex, geographic location, and season, and habitat evaluations based on isolated observations can be biased. Current wetland evaluation systems incorporate wildlife habitat as a major feature, and the habitat evaluation procedure focuses only on habitat. Several approaches for estimating bird habitat losses are derived from population curves based on natural and experimentally induced population fluctuations. Additional research needs and experimental approaches are identified for addressing cumulative impacts on wildlife habitat values.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01867546
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  • 28
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    Electronic Resource
    Developing the scientific basis for assessing cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on landscape functions: Status, perspectives, and prospects (1988)
    Springer
    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 751-771 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Cumulative impact assessment ; Wetlands ; Landscapes ; Functional grouping ; Temporal and spatial scale
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The incongruity between the regional and national scales at which wetland losses are occurring, and the project-specific scale at which wetlands are regulated and studied, has become obvious. This article presents a synthesis of recent efforts by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the Ecosystems Research Center at Cornell University to bring wetland science and regulation into alignment with the reality of the cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on entire landscapes and regions. The synthesis is drawn from the other articles in this volume, the workshop that initiated them, and the scientific literature. It summarizes the status of our present scientific understanding, discusses means by which to actualize the existing potential for matching the scales of research and regulation with the scales at which effects are observed, and provides guidelines for building a stronger scientific base for landscape-level assessments of cumulative effects. It also provides the outlines for a synoptic and qualitative approach to cumulative effects assessment based on a reexamination of the generic assessment framework we proposed elsewhere in this volume. The primary conclusion to be drawn from the articles and the workshop is that a sound scientific basis for regulation will not come merely from acquiring more information on more variables. It will come from recognizing that a perceptual shift to larger temporal, spatial, and organizational scales is overdue. The shift in scale will dictate different—not necessarily more—variables to be measured in future wetland research and considered in wetland regulation.
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    Evaluating cumulative effects on wetland functions: A conceptual overview and generic framework (1988)
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    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 565-583 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Cumulative impact assessment ; Wetlands ; Landscapes
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This article outlines conceptual and methodological issues that must be confronted in developing a sound scientific basis for investigating cumulative effects on freshwater wetlands. We are particularly concerned with: (1) effects expressed at temporal and spatial scales beyond those of the individual disturbance, specific project, or single wetland, that is, effects occurring at the watershed or regional landscape level; and (2) the scientific (technical) component of the overall assessment process. Our aim is to lay the foundation for a research program to develop methods to quantify cumulative effects of wetland loss or degradation on the functioning of interacting systems of wetlands. Toward that goal we: (1) define the concept of cumulative effects in terms that permit scientific investigation of effects; (2) distinguish the scientific component of cumulative impact analysis from other aspects of the assessment process; (3) define critical scientific issues in assessing cumulative effects on wetlands; and (4) set up a hypothetical and generic structure for measuring cumulative effects on the functioning of wetlands as landscape systems. We provide a generic framework for evaluating cumulative effects on three basic wetland landscape functions: flood storage, water quality, and life support. Critical scientific issues include appropriate delineations of scales, identification of threshold responses, and the influence on different functions of wetland size, shape, and position in the landscape. The contribution of a particular wetland to landscape function within watersheds or regions will be determined by its intrinsic characteristics, e.g., size, morphometry, type, percent organic matter in the sediments, and hydrologic regime, and by extrinsic factors, i.e., the wetland's context in the landscape mosaic. Any cumulative effects evaluation must take into account the relationship between these intrinsic and extrinsic attributes and overall landscape function. We use the magnitude of exchanges among component wetlands in a watershed or larger landscape as the basis for defining the geographic boundaries of the assessment. The time scales of recovery for processes controlling particular wetland functions determine temporal boundaries. Landscape-level measures are proposed for each function.
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    Effects of power-line construction on wetland vegetation in Massachusetts, USA (1989)
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    Environmental management 13 (1989), S. 477-483 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Utility rights-of-way ; Vegetation-Environmental impact assessment ; Eastern Massachusetts
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Utility rights-of-way corridors through wetland areas generate long-term impacts from construction activities to these valuable ecosystems. Changes to and recovery of the vegetation communities of a cattail marsh, wooded swamp, and shrub/bog wetland were documented through measurements made each growing season for two years prior, five years following, and again on the tenth year after construction of a 345-kV transmission line. While both the cattail marsh and wooded swamp recovered within a few years, measures of plant community composition in the shrub/bog wetland were still lower, compared to controls, after ten years. Long-term investigations such as the one reported here help decrease uncertainty and provide valuable information for future decision making regarding construction of power utility lines through valuable and dwindling wetland resources.
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    Potential coastal impacts of contemporary changing climate on South Asian seas states (1990)
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    Environmental management 14 (1990), S. 33-46 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Regional climate change ; Sea levels ; Coastal zone management ; Erosion/subsidence ; Tourism ; Beaches ; Wetlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The threat of man-induced global change on the nations of the South Asian seas region varies from place to place because of differences in exposure to monsoons and stoms, differences in local tectonics and subsidence, and variations in air and sea climates. Because several nations are involved, some having subsistence budgets, and given the cost of deriving independently a comprehensive response to global change, the similarities and differences between national settings must be identified soon. These comparisons will form the basis for local response strategies: the similarities provide a basis for responses similar to that of other nations and the differences provide for local adaptation. That climate change on the South Asian coastal region will have an impact is certain: its economics, environment, and coastal land uses are dominated to a certain extent by this marine influence. The extent of these impacts, however, is uncertain. Accompanying global change will be changes in sea level, differences in storm climate, and altered precipitation patterns; science cannot define today what pattern these changes will take. Because global change is inevitable—although its magnitude, timing, and geographic distribution are unknown—the South Asian seas region should begin the appropriate research and planning studies to set forth a reasoned response to global change, for implementation when scientific evidence for global change is more quantitative.
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    Water-quality effectiveness of a detention/wetland treatment system and its effect on an urban lake (1991)
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    Environmental management 15 (1991), S. 131-138 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Lake management ; Phosphorus ; Water quality ; Watershed treatment systems ; Wetlands ; Ponds ; Minnesota ; Urban runoff
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A newly installed combined detention/wetland stormwater treatment facility upstream from Lake McCarrons, Roseville, Minnesota, was monitored for 21 months to evaluate its effectiveness and the response of the lake to decreased phosphorus loads. The treatment facility consists of a 1.0-ha detention pond that discharges into a series of six constructed wetland “chambers.” Data from snowmelt and rainfall events are presented for several pollutants. Results show good reductions for most pollutants. Discussion on the facets of the system's operation are presented. Data from the lake show very little change in its water quality from three years prior to restoration (1984–1986) to three years following restoration (1987–1989): the lake's phosphorus and chlorophyll has actually increased.
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    Use of wetlands for water quality improvement under the USEPA Region V Clean Lakes Program (1991)
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    Environmental management 15 (1991), S. 151-162 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Water quality ; Lake restoration ; United States Environmental Protection Agency ; Wetland protection
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Region V Clean Lakes Program employs artificial and modified natural wetlands in an effort to improve the water quality of selected lakes. We examined use of wetlands at seven lake sites and evaluated the physical and institutional means by which wetland projects are implemented and managed, relative to USEPA program goals and expert recommendations on the use of wetlands for water quality improvement. Management practices recommended by wetlands experts addressed water level and retention, sheet flow, nutrient removal, chemical treatment, ecological and effectiveness monitoring, and resource enhancement. Institutional characteristics recommended included local monitoring, regulation, and enforcement and shared responsibilities among jurisdictions. Institutional and ecological objectives of the National Clean Lakes Program were met to some degree at every site. Social objectives were achieved to a lesser extent. Wetland protection mechanisms and appropriate institutional decentralization were present at all sites. Optimal management techniques were employed to varying degrees at each site, but most projects lack adequate monitoring to determine adverse ecological impacts and effectiveness of pollutant removal and do not extensively address needs for recreation and wildlife habitat. There is evidence that the wetland projects are contributing to improved lake water quality; however, more emphasis needs to be placed on wetland protection and long-term project evaluation.
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    Regional characteristics of land use in Northeast and Southern Blue Ridge Province: Associations with acid rain effects on surface-water chemistry (1991)
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    Environmental management 15 (1991), S. 269-279 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Land use ; Acid rain ; Water chemistry ; Wetlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The Direct/Delayed Response Project (DDRP) is one of several studies being conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency to assess risk to surface waters from acidic deposition in the eastern United States. In one phase of DDRP, land use, wetland, and forest cover data were collected for statistical samples of 145 Northeast lake and 35 Southern Blue Ridge Province stream watersheds in the United States. Land-use and other data then were extrapolated from individual to target watershed populations. Project statistical design allows summarization of results for various subsets of the target population. This article discusses results and implications of the land-use and land-cover characterization for both regions. Forest cover was the primary land use in both regions. In the Northeast, developed (agriculture and urban) land was positively associated with surface-water chemistry values for acid neutralizing capacity, Ca plus Mg, pH, and sulfate in the Pocono/Catskill subregion. Extensive wetlands and beaver activity occur in parts of the Northeast region, whereas topography limits wetland and riparian development in the Southern Blue Ridge Province. Northeast soils have low sulfate adsorption capacity, most watersheds are near sulfur steady state, and lake sulfate concentrations are controlled principally by levels of sulfur deposition. Net annual sulfur retention in Northeast watersheds is positively correlated with occurrence of wetlands and beaver impoundments. In contrast, most Southern Blue Ridge Province soils have high sulfate adsorption capacities, resulting in high net watershed sulfur retention. At the present time, stream sulfate concentrations and percent sulfur retention are controlled principally by soil chemical properties related to adsorption rather than atmospheric deposition and land use.
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    Trends and patterns in section 404 permitting requiring compensatory mitigation in Oregon and Washington, USA (1992)
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    Environmental management 16 (1992), S. 109-119 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Clean Water Act ; Mitigation ; Wetland creation ; Pacific Northwest ; Washington ; Oregon
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The effects of permitting decisions made under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act for which compensatory mitigation was required were examined. Information was compiled on permits issued in Oregon (January 1977–January 1987) and Washington (1980–1986). Data on the type of project permitted, wetland impacted, and mitigation project were collected and analyzed. The records of the Portland and Seattle District Offices of the US Army Corps of Engineers and of Environmental Protection Agency Region X were the primary sources of information. The 58 permits issued during the years of concern in Oregon document impacts to 82 wetlands and the creation of 80. The total area of wetland impacted was 74 ha while 42 ha were created, resulting in a net loss of 32 ha or 43%. The 35 permits issued in Washington document impacts to 72 wetlands and the creation of 52. The total area of wetland impacted was 61 ha while 45 ha were created, resulting in a net loss of 16 ha or 26%. In both states, the number of permits requiring compensation increased with time. The area of the impacted and created wetlands tended to be ≤0.40 ha. Permitted activity occurred primarily west of the Cascade Mountains and in the vicinity of urban centers. Estuarine and palustrine wetlands were impacted and created most frequently. The wetland types created most often were not always the same as those impacted; therefore, local gains and losses of certain types occurred. In both states the greatest net loss in area was in freshwater marshes. This study illustrates how Section 404 permit data might be used in managing a regional wetland resource. However, because the data readily available were either incomplete or of poor quality, the process of gathering information was very labor intensive. Since similar analyses would be useful to resource managers and scientists from other areas, development of an up-to-date standardized data base is recommended.
