ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: During the last three decades geosciences and geo-engineering were influenced by two essential scenarios: First, the technological progress has changed completely the observational and measurement techniques. Modern high speed computers and satellite based techniques are entering more and more all geodisciplines. Second, there is a growing public concern about the future of our planet, its climate, its environment, and about an expected shortage of natural resources. Mathematics concerned with geoscientific problems, i.e., Geomathematics, is becoming increasingly important. The "Handbook of Geomathematics" as a central reference work in this area comprises the following scientific fields: (I) observational and measurement key technologies; (II) modelling of the system Earth (geosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere); (III) analytic, algebraic, and operator-theoretic methods; (IV) statistical and stochastic methods; (V) computational and numerical analysis methods; (VI) historical background and future perspectives.

Description / Table of Contents: In Materials Science, investigations aiming to prepare new types of molecular sieves (porous materials) have opened a productive field of research inspired by the crystal structures of minerals. These new molecular sieves are distinct from zeolites in that they have different kinds of polyhedra that build up their structures. Of particular interest are the new molecular sieves characterized by a mixed "octahedral"-tetrahedral framework (heteropolyhedral frameworks), instead of a purely tetrahedral framework as in zeolites. Heteropolyhedral compounds have been extensively studied since the early 1990's, with particular attention having been focused on titanosilicates, such as ETS-4 (synthetic analog of the mineral zorite) and ETS-10. However, titanosilicates are not the only representatives of novel microporous mineral phases. The search for "octahedral"-tetrahedral silicates was extended to metals other than titanium, for instance, the zirconosilicates with the preparation of synthetic counterparts of the minerals gaidonnayite, petarasite and umbite. Many microporous heteropolyhedral compounds containing metals such as Nb, V, Sn, Ca and lanthanides, have been reported and a wide number of distinct structural types (e.g., rhodesite-delhayelite and tobermorite) have been synthesized and structurally characterized. Moreover, the potential applications of these novel materials have been evaluated, particularly in the areas of catalysis, separation of molecular species, ion exchange and optical and magnetic properties. A comprehensive review of the mineralogical, structural, chemical and crystal-chemical studies carried on natural phases may be extremely useful to inspire and favor investigations on analogs or related synthetic materials. A similar synergy between mineralogists and materials scientists already occurred in the "classical" case of zeolites, in which the wide and deep structural and crystal-chemical knowledge accumulated in the study of the natural phases was extraordinarily useful to the chemists who are active in the field of molecular sieves. In particular, the structural investigation of the natural phases may be extremely rewarding and helpful in orienting the work of synthesis and in understanding the nature of the synthetic products, for the following reasons: Whereas rarely the crystalline synthetic products are suitable for single-crystal structural investigations, the natural counterparts are often well crystallized. Crystallization in nature occurs from chemical systems characterized by a wide compositional range, thus producing compounds with a very rich and variable crystal chemistry, which may provide precious information, suggesting possible substituting elements and addressing the synthetic work in a very productive way. The present volume follows a meeting on "Micro- and mesoporous mineral phases" (Rome, December 6-7, 2004) that was jointly organized by the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (ANL) and the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) via its Commission on Inorganic and Mineral Structures (CIMS). The meeting was convened by Fausto Calderazzo, Giovanni Ferraris, Stefano Merlino and Annibale Mottana and financially supported by several other organizations representing both Mineralogy (e.g., the International Mineralogical Association and the European Mineralogical Union) and Crystallography (e.g., the European Crystallographic Association and the Italian Association of Crystallography). To participants, ANL staff, organizations, and, in general, all involved persons, our sincere acknowledgments; in particular, we are grateful to Annibale Mottana who was able to convince the ANL Academicians to schedule and support the meeting. This volume of the RiMG series highlights the present knowledge on micro- and mesoporous mineral phases, with focus on their crystal-chemical aspects, occurrence and porous activity in nature and experiments. As zeolites are the matter of numerous ad hoc meetings and books - including two volumes in this series - they do not specifically appear in the present volume. The phases of the sodalite and cancrinite-davyne groups, which mineralogists consider distinct from zeolites, are instead considered (in the order, chapter 7 by W. Depmeier and part of chapter 8 by E. Bonaccorsi and S. Merlino, respectively). The first two chapters of the volume cover general aspects of porous materials. This includes the application of the IUPAC nomenclature developed for ordered porous materials to non-zeolite mineral phases (L.B. McCusker, chapter 