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    Management plan for an alkali sink and its endangered plantCordylanthus palmatus (1993)
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    Environmental management 17 (1993), S. 115-127 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Endangered species ; Wetlands ; Vernal pools ; Alkali sink ; Plant ecology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Cordylanthus palmatus is a hemiparasitic annual of the family Scrophulareacae. It is on both the federal and state lists of endangered species. Only four widely separated populations remain, all of them in alkali sinks, where the plant thrives in saline-sodic soils. The largest population is at Springtown, Alameda County, California. This article reports on efforts to develop a management plan for both the plant and the alkali sink ecosystem. The plan is based on: (1) characterization of hydrology, soils and geomorphology of the site; (2) characterization of the land use impacts to the site; (3) analysis of plant distribution in relation to gradients of elevation and soil chemistry; (4) studies on water potential and water stress inCordylanthus palmatus and associated species. On the basis of this plan, both the State of California and private groups are cooperating to create, restore, and manage a preserve in the Springtown Alkali Sink.
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    Monitoring wetland changes with remote sensing: An East African example (1996)
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    Environmental management 20 (1996), S. 411-419 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Africa ; Ethiopia ; Kenya ; Omo ; Turkana ; Wetlands ; Remote sensing
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Environmental managers need current, accurate information upon which to base decisions. Viable information, especially in developing countries, is often unavailable. Satellite remote sensing is an appropriate and effective data source for mapping the surface of the earth, including a variety of environmental features. Remote-sensing-derived information is enhanced by being one component within a geographic information system (GIS). These techniques were employed to study an expanding delta in East Africa. The Omo River flows from the Ethiopian Highlands into the northern end of Lake Turkana, creating a large delta extending between Ethiopia and Kenya. This isolated and unique wetland feature has expanded by over 500 sq km in the last 15 years as measured by space-borne remote sensing techniques and corroborated by low-altitude aircraft reconnaissance flights. The growth of the delta appears to be a function of both increased sedimentation and decreased lake levels and river flows. Within the delta there has been a selective decline in wildlife and an increase in human activity, both pastoral and agricultural. The uniqueness of this isolated delta suggests that consideration be given to its possible protection and management.
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    Vegetative delineation of coastal salt marsh boundaries (1983)
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    Environmental management 7 (1983), S. 443-452 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Salt marshes ; Wetlands ; Wetland management ; Wetland boundaries ; Coastal vegetation ; Coastal ecology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Legislation mandating the protection of wetlands, combined with current pressures to convert them to other uses, emphasize the need to determine accurately a wetland-upland boundary We investigated six methods designed to establish such a boundary based on vegetation Each method was applied to a common data set obtained from 295 quadrats along 22 transects between marsh and upland areas in 13 intertidal saline wetlands in Oregon and Washington. The multiple occurrence, joint occurrence, and five percent methods required plant species to be classified as salt marsh, upland, and non-indicator, cluster and similarity methods required no initial classification Close agreement on wetland-upland boundaries determined by the six methods suggests that preclassification of plants and collection of plant cover data may not be necessary to determine the boundary
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    Spatial and temporal changes in Louisiana's Barataria Basin marshes, 1945–1980 (1986)
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    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 671-680 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Marsh loss ; Louisiana ; Wetlands ; Coastal zone management ; Saltwater intrusion ; Canal impacts
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A computerized geographic information system with site-specific change-detection capabilities was developed to document amounts, rates, locations, and sequences of loss of coastal marsh to open water in Barataria Basin, Louisiana, USA. Land-water interpretations based on 1945, 1956, 1969, and 1980 aerial photographs were used as input, and a modified version of the Earth Resources Laboratory Applications Software developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was used as a spatial data base management system. Analysis of these data sets indicates that rates of marsh loss have increased from 0.36% per year in the 1945–56 period, to 1.03% per year in 1956–69, and to 1.96% per year in 1969–80. The patterns of marsh loss indicate that the combination of processes causing degradation of the marsh surface does not affect all areas uniformly. Marsh loss rates have been highest where freshwater marshes have been subject to saltwater intrusion. The increase in the wetland loss rates corresponds to accelerated rates of subsidence and canal dredging and to a cumulative increase in the area of canals and spoil deposits.
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    The reversible process concept applied to the environmental management of large river systems (1987)
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    Environmental management 11 (1987), S. 607-617 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Landscape ecology ; Wetlands ; Ecological succession ; Spatiotemporal scales ; Stability, recovery
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The wetland ecosystems occurring within alluvial floodplains change rapidly. Within the ecological successions, the life span of pioneer and transient stages may be measured in several years or decades depending on the respective influences of allogenic (water dynamics, erosion, and deposition) and autogenic developmental processes (population dynamics, eutrophication, and terrestrialization). This article emphasizes the mechanisms that are responsible for the ecosystem changes and their importance to environmental management. Two case studies exemplify reversible and irreversible successional processes in reference to different spatial and temporal scales. On the scale of the former channels, the standing-water ecosystems with low homeostasis may recover their previous status after human action on the allogenic processes. On the scale of a whole reach of the floodplain, erosion and deposition appear as reversible processes that regenerate the ecological successions. The concepts of stability and reversibility are discussed in relation to different spatiotemporal referential frameworks and different levels of integration. The reversible process concept is also considered with reference to the energy inputs into the involved subsystems. To estimate the probability of ecosystem regeneration or the cost of restoration, a concept of “degrees of reversibility” is proposed.
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    Backfilling canals to mitigate Wetland dredging in Louisiana coastal marshes (1987)
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    Environmental management 11 (1987), S. 823-836 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Backfilling ; Mitigation ; Wetlands ; Louisiana ; Dredging
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Returning canal spoil banks into canals, or backfilling, is used in Louisiana marshes to mitigate damage caused by dredging for oil and gas extraction. We evaluated 33 canals backfilled through July 1984 to assess the success of habitat restoration. We determined restoration success by examining canal depth, vegetation recolonization, and regraded spoil bank soils after backfilling. Restoration success depended on: marsh type, canal location, canal age, marsh soil characteristics, the presence or absence of a plug at the canal mouth, whether mitigation was on- or off-site, and dredge operator performance. Backfilling reduced median canal depth from 2.4 to 1.1 m, restored marsh vegetation on the backfilled spoil bank, but did not restore emergent marsh vegetation in the canal because of the lack of sufficient spoil material to fill the canal and time. Median percentage of cover of marsh vegetation on the canal spoil banks was 51.6%. Median percentage of cover in the canal was 0.7%. The organic matter and water content of spoil bank soils were restored to values intermediate between spoil bank levels and predredging marsh conditions. The average percentage of cover of marsh vegetation on backfilled spoil banks was highest in intermediate marshes (68.6%) and lowest in fresh (34.7%) and salt marshes (33.9%). Average canal depth was greatest in intermediate marshes (1.50 m) and least in fresh marshes (0.85 m). Canals backfilled in the Chenier Plain of western Louisiana were shallower (average depth = 0.61 m) than in the eastern Deltaic Plain (mean depth range = 1.08 to 1.30 m), probably because of differences in sediment type, lower subsidence rate, and lower tidal exchange in the Chenier Plain. Canals backfilled in marshes with more organic soils were deeper, probably as a result of greater loss of spoil volume caused by oxidation of soil organic matter. Canals ten or more years old at the time of backfilling had shallower depths after backfilling. Depths varied widely among canals backfilled within ten years of dredging. Canal size showed no relationship to canal depth or amount of vegetation reestablished. Plugged canals contained more marsh reestablished in the canal and much greater chance of colonization by submerged aquatic vegetation compared with unplugged canals. Dredge operator skill was important in leveling spoil banks to allow vegetation reestablishment. Wide variation in dredge performance led to differing success of vegetation restoration. Complete reestablishment of the vegetation was not a necessary condition for successful restoration. In addition to providing vegetation reestablishment, backfilling canals resulted in shallow water areas with higher habitat value for benthos, fish, and waterfowl than unfilled canals. Spoil bank removal also may help restore water flow patterns over the marsh surface. Increased backfilling for wetland mitigation and restoration is recommended.
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    Cumulative impacts on wetlands: Linking scientific assessments and regulatory alternatives (1988)
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    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 591-602 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Bottomland hardwood forests ; Cumulative impacts ; Goal-setting ; Regulation ; Wetlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This article is an extension and application of Preston and Bedford (1988), especially as relevant to bottomland hardwood (BLH) forests of the southeastern United States. The most important cumulative effects in BLH forests result from incremental forest loss (nibbling) and from synergisms resulting from this nibbling. Present regulatory procedures are ineffective in preventing incremental forest loss because of the focus on permit site evaluation, rather than on large landscapes. Three examples are given to illustrate the need for a landscape focus. This perspective requires preplanning or goal-setting to establish the desired conditions to be maintained in the regulated landscape unit. Spatial and temporal scales are of particular concern for landscape impact assessment. Natural drainage basins of about 106 ha, as identified in U.S. Geological Survey hydrologic units, appear to appropriate spatial units: they have fairly natural boundaries, are of sufficient size to support populations of large, wide-ranging mammals, and are compatible with existing maps and databases. Time scales should be sufficiently long to include recovery of wetland ecosystems from human perturbations. In practice, available data sets limit analysis to no longer than 50 yr. Eight indicators of landscape integrity are identified, based on generally available long-term data sets. Linking technical information concerning cumulativeeffects on landscapes to the evaluation of cumulativeimpacts in regulatory programs (i.e., goal-setting) is a serious issue that can benefit from precedents found in the field of epidemiology, and in the establishment of clean air and clean water standards. We suggest that reference data sets must be developed, relating BLH function to structure (forest area). These can be used to set goals for individual watersheds, based on their present conditions and the magnitude and type of perceived development pressures. Thus the crucial steps in establishing a successful program appear to be (1) establish study unit boundaries, (2) assess the condition of study unit landscape integrity, (3) set goals, and (4) consider the impacts of permit proposals with both goals and the existing condition of the study unit landscape in mind.
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    Simplified method for wetland habitat assessment (1989)
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    Environmental management 13 (1989), S. 207-213 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Assessment technique ; Environmental impact ; Habitat evaluation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This article presents a wetland habitat assessment technique (HAT) using birds as indicators of habitat quality. The technique is quick, simple, inexpensive, and lends itself to screening large numbers of wetlands. HAT can provide input to more extensive evaluation techniques. Measures of species diversity and rarity are used to assess the quality of the wetland. By applying the notion of ecologically optimum size, the technique addresses the issue of economic efficiency. Results of field testing HAT on 11 tidally influenced wetlands are presented to illustrate HAT's utility. Application of HAT in a variety of situations is discussed.