1) and the extension to heteropolyhedral structures of a topological description by using nodes representing the coordination polyhedra (S.V. Krivovichev, chapter 2). Chapters from 3 to 7 are dedicated to various groups of heteropolyhedral porous structures for which the authors emphasize some of the more general aspects according to their research specialization. G. Ferraris and A. Gula (chapter 3) put the emphasis on the modular aspects of well-known porous phases (such as sepiolite, palygorskite and rhodesite-related structures) as well as on heterophyllosilicates that may be not strictly porous phases (according to the definition given in chapter 1) but could be the starting basis for pillared materials. The porous mineral phases typical of hyperalkaline rocks (such as eudialytes and labuntsovites) are discussed by N.V. Chukanov and I.V. Pekov under their crystal-chemical (chapter 4) and minerogenetic (chapter 5) aspects showing the role of ion exchange during the geological evolution from primary to later phases, with experimental cation exchange data also being reported. J. Rocha and Z. Lin (chapter 6) emphasize how research on the synthesis of octahedral-pentahedral-tetrahedral framework silicates has been inspired and motivated by the many examples of such materials provided by nature; synthesis, structure and possible technological applications of a wide number of these materials are also described. Following chapters 7 and 8 - which besides the cancrinite-davyne group, presents the crystallographic features of the minerals in the tobermorite and gyrolite groups - M. Pasero (chapter 9) illustrates the topological and polysomatic aspects of the "tunnel oxides," a historical name applied to porous oxides related to MnO2, and reviews their main technological applications. The next two chapters (10 and 11) draw attention to "unexpected" porous materials like apatite and sulfides. T.J. White and his team (chapter 10) convincingly show that the apatite structure type displays porous properties, some of which are already exploited. Chapter 10 also contains two appendices that report crystal and synthesis data for hundreds of synthetic apatites, a number that demonstrates how wide the interest is for this class of compounds. E. Makovicky (chapter 11) analyzes the structures of natural and synthetic sulfides and selenides showing that, even if experimental work proving porous activity is practically still missing, several structure types display promising channels. Chapter 12, by M. Mellini, is the only one dedicated to mesoporous mineral phases - which are crystalline compounds with pores wider than 2 nm. Examples discussed are carbon nanotubes, fullerenes - which occur also in nature - chrysotile, opal and, moving from channels to cages, clathrates.

Description / Table of Contents: Until only a few years ago, I would never have imagined that a volume on the stable isotope geochemistry of elements like Mg, Fe or Cu would be written. In fact, a comic book of blank pages entitled The Stable Isotope Geochemistry of Fluorine would have been a more likely prospect. In volume 16 of this series, published in 1986, I wrote: Isotopic variations have been looked for but not found for heavy elements like Cu, Sn, and Fe .... Natural variations in isotopic ratios of terrestrial materials have been reported for other light elements like Mg and K, but such variations usually turn out to be laboratory artifacts. I am about ready to eat those words. We have known for many years that large isotopic fractionations of heavy elements like Pb develop in the source regions of TIMS machines. Nonetheless, most of us held fast to the conventional wisdom that no significant mass-dependent isotopic fractionations were likely to occur in natural or laboratory systems for elements that are either heavy or engaged in bonds with a dominant ionic character. With the relatively recent appearance of new instrumentation like MC-ICP-MS and heroic methods development in TIMS analyses, it became possible to make very precise measurements of the isotopic ratios of some of these non-traditional elements, particularly if they comprise three or more isotopes. It was eminently reasonable to reexamine these systems in this new light. Perhaps atomic weights could be refined, or maybe there were some unexpected isotopic variations to discover. There were around the turn of the present century, reports began appearing of biological fractionations of about 2-3 per mil for heavy elements like Fe and Cr and attempts were made to determine the magnitude of equilibrium isotope effects in these systems, both by experiment and semi-empirical calculations. Interest emerged in applying these effects to the study of environmental problems. Even the most recalcitrant skeptic now accepts the fact that measurable and meaningful variations in the isotopic ratios of heavy elements occur as a result of chemical, biological and physical processes. Most of the work discussed in this volume was published after the year 2000 and thus the chapters are more like progress reports rather than reviews. Skepticism now focuses on whether isotopic variations as small as 0.1 per mil are indeed as meaningful as some think, and the fact that measured isotopic fractionations of these non-traditional elements are frequently much smaller than predicted from theoretical considerations. In fact the large fractionations suggested by the calculations provide much of the stimulus for working in this discipline. Clearly some carefully designed experiments could shed light on some of the ambiguity. My optimism for the future of this burgeoning new field remains high because it is in very good hands indeed.