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    An inventory of wetland impoundments in the coastal zone of Louisiana, USA: Historical trends (1990)
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    Environmental management 14 (1990), S. 229-240 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Impoundments ; Wetlands ; Louisiana ; Coastal zone management ; Wetland loss ; Remote sensing
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract We inventoried wetland impoundments in the Louisiana, USA, coastal zone from the late 1900s to 1985. Historically, impoundment of wetlands for reclamation resulted in direct wetland loss after levees (dikes) failed and the impounded area was permanently flooded, reverting not to wetland, but to open-water habitat. A current management approach is to surround wetlands by levees and water control structures, a practice termed semi-impoundment marsh management. The purpose of this semi-impoundment is to retard saltwater intrusion and reduce water level fluctuations in an attempt to reduce wetland loss, which is a serious problem in coastal Louisiana. In order to quantify the total impounded area, we used historic data and high-altitude infrared photography to map coastal impoundments. Our goal was to produce a documented inventory of wetlands intentionally impounded by levees in the coastal zone of Louisiana in order to provide a benchmark for further research. We inventoried 370,658 ha within the coastal zone that had been intentionally impounded before 1985. This area is equal to about 30% of the total wetland area in the coastal zone. Of that total area, approximately 12% (43,000 ha) is no longer impounded (i.e., failed impoundments; levees no longer exist or only remnants remain). Of the 328,000 ha still impounded, about 65% (214,000 ha) is developed (agriculture, aquaculture, urban and industrial development, and contained spoil). The remaining 35% (114,000 ha) of impoundments are in an undeveloped state (wetland or openwater habitat). In December 1985, approximately 50% (78,000 ha) of the undeveloped and failed impoundments were open-water habitat. This inventory will allow researchers to monitor future change in land-water ratios that occur within impounded wetlands and thus to assess the utility of coastal wetland management using impoundments.
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    Diversity of hydric soils in North Carolina, USA (1990)
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    Environmental management 14 (1990), S. 241-247 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Soil survey ; Soil taxonomy ; Wetlands ; Food Security Act ; Clean Water Act
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Hydric soils are used as supportive evidence for wetland delineations by federal and state agencies and by the private sector in North Carolina, USA. An analysis of hydric soil distribution and hydric soil characteristics was conducted with county soil surveys and soil taxonomy of the USA. Approximately 100 hydric soils have been used for soil mapping in North Carolina, and they represent seven of the ten soil orders in soil taxonomy. An estimated 23% (2.9 million ha) of the land surface area in North Carolina supports hydric soils. Approximately 96% of the known hydric soil acreage was found in the coastal plain of North Carolina. Over one-third of the soils were hydric Ultisols, which represented close to 10% of the land surface area. The other soil orders with extensive hydric soil acreage included Histosols, Inceptisols, and Entisols. The soil orders were separated into great groups of soil taxonomy to discuss soil profile characteristics. Landscape positions and associated wetland communities were also presented. In North Carolina, a statewide inventory of wetlands does not exist and soil surveys offer a resource for a first approximation of wetland boundaries.
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    Wetland protection as land-use planning: The impact of section 404 in Wisconsin, USA (1992)
    Springer
    Environmental management 16 (1992), S. 345-353 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Regulation ; Land use ; Planning ; Evaluation ; Wisconsin
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The ability of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act to act as an effective, efficient, and equitable land-use planning tool was assessed through a survey of Section 404 permits in Wisconsin. In a six-month period of permitting, the 404 program reduced wetland losses in the state by 15%. Several factors were examined that may affect permit decisions; these factors are water dependency, alternatives, project type, wetland type, and public or agency comments. Only the water dependency of the project had a statistically significant effect on permit decisions, although development projects that were perceived to provide public good were more likely to be permitted. Environmental impacts of a proposed fill project were not adequately assessed in any of the permit decisions. Because of the way Section 404 is interpreted and administered by the US Army Corps of Engineers, increasing net benefits and achieving an equitable distribution of those benefits is difficult. The corps does not perform any functional evaluations of wetlands nor do they attempt to measure economic value and environmental impacts. In addition, the 404 review process is, in effect, inaccessible to the public. The de facto interpretations of the Section 404 regulations and a lack of program funding and trained personnel all contribute to the program's ineffectiveness.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02400073
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    State wetlands and riparian area protection programs (1994)
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    Environmental management 18 (1994), S. 183-201 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Riparian areas ; Environmental policy ; Clean water legislation and programs
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The protection of wetlands and riparian areas has emerged as an important environmental planning issue. In the United States, several federal and state laws have been enacted to protect wetlands and riparian areas. Specifically, the federal Clean Water Act includes protection requirements in Sections 301 and 303 for state water quality standards, Section 401 for state certification of federal actions (projects, permits, and licenses), and Section 404 for dredge and fill permits. The Section 401 water quality state certification element has been called the “sleeping giant” of wetlands protection because it empowers state officials to veto or condition federally permitted or licensed activities that do not comply with state water quality standards. State officials have used this power infrequently. The purpose of this research was to analyze the effectiveness of state wetland and riparian programs. Contacts were established with officials in each state and in the national and regional offices of key federal agencies. Based on interviews and on a review of federal and state laws, state program effectiveness was analyzed. From this analysis, several problems and opportunities facing state wetland protection efforts are presented.
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    Wetlands mitigation: Partnership between an electric power company and a federal wildlife refuge (1996)
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    Environmental management 20 (1996), S. 933-939 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Mitigation ; Wildlife ; Partnership ; Biodiversity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Nine hectares (23 acres) of a degraded section of Patuxent Research Refuge in Laurel, Maryland, USA, were converted to wetland habitat by the Baltimore Gas and Electric Company in 1994. The wetlands were created as mitigation for 5.7 ha (14 acres) of wetlands that were impacted as part of the construction of an 8.5-km (5.3-mile) 500-kV overhead transmission line on the refuge. The area consists of a created forested wetland of 5.5 ha (13.5 acres), a seasonally inundated green-tree reservoir of 7.6 ha (6.5 acres), and an impounded pond wetland of 1.2 ha (3 acres). Construction included the planting of 6131 trees, 4276 shrubs, and 15,102 emergent plants. Part of the site has been studied intensively since completion and survival of trees and shrubs after two years was 88%. Measurements of these transplants have shown growth greater than on other created sites in Maryland. Grasses and other herbaceous vegetation were dominant plants in the meter-square plots in the first two years of sampling of the created forested wetland. Wildlife surveys for birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles have revealed diverse communities. Although these communities represent species consistent with open habitat, more typical forest species should colonize the area as it undergoes succession into a more mature forested wetland. The creation, management, and research of this mitigation site represents an excellent example of a partnership between a private electric power company and a federal wildlife refuge. This partnership has increased local biodiversity and improved regional water quality of the Patuxent River and the Chesapeake Bay.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01205974
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    A quantitative technique for estimating the boundaries of wetlands from vegetation data (1986)
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    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 107-112 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Boundaries ; Conservation ; Hydrophytes ; Marsh ; Shoreline ; Wetlands ; Zonation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract There is an increasing need for the accurate delineation of wetlands for planning and conservation purposes. We propose a method based on vegetation zonation which requires three steps. The first step is to examine transects crossing the transition zone from marsh to upland. In each transect the uppermost occurrence of each plant species is located relative to a fixed survey point. The second step is to determine which of these species are hydrophytes (wetland plants). This is assessed using the presence or absence of morphological and physiological adaptations for growing in wet environments. Alternatively, a literature search using botanical manuals may suffice. The third step determines the upper limit of the wetland by finding the upper limit of the uppermost hydrophyte in each transect, and taking the mean value of these over all transects. This mean defines the boundary of the wetland. The method is illustrated using two marshes along the north shore of the St. Lawrence River in Ontario.
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    Impact of flood control reservoirs and pollution influx on the Sandy Creek Watershed, Mercer County, Pennsylvania, USA (1986)
    Springer
    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 241-253 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Reservoirs ; Pollution ; Watershed ; Aquatic communities ; Riparian vegetation ; Wetlands ; Productivity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A study of the impact of two flood control reservoirs and pollution influx was conducted on two streams within the Sandy Creek Watershed, Mercer County, Pennsylvania, USA. Fecal coliforms were significantly reduced in the outflows without affecting water chemistry, thereby improving the overall water quality. The size and composition of the aquatic communities as well as stream metabolism varied seasonably among the different sampling stations. Pollution influx primarily from communities and agricultural drainage had a greater impact on the stream ecosystem than did impounding of the streams. Natural wetlands and riparian vegetation were important factors in reducing the pollution load in these streams. The reestablishment and maintenance of riparian vegetation should therefore be an integral part of the land-use plan for watersheds in order to improve water quality and wildlife habitats. In the future, the maintenance of riparian vegetation should be given prime consideration in the development of watershed projects.
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    Federal and state management of inland wetlands: Are states ready to assume control? (1986)
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    Environmental management 10 (1986), S. 145-156 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetland management ; Wetlands ; Dredge and fill permit ; State wetland laws ; Wetland protection ; US Corps of Engineers
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract As inland wetlands face increasing pressure for development, both the federal government and individual states have begun reevaluating their respective wetland regulatory schemes. This article focuses first on the effectiveness of the past, present, and proposed federal regulations, most notably the Section 404, Dredge and Fill Permit Program, in dealing with shrinking wetland resources. The article then addresses the status of state involvement in this largely federal area, as well as state preparedness to assume primacy should federal priorities change. Finally, the subject of comprehensive legislation for wetland protection is investigated, and the article concludes with some procedural suggestions for developing a model law.
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    Status and trends of freshwater wetlands in the coal-mining region of Pennsylvania, USA (1987)
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    Environmental management 11 (1987), S. 29-34 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Coal mining ; Surface mining ; Pennsylvania
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The impact of surface mining for coal on the nature and extent of freshwater wetlands was assessed on 73,200 ha in western Pennsylvania. The influence of mining on wetlands was not uniform across physiographic regions, varying with regional differences in hydrology and soils. Overall, mined lands supported 18% more palustrine wetlands than unmined lands, primarily because of a 270% gain in permanent, open-water wetlands on mined lands in the glaciated region. Open-water wetlands declined on mined lands in unglaciated regions owing to unfavorable hydrologic conditions. The number and size of emergent wetlands declined as a result of mining. Mined lands supported 81% fewer riverine wetlands than unmined lands. This was caused primarily by avoidance of lands containing streams, and secondarily by a 10% reduction in replacement of riverine wetlands during reclamation. Land managers need to develop land use policies that maximize the ecological and social benefits that can be derived from developing diverse wetland communities on mined lands.
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    Phalaris arundinacea L. (Reed canary grass—Gramineae) as a hydrophyte in Essex, Connecticut, USA (1987)
    Springer
    Environmental management 11 (1987), S. 771-773 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Soil conservation ; Wetlands ; Pond bottoms ; Phalaris arundinacea L ; Reed Canary Grass ; Connecticut
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract After the June 1982 floods in Essex, Connecticut, USA, reseeding for stabilization of exposed pond bottoms and subsequent rebuilding of a dam on the Mill Pond, Essex, CT resulted in rooted, floating aquatic mats ofPhalaris arundinacea L. This required that the site be weed harvested to restore open water. It is suggested that the species not be used to temporarily stabilize pond bottom soils because of its great and unexpected adaptability to aquatic situations.
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    Marsh management plans in practice: Do they work in coastal Louisiana, USA? (1988)
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    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 37-53 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Marsh management ; Louisiana ; Impoundment ; Water control structures
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Louisiana's coastal wetlands represent about 41% of the nation's total and are extensively managed for fish, fur, and waterfowl. Marsh management plans (MMPs) are currently used to avoid potential user conflicts and are believed to be a best management practice for specific management goals. In this article, we define MMPs and examine their variety, history, impacts, and future. A MMP is an organized written plan submitted to state and federal permitting agencies for approval and whose purpose is to regulate wetland habitat quantity and quality (control land loss and enhance productivity). MMPs are usually implemented by making structural modifications in the marsh, primarily by using a variety of water control structures in levees to impound or semi-impound managed areas. It appears that MMPs using impoundments are only marginally successful in achieving and often contradict management goals. Although 20% of coastal Louisiana may be in MMPs by the year 2000, conflict resolution of public and private goals is compromised by a surfeit of opinion and dearth of data and experience. Based on interpretation of these results, we believe the next phase of management should include scientific studies of actual impacts, utilization of post-construction monitoring data, inventory of existing MMPs, development of new techniques, and determination of cumulative impacts.
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    Management and valuation of an environmentally sensitive area: Norfolk Broadland, England, case study (1988)
    Springer
    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 193-207 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Environmentally sensitive area ; Opportunity cost ; Cost-effectiveness ; Flood alleviation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Wetlands, like any other environmentally sensitive resource, require very careful evaluation. While it is accepted that all wetlands may be equally valuable in terms of maintaining global life-support systems, individual areas may be ranked according to their uniqueness or the irreplaceability of the resource should the wetland be developed. The various techniques available for evaluating the wetland resource in the development versus conservation conflict situation are critically assessed. Indirect appraisal via the opportunity cost method can generate valuable data which have contributed to the mitigation of such conflict situations. The Broadland, in Norfolk, England, recently designated an environmentally sensitive area (ESA), provides a case study example of wetland management. The search for an “acceptable” flood alleviation strategy for the ESA is examined in detail. The economic and environmental asset structure of the study area is examined at two levels. A basic “screening” system is applied to each of the identified flood protection planning units to enable the rank ordering of the units. A more detailed appraisal is then made of the value of selected units so that the cost-effectiveness of any planned expenditure on flood protection works can be assessed. Specific management issues and their likely effect on the environment, in terms of land use for example, are also addressed. The 1986 Agriculture Act marks a potential watershed in British conservation policy. The ESA policy encompasses a dual management strategy that attempts to stimulate compatible agricultural and conservation practices and activities. Other countries that still retain significant unspoiled wetland resources may find that preemptive regulatory government intervention in favor of conservation would help to avoid the worst aspects of the British experience.
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    Some thoughts on using a landscape framework to address cumulative impacts on wetland food chain support (1988)
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    Environmental management 12 (1988), S. 703-711 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Landscape ecology ; Food chain and webs ; Spatial scale and location ; Wetlands ; Cumulative impacts
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Problems of using food chain support as a functional attribute of a wetland are discussed. It is suggested that primary production may not be the metric that best evaluates food chain support. Environmental constructs of the wetland and resultant habitat variables appear to yield more information on life-support functions. A landscape-oriented approach is derived to separate hierarchically the wet-lands into ecological regions and landscape elements. This classification scheme allows for predetermination of environmental constraints and the possible natural limits of wetland food chain support. It is proposed that models derived from spatial location theory be used to determine the movement of animals from wetland patches experiencing impacts on food chain support. Patch size, distance between patches, habitat diversity, and environmental constraints are incorporated in these models.
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    Soil and water characteristics of a young surface mine wetland (1991)
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    Environmental management 15 (1991), S. 403-410 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Reclamation ; Soils ; Surface mines ; Wetlands ; Wetland creation ; Water
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Coal companies are reluctant to include wetland development in reclamation plans partly due to a lack of information on the resulting characteristics of such sites. It is easier for coal companies to recreate terrestrial habitats than to attempt experimental methods and possibly face significant regulatory disapproval. Therefore, we studied a young (10 years) wetland on a reclaimed surface coal mine in southern Illinois so as to ascertain soil and water characteristics such that the site might serve as a model for wetland development on surface mines. Water pH was not measured because of equipment problems, but evidence (plant life, fish, herpetofauna) suggests suitable pH levels. Other water parameters (conductivity, salinity, alkalinity, chloride, copper, total hardness, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, and sulfate) were measured, and only copper was seen in potentially high concentrations (but with no obvious toxic effects). Soil variables measured included pH, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, iron, sulfate, chloride, and percent organic matter. Soils were slightly alkaline and most parameters fell within levels reported for other studies on both natural and manmade wetlands. Aluminum was high, but this might be indicative more of large amounts complexed with soils and therefore unavailable, than amounts actually accessible to plants. Organic matter was moderate, somewhat surprising given the age of the system.
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    Potential of the Conservation Reserve Program to control agricultural surface water pollution (1991)
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    Environmental management 15 (1991), S. 507-518 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Filter strips ; Greenbelts ; Wetlands ; Contingent valuation ; Agricultural policy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), initiated by the Conservation Title of the Food Security Act of 1985, is the primary federal program to control nonpointsource pollution in agricultural watersheds of the United States. However, the program is designed primarily to reduce soil erosion rather than to retire croplands in a manner optimal for controlling runoff of sediment and associated pollutants. This study estimates potential enrollment of streamside and floodplain croplands in this ten-year retirement program in order to gauge the potential of the CRP as a water-quality improvement policy. A contingent choice survey design was employed in Fayette County, Illinois, to demonstrate that there is substantial potential for retirement of streamside and floodplain croplands in the CRP. Enrollments in each program climb from less than 6% to over 83% of eligible croplands as the annual rental rate is increased from $20 to $200/acre. Potential retirement of streamside and floodplain croplands declines, however, if tree planting, drainage removal, or a 20-year contract are required. The potential of a CRP-based water-quality program to improve water quality and aquatic ecosystems in agricultural watersheds is thus substantial but constrained by the economic trade-offs that farmers make between crop production and conservation incentives in determining the use of their riparian lands.
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    Changes in wetlands on nonfederal rural land of the conterminous United States from 1982 to 1987 (1994)
    Springer
    Environmental management 18 (1994), S. 693-705 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Wetland trends ; Wetland losses ; Land use impacts ; National
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Recent wetland area trends were estimated from the National Resources Inventory (NRI) for nonfederal rural lands for the period 1982–1987. NRI-based estimates of wetland area for states comprising the conterminous United States were highly correlated with estimates made by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and with estimates of coastal salt marsh wetlands made by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Net wetland area declined by 1.1% (≈363,200 ha) during the five-year study period. Conversion to open water, primarily caused by natural flooding in western inland basins, was responsible for altering extensive wetland areas (≈171,400 ha). Of the human-induced wetland conversions, urban and built-up land was responsible for 48% of the wetland loss, while agricultural development was indicated in 37% of the converted wetland area. A decrease in rural land, and increases in both population, and urban and built-up land were associated with wetland loss among states. Potential reasons for wetland loss were different in 20 coastal states than in 28 inland states. Proportionately, wetland loss due to development was three times greater in coastal states than inland states, while agriculturally induced wetland losses were similar in both groups. The proportionate declines of forested vs nonforested wetlands were not significantly different among states.
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    Remote sensing of coastal food resources (1978)
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    Environmental management 2 (1978), S. 119-126 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Remote sensing ; Coastal productivity ; Natural resources ; LANDSAT ; Skylab ; Wetlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Since tidal marshes and estuaries cover large areas of the world's coasts and exhibit a very high net primary productivity, they offer a most important food source for an ever increasing world population. The food web of numerous estuaries and coastal waters is based on the primary productivity of coastal marshes that constitute centers of solar energy fixation and an important link in the mineral cycles. The fixed carbon and minerals enterthe water primarily as detritus where a complex food web makes them accessible to commercially important fish and benthic communities. With the launch of LANDSAT, NOAA-2, and Skylab, relatively high resolution spacecraft data became available for mapping and inventorying tidal marshes and their productivity on a global scale. Upwelling regions that attract large fish populations as well as other coastal water properties relating to the presence of finfish, Crustacea, and shellfish could be identified and observed. Using multispectral analysis techniques, classification accuracies greater than 80 percent have been obtained for most marsh plant species, and greater than 90 percent for key types such asSpartina alterniflora, which is the primary producer in large tide marshes of the coastal eastern USA. The capacity of remote sensors on spacecraft such as NOAA-2, LANDSAT, and Skylab to assess coastal food resources on a global scale is discussed from the point of view of resolution, classification accuracy, and cost effectiveness.
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    Wetland loss and substitution by the Section 404 permit program in southern California, USA (1996)
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    Environmental management 20 (1996), S. 263-274 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Clean Water Act ; Southern California ; Wetland mitigation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract To test the effectiveness of the 404 permit program in preventing a net loss of wetland resources, 75 Section 404 projects permitted in the years 1987–1989 and located in a portion of southern California were evaluated. From this group of projects, 80.47 ha of wetlands were affected by Section 404 permits and the Army Corps of Engineers required 111.62 ha of wetland mitigation. To verify the successful completion of each mitigation project, all 75 project sites were visited and evaluated based on the amount of dead vegetation, growth and coverage, and the number of invasive species. Based on the field verification results, the actual amount of completed mitigation area was 77.33 ha, resulting in a net loss of 3.14 ha of wetland resources in the years 1987–1989. By comparing the types of wetlands lost to the types of wetlands mitigated, it is apparent that, in particular, freshwater wetlands are experiencing a disproportionately greater loss of area and that riparian woodland wetlands are most often used in mitigation efforts. The net result of these accumulated actions is an overall substitution of wetland types throughout the region. Results also indicate that, typically, large-scale mitigation projects are more successful compared to smaller projects and that successful compliance efforts are not evenly distributed throughout the region. We recommend that better monitoring, mitigation in-kind, mitigation banking, and planning on a regional or watershed scale could greatly improve the effectiveness of the Section 404 permitting program.
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    Role of wetlands in reducing phosphorus loading to surface water in eight watersheds in the Lake Champlain Basin (1996)
    Springer
    Environmental management 20 (1996), S. 731-739 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Phosphorus ; Landscape ; Regression model ; Riparian ; Vermont
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A landscape-level approach was applied to eight rural watersheds to assess the role that wetlands play in reducing phosphorus loading to surface waters in the Lake Champlain Basin. Variables summarizing various characteristics of wetlands within a watershed were calculated using a geographic information system and then compared to measured phosphorus loading through multiple regression analyses. The inclusion of a variable based on the area of riparian wetlands located along low- and medium-order streams in conjunction with the area of agricultural and nonwetland forested lands explained 88% of the variance in phosphorus loading to surface waters. The best fit model coefficients (Pload = 0.86Ag + 0.64For − 30Ripwet + 160) suggest that a hectare of riparian wetland may be many times more important in reducing phosphorus than an agricultural hectare is in producing phosphorus. These results provide additional support for the concept that protection of riparian wetlands is an important management strategy for controlling stream water quality in multiuse landscapes.