Description / Table of Contents: Our understanding of rock forming geological processes and thereby of geodynamic processes depends largely on a sound basis of knowledge of minerals. Due to the application of new analytical techniques, the number of newly discovered minerals increases steadily, and what used to be a simple mineral may have turned into a complex group. A continuous update is necessary, and the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry series excellently fulfills this requirement. The epidote minerals have not yet been covered and we felt that this gap should be filled. The epidote mineral group consists of important rock-forming minerals such as clinozoisite and epidote, geochemical important accessory minerals such as allanite, and minerals typical for rare bulk compositions such as hancockite. Zoisite, the orthorhombic polymorph of clinozoisite, is included here because of its strong structural and paragenetic similarity to the epidote minerals. Epidote minerals occur in a wide variety of rocks, from near-surface conditions up to high- and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks and as liquidus phases in magmatic systems. They can be regarded as the low-temperature and high-pressure equivalent of Ca-rich plagioclase, and thus are equally important as this feldspar for petrogenetic purposes. In addition, they belong to the most important Fe3+ bearing minerals, and give important information about the oxygen fugacity and the oxidation state of a rock. Last but not least, they can incorporate geochemically relevant minor and trace elements such as Sr, Pb, REE, V, and Mn. The epidote minerals are undoubtedly very important from a petrogenetic and geochemical point of view, and have received a lot of attention in the last years from several working groups in the field of experimental studies and spectroscopic work. As a result, the thermodynamic database of epidote minerals has been significantly enlarged during the last decade. Recent studies have revealed the importance of zoisite in subduction zone processes as a carrier of H2O and suggested zoisite to be the main H2O source in the pressure interval between about 2.0 and 3.0 GPa. Many studies have shown that an understanding of trace element geochemical processes in high-pressure rocks is impossible without understanding the geochemical influence of the epidote minerals. Recent advances in microanalytical techniques have also shown that epidote minerals record detailed information on their geological environment. W. A. Deer, R. A. Howie and J. Zussmann edited the last comprehensive review on this mineral group almost 20 years ago in 1986. In 1990, on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the discovery of the famous Knappenwand locality in the Tauern/Austria, an epidote conference was held in Neukirchen/Austria organized by the Austrian Mineralogical Society by V. Höck and F. Koller. In 1999, there was a special symposium at the EUG 10 in Strasbourg, convened by R. Gieré and F. Oberli, entitled Recent advances in studies of the epidote group that highlighted the relevance of the epidote minerals for Earth science. However, there are many open questions in the community regarding the epidote minerals and there is a need for a new overview that brings together the recent knowledge on this interesting group of minerals. The present volume of the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry reviews the current state of knowledge on the epidote minerals with special emphasis on the advances that were made since the comprehensive review of Deer et al. (1986). We hope that it will serve to outline the open questions and direction of future research. In the Introduction, we review the structure, optical data and crystal chemistry of this mineral group, all of which form the basis for understanding much of the following material in the volume. In addition, we provide some information on special topics, such as morphology and growth, deformation behavior, and gemology. Thermodynamic properties (Chapter 2, Gottschalk), the spectroscopy of the epidote minerals (Chapter 3, Liebscher) and a review of the experimental studies (Chapter 4, Poli and Schmidt) constitute the first section of chapters. These fields are closely related, and all three chapters show the significant progress over the last years, but that some of the critical questions such as the problem of miscibility and miscibility gaps are still not completely solved. This section concludes with a review of fluid inclusion studies (Chapter 5, Klemd), a topic that turned out to be of large interest for petrogenetic interpretation, and leads to the description of natural epidote occurrences in the second section of the book. These following chapters review the geological environments of the epdiote minerals, from low temperature in geothermal fields (Chapter 6, Bird and Spieler), to common metamorphic rocks (Chapter 7, Grapes and Hoskin) and to high- and ultrahigh pressure (Chapter 8, Enami, Liou and Mattinson) and the magmatic regime (Chapter 9, Schmidt and Poli). Allanite (Chapter 10, Gieré and Sorensen) and piemontite (Chapter 11, Bonazzi and Menchetti), on which a large amount of information is now available, are reviewed in separate chapters. Finally trace element (Chapter 12, Frei, Liebscher, Franz and Dulski) and isotopic studies, both stable and radiogenic isotopes (Chapter 13, Morrison) are considered. We found it unavoidable that there is some overlap between individual chapters. This is an inherited problem in a mineral group such as the epidote minerals, which forms intensive solid solutions between the major components of rock forming minerals as well as with trace elements.