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    Review and comparison of wetland impacts and mitigation requirements between New Jersey, USA, Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act and Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (1996)
    Springer
    Environmental management 20 (1996), S. 741-752 
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    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Clean Water Act ; Freshwater Wetland Protection Act ; Nationwide permits ; Mitigation ; New Jersey
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A review of wetland impacts authorized under the New Jersey Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act (FWPA) was conducted based on permitting data compiled for the period 1 July 1988 to 31 December 1993. Data regarding the acreage of wetlands impacted, location of impacts by drainage basin and watershed, and mitigation were analyzed. Wetland impacts authorized and mitigation under New Jersey's program were evaluated and compared with Section 404 information available for New Jersey and other regions of the United States. Under the FWPA, 3003 permits were issued authorizing impacts to 234.76 ha (602.27 acres) of wetlands and waters. Compensatory mitigation requirements for impacts associated with individual permits required the creation of 69.20 ha. (171.00 acres), and restoration of 16.49 ha (40.75 acres) of wetlands. Cumulative impacts by watershed were directly related to levels of development and population growth. The FWPA has resulted in an estimated 67% reduction [44.32 ha (109.47 acres) vs 136.26 ha (336.56 acres)] in annual wetland and water impacts when compared with Section 404 data for New Jersey. For mitigation, the slight increase in wetland acreage over acreage impacted is largely consistent with Section 404 data. Based on this evaluation, the FWPA has succeeded in reducing the level of wetland impacts in New Jersey. However, despite stringent regulation of activities in and around wetlands, New Jersey continues to experience approximately 32 ha (79 acres) of unmitigated wetland impacts annually. Our results suggest that additional efforts focusing on minimizing wetland impacts and increasing wetlands creation are needed to attain a goal of no net loss of freshwater wetlands.
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    Coastal Louisiana recent land loss and canal impacts (1983)
    Springer
    Environmental management 7 (1983), S. 433-442 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Coastal zone management ; Wetlands ; Canals ; Marshes ; Louisiana
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Annual coastal land loss in the sedimentary deltaic plain of southern Louisiana is 102 km2, which is correlated with man-made canal surface area. The relationships between land loss and canals are both direct and indirect and are modified by the deltaic substrate, distance to the coast, and availability of new sediments. Loss rates are highest in the youngest of the former deltas nearest the coast; they are lowest in the more consolidated sediments far from the coast. The average estimate for land loss at zero canal density in the six regression equations developed was 0.09%±0.13% annually, the present land loss rates approach 0 8% annually Although additional analyses are needed, we conclude that canals are causally related to a significant portion of the total coastal land loss rates The relation probably involves an interruption of local and regional hydrologic regimes. Reduction of the present acceleration in land loss rates is possible by managing present canals more effectively, by not permitting new ones, and by changing the design of new canals to allow more natural water flow
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01867123
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    Land loss in coastal Louisiana (U.S.A.) (1979)
    Springer
    Environmental management 3 (1979), S. 133-144 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Coastal zone Management ; Fisheries ; Marshes ; Wetlands ; Louisiana
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper examines causes and consequences of wetland losses in coastal Louisiana. Land loss is a cumulative impact, the result of many impacts both natural and artificial. Natural losses are caused by subsidence, decay of abandoned river deltas, waves, and storms. Artificial losses result from flood-control practices, impoundments, and dredging and subsequent erosion of artificial channels. Wetland loss also results from spoil disposal upon wetlands and land reclamation projects. Total land loss in Louisiana's coastal zone is at least 4,300 ha/year. Some wetlands are converted to spoil banks and other eco-systems so that wetland losses are probably two to three times higher. Annual wetland losses in the Barataria Bay basin are 2.6% of the wetland area. Human activities are the principal determinants of land loss. The present total wetland area directly lost because of canals may be close to 10% if spoil area is included. The interrelationship between hydrology, land, vegetation, substrate, subsidence, and sediment supply are complicated; however, hydrologic units with high canal density are generally associated with higher rates of land loss and the rate may be accelerating. Some cumulative impacts of land loss are increased saltwater intrusion, loss of capacity to buffer the impact of storms, and large additions of nutrients. One measure of the impact is that roughly $8–17 × 106 (U.S.A.) of fisheries products and services are lost annually in Louisiana. Viewed at the level of the hydrologic unit, land loss transcends differences in local vegetation, substrate, geology, and hydrology. Land management should therefore focus at that level of organization. Proper guideline recommendations require an appreciation of the long-term interrelations of the wetland estuarine system.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01867025
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    Tidal wetlands natural and human-made changes from 1973 to 1979 in Delaware: Mapping techniques and results (1983)
    Springer
    Environmental management 7 (1983), S. 339-344 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Wetlands ; Mapping ; Coastal zone management ; Wetlands regulation ; Remote sensing ; Delaware
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Coastal wetlands are dynamic ecosystems subject to the manipulative powers of both humans and sea. Areal changes in the tidal wetlands of Delaware were monitored over a six year period with color and color infrared aerial photography. Wetland changes were interpreted directly from the photography and were classified according to natural and legal categories of change. Human activities in tidal wetlands destroyed an average 8.1 ha of wetlands annually from 1973 to 1979. During the same period 3.9 ha of wetlands were eroded and 2.8 ha of wetlands were formed annually by natural processes. A total net loss of 55.1 ha of wetlands was estimated for the six year period. The enactment of state and federal legislation protecting wetlands in 1972–1973 resulted in a decrease of wetlands loss in Delaware from an average of 179.7 ha yr−1 from 1954 to 1971 to the 8.1 ha yr−1 determined by this study. The dynamic nature of these wetlands exemplifies the need for frequent monitoring and remapping, if an effective and accurate management program is to remain in operation
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01866916
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    Impact of right-of-way construction on vegetation in the Red Lake Peatland, northern Minnesota (1985)
    Springer
    Environmental management 9 (1985), S. 449-454 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1009
    Keywords: Histosols ; Wetlands ; Transmission lines ; Organic soil ; Discriminant analysis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract During the winters of 1978–79 and 1979–80, a 500-kV electrical transmission right-of-way (r-o-w) was constructed across the Red Lake Peatland in northwestern Minnesota, the largest contiguous peatland in the lower 48 states of the USA. Immediately before, and for two years following construction, vascular vegetation was monitored within the r-o-w and in undisturbed control areas. Monitoring was carried out in five vegetation types: a thicket swamp, a low shrub bog, a graminoid fen, a treed bog, and a treed fen. Evaluation of construction impacts was based on vegetation structure, irrespective of species composition, and on community composition (species data for low shrubs and herbs). Construction eliminated trees from the r-o-w. Vegetation structure, excluding trees, was markedly altered in the two bog types and the treed fen type in the first postconstruction growing season. By the second season, measurable recovery to control levels had begun. The sample plots were placed into a previously developed vegetation classification system for the Red Lake Peatland, on the basis of herbs and low shrubs. There was a shift in composition in the low shrub bog and in the treed vegetation types following construction. Results of both methods of data analysis were consistent. Major vegetation changes following construction occurred in the low shrub bog and treed types. The open, low-stature fen types showed almost no changes related to construction. Even in the affected types, all vegetation strata except trees were returning to their preconstruction status by the second growing season following construction.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01866344
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    Deposition gradients and foliar and soil leachate concentrations of air pollutants in Scots pine stands of S.-E. Finland and the Karelian Isthmus, N.-W. Russia (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1263-1268 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: air pollution ; sulphur ; nitrogen ; base cations ; throughfall ; Scots pine ; needle elements ; soil leachate ; N.-W. Russia
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Bulk precipitation and throughfall analyses in 50–100-year-old Scots pine stands revealed decreasing sulphur, nitrogen, calcium and magnesium deposition gradients, which extend from the St. Petersburg-Leningrad region and N.-E. Estonia to S.-E. Finland. The Ca and Mg deposition alleviate the acidifying effect of sulphur and nitrogen. The Scots pine canopies acted as a sink for ammonium and nitrate, while the canopy interactions increased sulphur, calcium and magnesium content in throughfall. Foliar S, N and Ca concentrations correlated positively with the corresponding deposition loads. In contrast, low foliar magnesium concentrations were detected in the vicinity of St. Petersburg. The results indicate that the sulphur and calcium deposition may have increased soil leachate S and Ca concentrations in the most polluted Scots pine stands.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477155
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    An integrated analysis of sulfur emissions, acid deposition and climate change (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1539-1550 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; air pollution impacts ; climate change ; global change ; integrated modeling ; sulfur deposition
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents one of the first integrated analyses of acidification and climate change on a geographically-detailed basis, and the first linkage of integrated models for acid deposition (RAINS) and for climate change (IMAGE 2). Emphasis in this paper is on Europe. Trends in driving forces of emissions are used to compute anthropogenic SO2 emissions in 13 world regions. These emissions are translated into regional patterns of sulfur deposition in Europe and global patterns of sulfate aerosols using source-receptor matrices. Changes in climate are then computed based on changes in sulfate and greenhouse gases. Finally, we compute ecosystem areas affected by acid deposition and climate change based on exceedances of critical loads and changes in potential vegetation. Using this framework, information from global and regional integrated models can be used to link sulfur emissions with both their global and regional consequences. Preliminary calculations indicate that the size of European area affected by climate change in 2100 (58%) will be about the same as that affected by acid deposition in 1990. By the mid 21st century, about 14% of Europe's area may be affected by both acid deposition and climate change. Also, reducing sulfur emissions in Europe will have both the desirable impact of reducing the area affected by acid deposition, and the undesirable impact of enhancing climate warming in Europe and thus increasing the area affected by climate change. However, for the scenarios in this paper, the desirable impact of reducing sulfur emissions greatly outweighs its undesirable impact.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477200
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    Air Pollution and Sick-leaves (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental and resource economics 16 (2000), S. 31-50 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: air pollution ; logit specification ; PM10 ; work loss days
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract During the last decade an increasing amount of studies have investigatedthe relationship between air pollution and human health effects. In thisstudy we investigate how these effects in turn induce reduced labourproductivity in terms of sick-leaves, which is an important factor inassessment of air pollution costs in urban areas. For this purpose weemploy a logit model along with data on sick-leaves from a large office inOslo and different air pollutants. Our results indicate that sick-leaves aresignificantly associated with particulate matter (PM10), while theassociations with SO2 and NO2, are more ambiguous. We also tryto estimate the induced social costs in terms of lost labour productivity andincreased governmental expenditures, although these estimates are moreuncertain.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1008318004154
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    Hedonic models and air pollution: Twenty-five years and counting (1993)
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    Environmental and resource economics 3 (1993), S. 381-394 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: Hedonic models ; air pollution ; meta analysis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract This paper reports a meta analysis of how effectively hedonic property models have detected the influence of air pollution on housing prices. Probit estimates are reported describing how data, model specification, and local property market conditions in cities represented in thirty-seven studies influence the ability of hedonic models to uncover negative, statistically significant relationships between housing prices and air pollution measures.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00418818
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    The U.S. allowance trading system for sulfur dioxide: An update on market experience (1995)
    Springer
    Environmental and resource economics 5 (1995), S. 115-129 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: Emission trading ; United States ; sulfur dioxide ; air pollution ; costs ; cost-effectiveness
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed legislation that amended the Clean Air Act to create a new program to mitigate the effects of acid deposition in the U.S. through emission reductions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) at electric utility plants across the country. The SO2 reductions, totalling a 40% reduction nationally from 1980 levels or a 10 million ton reduction annually, are achieved largely through an emission trading system, the largest program of its kind designed to date. This trading system has the potential to save up to half of the compliance costs associated with more traditional source-by-source emission limit programs. This paper briefly discusses background on the acid rain issue in the United States, and the principal features of the program, including: a permanent cap on utility emissions of SO2 beginning in 2010, decision to grant up-front allocation of emission credits to reduce individual approvals of trades, the use of continuous emission monitors and automatic penalties to ensure compliance, and integration of the Acid Rain program requirements with other Clean Air Act programs. The paper also discusses the development of the allowance trading market to date, including the types of compliance options chosen and quantity and type of emissions trading being conducted.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00693019
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    Assessing Effects of Mitigation Strategies for Global Climate Change with an Intertemporal Model of the U.S. Forest and Agriculture Sectors (1997)
    Springer
    Environmental and resource economics 9 (1997), S. 259-274 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: afforestation ; climate change ; intersectoral ; land-use change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract A model of product and land markets in U.S. forest and agricultural sectors is used to examine the private forest management, land use, and market implications of carbon sequestration policies implemented in a" least social cost" fashion. Results suggest: policy-induced land use changes may generate compensating land use shifts through markets; land use shifts to meet policy targets need not be permanent; implementation of land use and management changes in a smooth or regular fashion over time may not be optimal; and primary forms of adjustment to meet carbon policy targets involve shifting of land from agriculture to forest and more intensive forest management in combinations varying with the policy target.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026409105660
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    Assessing effects of mitigation strategies for global climate change with an intertemporal model of the U.S. forest and agriculture sectors (1997)
    Springer
    Environmental and resource economics 9 (1997), S. 259-274 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: afforestation ; climate change ; intersectoral ; land-use change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract A model of product and land markets in U.S. forest and agricultural sectors is used to examine the private forest management, land use, and market implications of carbon sequestration policies implemented in a “least social cost” fashion. Results suggest: policy-induced land use changes may generate compensating land use shifts through markets; land use shifts to meet policy targets need not be permanent; implementation of land use and management changes in a smooth or regular fashion over time may not be optimal; and primary forms of adjustment to meet carbon policy targets involve shifting of land from agriculture to forest and more intensive forest management in combinations varying with the policy target.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02441399
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    Emission trading in Europe with an exchange rate (1994)
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    Environmental and resource economics 4 (1994), S. 305-330 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: Emission trading ; air pollution ; economic instruments ; costs ; europe ; sulfur
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract This paper explores the analytical and empirical properties of a new method for emission trading according to a fixed exchange rate. The exchange rate is based on the ratios of the marginal costs of abatement in the optimal solution in order to account for the impact of the location of emission sources on the deposition. It is shown that, generally, this system will not achieve the optimal solution and does not guarantee that environmental deposition constraints are not violated, although total abatement costs are always reduced. A routine was developed to mimic trading as a bilateral, sequential process, subject to an exchange rate. In the example used, results for SO2 emissions in Europe show that, starting from a uniform reduction, exchange-rate trading achieves higher cost savings than one-to-one trading, without achieving the cost minimum. Sulfur deposition targets are not violated since the initial emission allocation overfulfilled targets at many places. The results are sensitive to: pre-trade emission levels, the transaction costs, the availability of information on potential cost savings and assumptions made on the behavior of trading partners.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00692228
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    Global climate change and regional sustainable development: the case of Mackenzie Basin in Canada (2000)
    Springer
    Integrated assessment 1 (2000), S. 21-36 
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    ISSN: 1573-1545
    Keywords: integrated assessment ; climate change ; regional sustainability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Cohen et al. [16] suggest that in order to explore ways to bring climate change (CC) and sustainable development (SD) research together, it is necessary to develop more heuristic tools that can involve resource users and other stakeholders. In this respect, this paper focuses on methodological development in research to study climate change impacts and regional sustainable development (RSD). It starts with an introduction of an integrated land assessment framework (ILAF) which is part of the integrated phase of the Mackenzie Basin Impact Study (MBIS) in Canada. The paper then provides some articulation on how the integrated approach was applied in the Mackenzie Basin to show implications of climate change for RSD.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1019167412598
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    Optimal greenhouse gas emissions under various assessments of climate change ambiguity (1996)
    Springer
    Environmental and resource economics 8 (1996), S. 129-140 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: climate change ; ambiguity ; optimal control
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract The probabilities associated with global warming damage are likely to be continuously revised in the light of new information. Such revisions of probability are the defining characteristic of ambiguity, as opposed to risk. This paper examines how climate change ambiguity may affect optimal greenhouse gas emission strategies, via the decision maker's attitude towards anticipated changes of damage probabilities. Two conceptualizations of ambiguity are distinguished, according to the emphasis placed on the ambiguity of priors or on the ambiguity of news, respectively. It is shown that the way in which ambiguity is viewed and the attitude taken towards it have a substantial influence on the optimal emission trajectory.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00357360
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    Ordering effects in contingent valuation surveys (1996)
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    Environmental and resource economics 8 (1996), S. 485-499 
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    ISSN: 1573-1502
    Keywords: contingent valuation ; ordering effects ; air pollution ; health damage
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Economics
    Notes: Abstract This paper focuses on ordering effects in CVM surveys; how the expressed value of a particular good valued in a sequence of several goods depends on where in the sequence the good is valued. We use data from a Norwegian CVM survey focusing on WTP for a 50% reduction in air pollution from car traffic to test for the existence of ordering effects and to apply a test for internal consistency. We found considerable and significant ordering effects in our data, but were not able to reject the hypothesis of internal consistency. Based on our survey, we argue that ordering effects may be a result of rational choice. These effects are problematic if a sequential valuation procedure is applied to a simultaneous problem, and/or the respondents are given imperfect information about the decision problem.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00357416
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    Models at the interface between science and society: impacts and options (2000)
    Springer
    Integrated assessment 1 (2000), S. 267-280 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1545
    Keywords: participatory integrated assessment ; climate change ; low energy society
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Within the CLEAR project a new approach to integrated assessment modelling has been developed for the participatory integrated assessment of regional climate change involving citizens' focus groups. The climate change decision problem was structured by focusing separately on climate impacts and mitigation options. The attempt was made to link the different scales of the problem from the individual to the global level. The abstract topic of climate change was related to options on the level of a citizen's individual lifestyle. The option of a low energy society was emphasised in order to embed the climate change decision problem in a wider range of societal concerns. Special emphasis was given to the characterisation and communication of uncertainties. The chosen approach allows different kinds of uncertainties in one framework to be addressed. The paper concludes with a summary of the experience made, and recommendations for the use of models in participatory integrated assessments.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018927120883
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    Natural climate variability and climate change in the North-Atlantic European region; chance for surprise? (2000)
    Springer
    Integrated assessment 1 (2000), S. 301-306 
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    ISSN: 1573-1545
    Keywords: CLEAR ; natural climate variability ; climate change ; atmosphere ; ocean
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Long-term variability in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Atlantic thermohaline ocean circulation (THC) are both shaping the European climate on time scales of decades and longer. Possible linear and non-linear changes in the characteristics of these natural climate modes due to global warming are an important source of uncertainty in long-term regional projections of future climate changes.