Description / Table of Contents: Exactly 100 years before the publication of this volume, the first paper which calculated the half-life for the newly discovered radioactive substance U-X (now called 234Th), was published. Now, in this volume, the editors Bernard Bourdon, Gideon Henderson, Craig Lundstrom and Simon Turner have integrated a group of contributors who update our knowledge of U-series geochemistry, offer an opportunity for non-specialists to understand its basic principles, and give us a view of the future of this active field of research. In this volume, for the first time, all the methods for determining the uranium and thorium decay chain nuclides in Earth materials are discussed. It was prepared in advance of a two-day short course (April 3-4, 2003) on U-series geochemistry, jointly sponsored by GS and MSA and presented in Paris, France prior to the joint EGS/AGU/EUG meeting in Nice. The discovery of the 238U decay chain, of course, started with the seminal work of Marie Curie in identifying and separating 226Ra. Through the work of the Curies and others, all the members of the 238U decay chain were identified. An important milestone for geochronometrists was the discovery of 230Th (called Ionium) by Bertram Boltwood, the Yale scientist who also made the first age determinations on minerals using the U-Pb dating method (Boltwood in 1906 established the antiquity of rocks and even identified a mineral from Sri Lanka-then Ceylon as having an age of 2.1 billion years!) The application of the 238U decay chain to the dating of deep sea sediments was by Piggott and Urry in 1942 using the "Ionium" method of dating. Actually they measured 222Ra (itself through 222Rn) assuming secular equilibrium had been established between 230Th and 226Ra. Although 230Th was measured in deep sea sediments by Picciotto and Gilvain in 1954 using photographic emulsions, it was not until alpha spectrometry was developed in the late 1950's that 20Th was routinely measured in marine deposits. Alpha spectrometry and gamma spectrometry became the work horses for the study of the uranium and thorium decay chains in a variety of Earth materials. These ranged from 222Rn and its daughters in the atmosphere, to the uranium decay chain nuclides in the oceanic water column, and volcanic rocks and many other systems in which either chronometry or element partitioning, were explored. Much of what we learned about the 238U, 235U and 232Th decay chain nuclides as chronometers and process indicators we owe to these seminal studies based on the measurement of radioactivity. The discovery that mass spectrometry would soon usurp many of the tasks performed by radioactive counting was in itself serendipitous. It came about because a fundamental issue in cosmochemistry was at stake. Although variation in 235U/238U had been reported for meteorites the results were easily discredited as due to analytical difficulties. One set of results, however, was published by a credible laboratory long involved in quality measurements of high mass isotopes such as the lead isotopes. The purported discovery of 235U/238U variations in meteorites, if true, would have consequences in defining the early history of the formation of the elements and the development of inhomogeneity of uranium isotopes in the accumulation of the protoplanetary materials of the Solar System. Clearly the result was too important to escape the scrutiny of falsification implicit in the way we do science. The Lunatic Asylum at Caltech under the leadership of Jerry Wasserburg took on that task. Jerry Wasserburg and Jim Chen clearly established the constancy and Earth-likeness of 235U/238U in the samplable universe. In the hands of another member of the Lunatic Asylum, Larry Edwards, the methodology was transformed into a tool for the study of the 238U decay chain in marine systems. Thus the mass spectrometric techniques developed provided an approach to measuring the U and Th isotopes in geological materials as well as cosmic materials with the same refinement and accommodation for small sample size. Soon after this discovery the harnessing of the technique to the measurement of all the U isotopes and all the Th isotopes with great precision immediately opened up the entire field of uranium and thorium decay chain studies. This area of study was formerly the poaching ground for radioactive measurements alone but now became part of the wonderful world of mass spectrometric measurements. (The same transformation took place for radiocarbon from the various radioactive counting schemes to accelerator mass spectrometry.) No Earth material was protected from this assault. The refinement of dating corals, analyzing volcanic rocks for partitioning and chronometer studies and extensions far and wide into ground waters and ocean bottom dwelling organisms has been the consequence of this innovation. Although Ra isotopes, 210Pb and 210Po remain an active pursuit of those doing radioactive measurements, many of these nuclides have also become subject to the mass spectrometric approach. In this volume, for the first time, all the methods for determining the uranium and thorium decay chain nuclides in Earth materials are discussed. The range of problems solvable with this approach is remarkable-a fitting, tribute to the Curies and the early workers who discovered them for us to use.

Description / Table of Contents: Since the dawn of life on earth, organisms have played roles in mineral formation in processes broadly known as biomineralization. This biologically-mediated organization of aqueous ions into amorphous and crystalline materials results in materials that are as simple as adventitious precipitates or as complex as exquisitely fabricated structures that meet specialized functionalities. The purpose of this volume of Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry is to provide students and professionals in the earth sciences with a review that focuses upon the various processes by which organisms direct the formation of minerals. Our framework of examining biominerals from the viewpoints of major mineralization strategies distinguishes this volume from most previous reviews. The review begins by introducing the reader to over-arching principles that are needed to investigate biomineralization phenomena and shows the current state of knowledge regarding the major approaches to mineralization that organisms have developed over the course of Earth history. By exploring the complexities that underlie the "synthesis" of biogenic materials, and therefore the basis for how compositions and structures of biominerals are mediated (or not), we believe this volume will be instrumental in propelling studies of biomineralization to a new level of research questions that are grounded in an understanding of the underlying biological phenomena.

Description / Table of Contents: In the two decades since J. Alexander Speer's Zircon chapter in Orthosilicates (Reviews in Mineralogy, Vol. 5), much has been learned about the internal textures, trace-element and isotope geochemistry (both radiogenic and stable) and chemical and mechanical stability of zircon. The application of this knowledge and the use of zircon in geologic studies have become widespread. Today, the study of zircon exists as the pseudo-discipline of "zirconology" that involves materials scientists and geoscientists from across a range of sub-disciplines including stable and radiogenic isotopes, sedimentology, petrology, trace elements and experimental mineralogy. Zirconology has become an important field of research, so much so that coverage of the mineral zircon in a review volume that included zircon as one of many accessory minerals would not meet the needs or interests of the zirconology community in terms of depth or breadth of coverage. The sixteen chapters in this volume cover the most important aspects of zircon-related research over the past twenty-years and highlight possible future research avenues. Finch and Hanchar (Chapter 1) review the structure of zircon and other mineral (and synthetic) phases with the zircon structure. In most rock types where zircon occurs it is a significant host of the rare-earth elements, Th and U. The abundances of these elements and the form of chondrite-normalized rare-earth element patterns may provide significant information on the processes that generate igneous and metamorphic rocks. The minor and trace element compositions of igneous, metamorphic and hydrothermal zircons are reviewed by Hoskin and Schaltegger in Chapter 2. The investigation of melt inclusions in zircon is an exciting line of new research. Trapped melt inclusions can provide direct information of the trace element and isotopic composition of the melt from which the crystal formed as a function of time throughout the growth of the crystal. Thomas et a!. (Chapter 3) review the study of melt inclusions in zircon. Hanchar and Watson (Chapter 4) review experimental and natural studies of zircon saturation and the use of zircon saturation thermometry for natural rocks. Cation diffusion and oxygen diffusion in zircon is discussed by Cherniak and Watson (Chapter 5). Diffusion studies are essential for providing constraints on the quality of trace element and isotope data and for providing estimates of temperature exposure in geological environments. Zircon remains the most widely utilized accessory mineral for U- Th-Pb isotope geochronology. Significant instrumental and analytical developments over the past thirty years mean that zircon has an essential role in early Achaean studies, magma genesis, and astrobiology. Four chapters are devoted to different aspects of zircon geochronology. The first of these four, Chapter 6 by Davis et a!., reviews the historical development of zircon geochronology from the mid-1950s to the present; the following three chapters focus on particular techniques for zircon geochronology, namely ID-TIMS (Parrish and Noble, Chapter 7), SIMS (Ireland and Williams, Chapter 8) and ICP-MS (Kosier and Sylvester, Chapter 9). The application of zircon chronology in constraining sediment provenance.and the calibration ofthe geologic time-scale are reviewed by Fedo et al. (Chapter 10) and Bowring and Schmitz (Chapter 11), respectively. Other isotopic systematics are reviewed for zircon by Kinny and Maas (Chapter 12), who discuss the application of Nd-Sm and Lu-Hf isotopes in zircon to petrogenetic studies, and by Valley (Chapter 13), who discusses the importance of oxygen isotopic studies in traditional and emerging fields of geologic study. As a host of U and Th, zircon is subject to radiation damage. Radiation damage is likely responsible for isotopic disturbance and promotes