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    Assessing alpine plant vulnerability to climate change: a modeling perspective (2000)
    Springer
    Integrated assessment 1 (2000), S. 307-320 
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    ISSN: 1573-1545
    Keywords: climate change ; ecological impact assessment ; alpine and subalpine belts ; plant distribution ; statistical modeling ; local scale ; GIS ; GLM ; Swiss Alps
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The potential ecological impact of ongoing climate change has been much discussed. High mountain ecosystems were identified early on as potentially very sensitive areas. Scenarios of upward species movement and vegetation shift are commonly discussed in the literature. Mountains being characteristically conic in shape, impact scenarios usually assume that a smaller surface area will be available as species move up. However, as the frequency distribution of additional physiographic factors (e.g., slope angle) changes with increasing elevation (e.g., with few gentle slopes available at higher elevation), species migrating upslope may encounter increasingly unsuitable conditions. As a result, many species could suffer severe reduction of their habitat surface, which could in turn affect patterns of biodiversity. In this paper, results from static plant distribution modeling are used to derive climate change impact scenarios in a high mountain environment. Models are adjusted with presence/absence of species. Environmental predictors used are: annual mean air temperature, slope, indices of topographic position, geology, rock cover, modeled permafrost and several indices of solar radiation and snow cover duration. Potential Habitat Distribution maps were drawn for 62 higher plant species, from which three separate climate change impact scenarios were derived. These scenarios show a great range of response, depending on the species and the degree of warming. Alpine species would be at greatest risk of local extinction, whereas species with a large elevation range would run the lowest risk. Limitations of the models and scenarios are further discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018912114948
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    Factor biases and promoting sustainable development: Adaptation to drought in the Senegal River Basin (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 139-165 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: Adaptation ; agriculture ; agroforestry ; climate change ; drought ; ecological degradation ; factor bias ; Senegal ; sustainability ; social relations
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The ongoing drought in the Sahel region of West Africa highlights the vulnerability of food-producing systems to climate change and variability. Adaptation to climate should therefore increase the sustainability of agriculture under a long-term drought. Progress towards sustainability and adaptation in the the Senegal River Basin is hampered by an existing set of social and ecological relationships that define the control over the means of production and how people interact with their environment. These relationships are sensitive to the technological inputs and the administration of food production, or the factor bias in the different policy alternatives for rural development. One option is based on state-controlled, irrigated plantations to provide rice (Oryza) for the capital, Dakar. This policy emphasizes a top-down management approach, mechanized agriculture and a reliance on external inputs which strengthens the relationships introduced during the colonial period. A time series decomposition of the annual flow in the Senegal River at Bakel in Senegal suggests that water resources availability has been substantially curtailed since 1960, and a review of the water resources budget or availability in the basin suggests that this policy's food production system is not sustainable under the current climate of the basin. Under these conditions, this program is exacerbating existing problems of landscape degradation and desertification, which increases rural poverty. A natural resource management policy offers two adaptation strategies that favour decentralized management and a reduction of external inputs. The first alternative, “Les Perimetres Irrigués”, emphasizes village-scale irrigation, low water consumption cereal crops and traditional socio-political structures. The second alternative emphasizes farm-level irrigation and agro-forestry projects to redress the primary effects of desertification. The water requirements of both the rice import substitution program and the natural resource management program are calculated. A water resources simulation model/optimization analysis using dynamic programming is used to compare these two alternatives to the rice import substitution programs. Results indicate that the natural resource management policy could potentially bring a large area into production while using far less water than the rice import substitution program. The natural resource management policy, in particular the second alternative with its emphasis on individual ownership and ecological rehabiliation, defines a different set of social and ecological relationships that appear to enhance the sustainability of food production under a long-term drought.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00455057
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    Adapting to Climate Change in Africa (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 2 (1997), S. 19-44 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; Africa ; agriculture ; climate change ; vulnerability ; water
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The intersection of present vulnerability and the prospect of climate change in Africa warrants proactive action now to reduce the risk of large-scale, adverse impacts. The process of planning adaptive strategies requires a systematic evaluation of priorities and constraints, and the involvement of stakeholders. An overview of climate change in Africa and case studies of impacts for agriculture and water underlie discussion of a typology of adaptive responses that may be most effective for different stakeholders. The most effective strategies are likely to be to reduce present vulnerability and to enhance a broad spectrum of capacity in responding to environmental, resource and economic perturbations. In some cases, such as design of water systems, an added risk factor should be considered.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000004663.31074.64
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    Adapting to climate change in Africa (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 2 (1997), S. 19-44 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; Africa ; agriculture ; climate change ; vulnerability ; water
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The intersection of present vulnerability and the prospect of climate change in Africa warrants proactive action now to reduce the risk of large-scale, adverse impacts. The process of planning adaptive strategies requires a systematic evaluation of priorities and constraints, and the involvement of stakeholders. An overview of climate change in Africa and case studies of impacts for agriculture and water underlie discussion of a typology of adaptive responses that may be most effective for different stakeholders. The most effective strategies are likely to be to reduce present vulnerability and to enhance a broad spectrum of capacity in responding to environmental, resource and economic perturbations. In some cases, such as design of water systems, an added risk factor should be considered.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02437055
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    An Integrated Assessment of Climate Change and the Accelerated Introduction of Advanced Energy Technologies - An Application of MiniCAM 1.0 (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 311-339 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; CO2 ; carbondioxide ; integrated assessment ; MiniCAM ; LEESS ; top down ; bottom up ; sulfor ; energy ; emissions mitigation ; energy technology ; advanced energy technologies
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract We report results from the application of an integrated assessment model, MiniCAM 1.0. The model is employed to explore the full range of climate change implications of the successful development of cost effective, advanced, energy technologies. These technologies are shown to have a profound effect on the future magnitude and rate of anthropogenic climate change. We find that the introduction of assumptions developed by a group of ‘bottom-up’ modelers for the LEESS scenarios into a ‘top-down’ model, the Edmonds-Reilly-Barns Model, leads to ‘top down’ emissions trajectories similar to those of the LEESS. The cumulative effect of advanced energy technologies is to reduce annual emissions from fossil fuel use to levels which stabilize atmospheric concentrations below 550 ppmv. While all energy technologies play roles, the introduction of advanced biomass energy production technology is particularly important. The consideration of all greenhouse related anthropogenic emissions, and in particular sulfur dioxide, is found to be important. We find that the consideration of sulfur dioxide emissions coupled to rapid reductions in carbon dioxide emissions leads to higher global mean temperatures prior to 2050 than in the reference case. This result is due to the short-term cooling impact of sulfate aerosols, which dominates the long-term warming impact of CO2 and CH4 in the years prior to 2050. We also show that damage calculations which use only mean global temperature and income may be underestimating damages by up to a factor of five. Disaggregating income reduces this to a factor of two, still a major error. Finally, the role of the discount rate is shown to be extraordinarily important to technology preference.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000027386.34214.60
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    Simulating the carbon flux between the terrestrial environment and the atmosphere (1994)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 76 (1994), S. 199-230 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: climate change ; biogeophysical feedbacks ; geographically explicit global C cycle model ; CO2 fertilization ; soil respiration ; land cover change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A Terrestrial C Cycle model that is incorporated in the Integrated Model to Assess the Greenhouse Effect (IMAGE 2.0) is described. The model is a geographically explicit implementation of a model that simulates the major C fluxes in different compartments of the terrestrial biosphere and between the biosphere and the atmosphere. Climatic parameters, land cover and atmospheric C concentrations determine the result of the dynamic C simulations. The impact of changing land cover patterns, caused by anthropogenic activities (shifting agriculture, de- and afforestation) and climatic change are modeled implicitly. Feedback processes such as CO2 fertilization and temperature effects on photosynthesis, respiration and decomposition are modeled explicitly. The major innovation of this approach is that the consequences of climate change are taken into account instantly and that their results can be quantified on a global medium-resolution grid. The objectives of this paper are to describe the C cycle model in detail, present the linkages with other parts of the IMAGE 2.0 framework, and give an array of different simulations to validate and test the robustness of this modeling approach. The computed global net primary production (NPP) for the terrestrial biosphere in 1990 was 60.6 Gt C a−1, with a global net ecosystem production (NEP) of 2.4 Gt C a−1. The simulated C flux as result from land cover changes was 1.1 Gt C a−1, so that the terrestrial biosphere in 1990 acted as a C sink of 1.3 Gt C a−1. Global phytomass amounted 567.5 Gt C and the dead biomass pool was 1517.7 Gt C. IMAGE 2.0 simulated for the period 1970–2050 a global average temperature increase of 1.6 °C and a global average precipitation increase of 0.1 mm/day. The CO2 concentration in 2050 was 522.2 ppm. The computed NPP for the year 2050 is 82.5 Gt C a−1, with a NEP of 8.1 Gt C a−1. Projected land cover changes result in a C flux of 0.9 Gt C a−1, so that the terrestrial biosphere will be a strong sink of 7.2 Gt C a−1. The amount of phytomass hardly changed (600.7 Gt C) but the distribution over the different regions had. Dead biomass increased significantly to 1667.2 Gt C.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00478340
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    Effects of ambient air pollution on wheat and rice yield in Pakistan (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1311-1316 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Pakistan ; air pollution ; ozone ; nitrogen dioxide ; rice ; wheat ; filtration ; yield
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Open-top chambers ventilated with ambient or chiarcoal-filtered air were used to assess the impact of air pollution on the yield of local cultivars of wheat and rice, at a site on the outskirts of Lahore. At this location, 6-h mean O3 concentrations reach 60 ppb in certain months, and annual mean NO2 concentrations are 20–25 ppb. The experiments showed significant yield reduction in two successive seasons which ranged from 33% to 46% in wheat and from 37% to 51% in rice. The major yield parameter affected was the number of ears or panicles per plant, although there was also evidence of small effects on 1000 grain weight and on the number of grains per ear/panicle. These results have significance in terms of the maintenance of agricultural yields as pollution emissions rise in south and south-east Asia.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477163
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  • 88
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    Assessment of the use of principal components analysis to relate air and precipitation chemistry to climate (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1569-1574 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: synoptic circulation ; principal components analysis ; air pollution ; climate change ; classification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A classification of atmospheric circulation was derived using principal components analysis (PCA) of daily sea level pressure over a 10 year period. Correlation coefficients of up to 0.65 were obtained between the individual principal component loadings and monthly means of gas and precipitation ion concentrations for a Scottish and a Norwegian station from the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) network. The mean synoptic patterns of months predicted to have high or low gas and ion concentrations from their component loadings agreed well with previous work. High concentrations occur frequently with southerly flow or anticyclonic conditions, and low concentrations with westerly and northwesterly flow. We conclude that the PCA classification is a sensible method to use to derive circulation pattern-pollutant relationships, and is an encouraging first step to use the general circulation model (GCM) projections of future climate to assess possible future air/precipitation composition patterns
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477204
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  • 89
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    Ecological studies in the ratanica catchment (Carpathian foothills, S Poland) — An overview (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1635-1640 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: forested catchment ; air pollution ; nutrients ; pollutants ; balance ; plant bioindicators ; forest damage
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper includes an overview of ecological studies conducted since 1986 in the Ratanica pine-beech forested catchment located in the polluted, high populated southern part of Poland. General characteristics of the catchment (including soil and vegetation, air pollution, input/output of nutrients and pollutants, element budget data and forest health assessment) are presented. Based on biogeochemical and bioindication results, the Ratanica catchment has been classified as a moderately to heavily deteriorated area. Predictions for this forested catchment for various deposition of anthropogenic pollutants, are also disscused.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477214
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  • 90
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    Modeling the global society-biosphere-climate system: Part 1: Model description and testing (1994)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 76 (1994), S. 1-35 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: integrated modeling ; integrated assessment ; greenhouse gas emissions ; global change ; climate change ; land cover change ; C cycle
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper describes the IMAGE 2.0 model, a multi-disciplinary, integrated model designed to simulate the dynamics of the global society-biosphere-climate system. The objectives of the model are to investigate linkages and feedbacks in the system, and to evaluate consequences of climate policies. Dynamic calculations are performed to year 2100, with a spatial scale ranging from grid (0.5°×0.5° latitudelongitude) to world regional level, depending on the sub-model. The model consists of three fully linked sub-systems: Energy-Industry, Terrestrial Environment, and Atmosphere-Ocean. The Energy-Industry models compute the emissions of greenhouse gases in 13 world regions as a function of energy consumption and industrial production. End use energy consumption is computed from various economic/demographic driving forces. The Terrestrial Environment models simulate the changes in global land cover on a gridscale based on climatic and economic factors, and the flux of CO2 and other greenhouse gases from the biosphere to the atmosphere. The Atmosphere-Ocean models compute the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the resulting zonal-average temperature and precipitation patterns. The fully linked model has been tested against data from 1970 to 1990, and after calibration can reproduce the following observed trends: regional energy consumption and energy-related emissions, terrestrial flux of CO2 and emissions of greenhouse gases, concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and transformation of land cover. The model can also simulate long term zonal average surface and vertical temperatures.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00478335