mechanical instability. There is increasing interest in both the effect of radiation damage on the zircon crystal structure and mechanisms of damage and recrystallization, as well as the structure of the damaged phase. These studies contribute to an overall understanding of how zircon may behave as a waste-form for safe disposal of radioactive waste and are discussed by Ewing et a!. (Chapter 14). The spectroscopy of zircon, both crystalline and metamict is reviewed by Nadsala et a!. (Chapter 15). The final chapter, by Corfu et al. (Chapter 16), is an atlas of internal textures of zircon. The imaging of internal textures in zircon is essential for directing the acquisition of geochemical data and to the integrity of conclusions reached once data has been collected and interpreted. This chapter, for the first time, brings into one place textural images that represent common and not so common textures reported in the literature, along with brief interpretations of their significance. There is presently no comparable atlas. It is intended that this chapter will become a reference point for future workers to compare and contrast their own images against. The chapters in this volume of Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry were prepared for presentation at a Short Course, sponsored by the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) in Freiburg, Germany, April 3-4, 2003. This preceded a joint meeting of the European Union of Geology, the American Geophysical Union and the European Geophysical Society held in Nice, France, April 6-11, 2003.

Description / Table of Contents: Several years ago, John Rakovan and John Hughes (colleagues at Miami of Ohio), and later Matt Kohn (at South Carolina), separately proposed short courses on phosphate minerals to the Council of the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA). Council suggested that they join forces. Thus this volume, Phosphates: Geochemical, Geobiological, and Materials Importance, was organized. It was prepared in advance of a short course of the same title, sponsored by MSA and presented at Golden, Colorado, October 25-27. We are pleased to present this volume entitled Phosphates: Geochemical, Geobiological and Materials Importance. Phosphate minerals are an integral component of geological and biological systems. They are found in virtually all rocks, are the major structural component of vertebrates, and when dissolved are critical for biological activity. This volume represents the work of many authors whose research illustrates how the unique chemical and physical behavior of phosphate minerals permits a wide range of applications that encompasses phosphate mineralogy, petrology, biomineralization, geochronology, and materials science. While diverse, these fields are all linked structurally, crystal-chemically and geochemically. As geoscientists turn their attention to the intersection of the biological, geological, and material science realms, there is no group of compounds more germane than the phosphates. The chapters of this book are grouped into five topics: Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry, Petrology, Biomineralization, Geochronology, and Materials Applications. In the first section, three chapters are devoted to mineralogical aspects of apatite, a phase with both inorganic and organic origins, the most abundant phosphate mineral on earth, and the main mineral phase in the human body. Monazite and xenotime are highlighted in a fourth chapter, which includes their potential use as solid-state radioactive waste repositories. The Mineralogy and Crystal Chemistry section concludes with a detailed examination of the crystal chemistry of 244 other naturally-occurring phosphate phases and a listing of an additional 126 minerals. In the Petrology section, three chapters detail the igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary aspects of phosphate minerals. A fourth chapter provides a close look at analyzing phosphates for major, minor, and trace elements using the electron microprobe. A final chapter treats the global geochemical cycling of phosphate, a topic of intense, current geochemical interest. The Biomineralization section begins with a summary of the current state of research on bone, dentin and enamel phosphates, a topic that crosses disciplines that include mineralogical, medical, and dental research. The following two chapters treat the stable isotope and trace element compositions of modern and fossil biogenic phosphates, with applications to paleontology, paleoclimatology, and paleoecology. The Geochronology section focuses principally on apatite and monazite for U-ThPb, (U- Th)/He, and fission-track age determinations; it covers both classical geochronologic techniques as well as recent developments. The final section-Materials Applications-highlights how phosphate phases play key roles in fields such as optics, luminescence, medical engineering and prosthetics, and engineering of radionuclide repositories. These chapters provide a glimpse of the use of natural phases in engineering and biomedical applications and illustrate fruitful areas of future research in geochemical, geobiological and materials science. We hope all chapters in this volume encourage researchers to expand their work on all aspects of natural and synthetic phosphate compounds.