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    Modeling the global society-biosphere-climate system: Part 2: Computed scenarios (1994)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 76 (1994), S. 37-78 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: climate change ; global change ; integrated assessment ; integrated models ; scenario analysis ; carbon cycle ; biofuels
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents scenarios computed with IMAGE 2.0, an integrated model of the global environment and climate change. Results are presented for selected aspects of the society-biosphere-climate system including primary energy consumption, emissions of various greenhouse gases, atmospheric concentrations of gases, temperature, precipitation, land cover and other indicators. Included are a “Conventional Wisdom” scenario, and three variations of this scenario: (i) the Conventional Wisdom scenario is a reference case which is partly based on the input assumptions of the IPCC's IS92a scenario; (ii) the “Biofuel Crops” scenario assumes that most biofuels will be derived from new cropland; (iii) the “No Biofuels” scenario examines the sensitivity of the system to the use of biofuels; and (iv) the “Ocean Realignment” scenario investigates the effect of a large-scale change in ocean circulation on the biosphere and climate. Results of the biofuel scenarios illustrate the importance of examining the impact of biofuels on the full range of greenhouse gases, rather than only CO2. These scenarios also indicate possible side effects of the land requirements for energy crops. The Ocean Realignment scenario shows that an unexpected, low probability event can both enhance the build-up of greenhouse gases, and at the same time cause a temporary cooling of surface air temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. However, warming of the atmosphere is only delayed, not avoided.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00478336
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    Model for calculating regional energy use, industrial production and greenhouse gas emissions for evaluating global climate scenarios (1994)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 76 (1994), S. 79-131 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: energy modeling ; greenhouse gas emissions ; climate change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract In the integrated IMAGE 2.0 model the “Energy-Industry System” is implemented as a set of models to develop global scenarios for energy use and industrial processes and for the related emissions of greenhouse gases on a region specific basis. The Energy-Economy model computes total energy use, with a focus on final energy consumption in end-use sectors, based on economic activity levels and the energy conservation potential (“end-use approach”). The Industrial Production and Consumption model computes the future levels of activities other than energy use, which lead to greenhouse gas emissions, based on relations with activities defined in the Energy-Economy model. These two models are complemented by two emissions models, to compute the associated emissions by using emission factors per compound and per activity defined. For investigating energy conservation and emissions control strategy scenarios various techno-economic coefficients in the model can be modified. In this paper the methodology and implementation of the “Energy-Industry System” models is described as well as results from their testing against data for the period 1970–1990. In addition, the application of the models is presented for a specific scenario calculation. Future extensions of the models are in preparation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00478337
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    Simulating changes in global land cover as affected by economic and climatic factors (1994)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 76 (1994), S. 163-198 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: land cover ; land use ; agricultural demand ; climate change ; global change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper describes two global models: (1) an Agricultural Demand Model which is used to compute the consumption and demand for commodities that define land use in 13 world regions; and, (2) a Land Cover Model, which simulates changes in land cover on a global terrestrial grid (0.5° latitude by 0.5° longitude) resulting from economic and climatic factors. Both are part of the IMAGE 2.0 model of global climate change. The models have been calibrated and tested with regional data from 1970–1990. The Agricultural Demand Model can approximate the observed trend in commodity consumption and the Land Cover Model simulates the total amount of land converted within 13 world regions during this period. Some degree of the spatial variability of deforestation has also been captured by the simulation. Applying the model to a “Conventional Wisdom” scenario showed that future trends of land conversions could be strikingly different on different continents even though a consistent scenario (IS92a from the IPCC) was used for assumptions about economic growth and population. Sensitivity analysis indicated that future land cover patterns are especially sensitive to assumed technological improvements in crop yield and computed changes in agricultural demand.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00478339
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    Forest health monitoring in Canada: How healthy is the boreal forest? (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 77-85 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: boreal forests ; forest health ; air pollution ; detection
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The Canadian boreal forest covers 299.2 Mha which is two-thirds of Canada's forest and runs in a continuous belt from Newfoundland north and west to the Yukon. The major species are spruce, pines, balsam fir, white birch and trembling aspen often occurring in extensive monocultures. Wildfire is the driving successional force in the boreal forest and has remained so despite fire suppression activities and extensive harvesting. Insects and diseases also cause extensive damage. In order to ensure the sustainability of forests, it is necessary for the forest manager to know the condition of the health of these forests. The CFS established in 1984 the Acid Rain National Early Warning System in order to monitor the health of the forests. National results show that mortality is generally in the normal range of 1–3% and is caused by known stresses; insects, diseases and abiotic damage. No signs of pollution damage have been yet been detected in boreal forests by the system. An early warning system to detect and monitor conditions remains an essential part of our commitment to the sustainability of Canada's forests.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182821
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    Estimate of health impacts of acidifying air pollutants and tropospheric ozone in Europe (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 167-176 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: air pollution ; health effects ; risk assessment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Based on combined information available from air quality monitoring data and long-range transport models, European population exposure to SO2, NO2 and O3 has been estimated. This information has been combined with the results of epidemiological studies assessing strength of association between the exposure and health effects to estimate an impact of the pollution on health in Europe. The analysis indicates that a considerable number of health problems, ranging from mild irritation of the respiratory system to increased mortality, can be attributed to short-term peaks of pollution observed in Europe. Chronic impacts of prolonged elevated SO2 levels on lung function are estimated to occur in close to10 million people in Europe.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00483698
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    Health effects of acid aerosols (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 177-188 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: health ; air pollution ; acidity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Earlier in this century, a number of severe episodes clearly demonstrated that air pollution can affect human health; these included documented increases in mortality and morbidity. Although health was clearly affected during these episodes and acidity is a candidate for the responsible agent, it has been difficult to ascertain which agents were involved. In the past several years extensive research was launched to learn the significance of acidic aerosols on human health. The question of a health threat from acid aerosols was first raised by epidemiology studies, but results of the body of epidemiological evidence collected to date have been mixed. Even when a study finds evidence of a response to exposures involving high ambient acidity levels, it is usually difficult to know which agent or agents are responsible for causing the effects noted. High levels of acidic aerosols are nearly always accompanied by high levels of other air pollutants which may have known or suspected effects on the respiratory tract. For this reason, an understanding of the potential mechanisms of acid aerosol health effects needs supporting evidence from the laboratory, where exposures to various agents can be controlled. To date, this supporting evidence includes demonstration of physiological responses at acidity levels greater than those that exist in the ambient environment. A limited number of studies have considered responses at levels more characteristic of ambient exposures; these studies demonstrate little physiological response, probably due to the airways' ability to buffer acidity at low concentration. Although there is some evidence of impaired mucociliary clearance and modest changes in lung function, there is no evidence of airway inflammation or altered non-specific bronchial responsiveness as a result of acid aerosol exposure. The possibility that acid aerosols may potentiate responses to other pollutants remains a subject of interest. The potential existence of a group of individuals who are exquisitely sensitive to low acid concentrations requires further investigation. Recent epidemiology results are broadening the perspective from a focus on acidity per se to a focus on fine particulate matter, of which particulate acidity is but a subset. These studies find a consistent statistical association between various health responses, including mortality, and ambient measures of particulates, even at locations where levels of acidity are very low and at locations where current U.S. air quality standards are satisfied. There is at present no biological explanation for these associations.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00483699
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    Response of a white clover indicator system to tropospheric ozone at eight locations in the United States (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1373-1378 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: tropospheric ozone ; white clover ; air pollution ; biomonitor
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A white clover (Trifolium repens L.) system using measured biomass to indicate effective concentrations of tropospheric ozone (O3) has been developed. The system utilizes the relative response of an O3-sensitive clone (NC-S) and an O3-resistant clone (NC-R) grown in 15-liter pots. Forage (leaves, stems and flowers) is cut, dried, and weighed at 28-day intervals. Forage dry weight ratios (NC-S/NC-R) for individual or multiple harvests indicate O3 concentrations during growth. In, 3 years of testing in open-top field chambers at Raleigh, North Carolina, O3 always decreased growth of NC-S more than that of NC-R and the NC-S/NC-R ratio routinely decreased as the O3 concentration increased. A national field test was performed in 1993 and 1994 to determine if the clover system can account for effects of climatic variables on clover growth per-se, and if climatic variables affect the relative response of the two clones to O3. Eight locations (Corvallis, Oregon; Kennedy Space Center, Florida; Delaware, Ohio; Amherst, Massachusetts; Blacksburg, Virginia; Raleigh, North Carolina; Riverside, California; San Bemardino mountains, California) provided large differences in O3 concentrations and climate. The NC-S/NC-R forage ratios for three consecutive 28-day growth periods for each year as related to the mean 12 hour per day O3 concentrations are presented in this manuscript. Ratios were generally highest where mean O3 concentrations were lowest (Oregon and Florida), lowest where mean O3 concentrations were highest (both California locations), and intermediate at other locations.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477173
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    Response of snowmelt hydrology to climate change (1996)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 90 (1996), S. 335-343 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: snowmelt ; runoff ; net radiation ; snow cover ; climate change ; water supply
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract In mountainous regions where the accumulation and melt of seasonal snow cover are important for runoff production, the timing and quantity of water supply could be strongly affected by regional climate change, particularly altered temperature and precipitation regimes.In this paper, the hydrological response to climate change scenarios is examined using a semi-distributed snowmelt runoff model. The model represents an improvement over simple temperature-based models, in that it incorporates the net radiation into the snowpack. Thus it takes into account the basin's topography and slope orientation when computing snowmelt. In general, a warmer climate is expected to shift snowmelt earlier into the winter and spring, decreasing summer runoff. The effects of other potential climate changes (such as precipitation and cloudiness patterns) are explored. The uncertainties in these predictions are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00619293
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    Sulphur and heavy metal concentrations in Scots pine bark in northern Finland and the Kola peninsula (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 93 (1997), S. 395-408 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: air pollution ; pine bark ; sulphur ; pH ; conductivity ; heavy metals
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Sulphur and heavy metal deposition in northern Finland (= in Lapland) and the Kola Peninsula were surveyed using Scots pine bark samples. Sulphur concentrations in bark close to the Kola smelters were on an average twice as high as on the Finnish side of the border. The Cu and Ni concentrations near the smelters were almost 100-fold the mean values in northern Finland. There was a marked decrease in the sulphur and heavy metal concentrations with increasing distance from the emission sources. The effects of emission from the Kola Peninsula were evident in Finland only close to the border, especially in the eastern parts of Inari (NE corner of Lapland) where the Cu and Ni concentrations were 2- to 6-fold those in western Lapland. The sulphur and heavy metal concentrations in most of northern Finland were low. However were the concentrations of Cr in bark in the SW corner of Lapland considerably high, due to the emissions from the Tornio refined steel plants.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02404769
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  • 100
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    Effects of climate change on insect defoliator population processes in Canada's boreal forest: Some plausible scenarios (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 445-454 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Choristoneura fumiferana (lepidoptera: tortricidae) ; disturbance Regimes ; trophic interactions ; climate change ; boreal forest
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Insect populations have a substantial impact on Canada's forest. They are a dominating disturbance factor and during outbreaks they can cause tree mortality over vast areas of forest. If the predicted climate changes take effect, the damage patterns caused by insects may be drastically altered, especially for the many insects whose occurrence in time and space is severely limited by climatic factors. This possibility substantially increases the uncertainties associated with the long-term planning of pest control requirements, with hazard rating models, with depletion forecasts, and with projections for the sustainability of future timber supplies. Moreover, because insect damage affects the rates of various processes in nutrient and biogeochemical cycling, potential changes in damage patterns can affect ecosystem resilience. This paper presents a number of plausible scenarios that describe how some key processes in the boreal forest's insect defoliator outbreak systems may respond to climate change. The spruce budworm,Choristoneura fumiferana Clem. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is used as an illustrative case study throughout. The potential importance of phonological synchrony in the dynamical interactions between species is emphasised. It is argued that natural selection may be a particularly important process in the response of insects to climate change and that climate change may already be influencing some insect lifecycles. The importance of threshold effects, rare but extreme events, and transient dynamics is emphasised, and the inadequacy of ‘equilibrium’ models for forest:pest systems noted. We conclude by discussing approaches to developing forecasts of how one of the boreal forest's insect defoliator-based disturbance regimes, as a whole, might respond to climate change.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182854
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