Description / Table of Contents: Micas are among the most common minerals in the Earth crust: 4.5% by volume. They are widespread in most if not all metamorphic rocks (abundance: 11%), and common also in sediment and sedimentary and igneous rocks. Characteristically, micas form in the uppermost greenschist facies and remain stable to the lower crust, including anatectic rocks (the only exception: granulite facies racks). Moreover, some micas are stable in sediments and diagenetic rocks and crystallize in many types of lavas. In contrast, they are also present in association with minerals originating from the very deepest parts of the mantle—they are the most common minerals accompanying diamond in kimberlites. The number of research papers dedicated to micas is enormous, but knowledge of them is limited and not as extensive as that of other rock-forming minerals, for reasons mostly relating to their complex layer texture that makes obtaining crystals suitable for careful studies with the modern methods time-consuming, painstaking work. Micas were reviewed extensively in 1984 (Reviews in Mineralogy 13, S.W. Bailey, editor). At that time, “Micas” volume …

Description / Table of Contents: This volume was produced in response to the need for a comprehensive introduction to the continually evolving state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low-temperature geochemistry and environmental science. It owes much to the hard work and imagination of the devoted cadre of sleep-deprived individuals who blazed a trail that many others are beginning to follow. Synchrotron radiation methods have opened new scientific vistas in the earth and environmental sciences, and progress in this direction will undoubtedly continue. The organization of this volume is as follows. Chapter 1 (Brown and Sturchio) gives a fairly comprehensive overview of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science. The presentation is organized by synchrotron methods and scientific issues. It also has an extensive reference list that should prove valuable as a starting point for further research. Chapter 2 (Sham and Rivers) describes the ways that synchrotron radiation is generated, including a history of synchrotrons and a discussion of aspects of synchrotron radiation that are important to the experimentalist. The remaining chapters of the volume are organized into two groups. Chapters 3 through 6 describe specific synchrotron methods that are most useful for single-crystal surface and mineral-fluid interface studies. Chapters 7 through 9 describe methods that can be used more generally for investigating complex polyphase fine-grained or amorphous materials, including soils, rocks, and organic matter. Chapter 3 (Fenter) presents the elementary theory of synchrotron X-ray reflectivity along with examples of recent applications, with emphasis on in situ studies of mineral-fluid interfaces. Chapter 4 (Bedzyk and Cheng) summarizes the theory of X-ray standing waves (XSW), the various methods for using XSW in surface and interfaces studies, and gives a brief review of recent applications in geochemistry and mineralogy. Chapter 5 (Waychunas) covers the theory and applications of grazing-incidence X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy, with recent examples of studies at mineral surfaces. Chapter 6 (Hirschmugl) describes the theory and applications of synchrotron infrared microspectroscopy. Chapter 7 (Manceau, Marcus, and Tamura) gives background and examples of the combined application of synchrotron X-ray microfluorescence, microdiffraction, and microabsorption spectroscopy in characterizing the distribution and speciation of metals in soils and sediments. Chapter 8 (Sutton, Newville, Rivers, Lanzirotti, Eng, and Bertsch) demonstrates a wide variety of applications of synchrotron X-ray microspectroscopy and microtomography in characterizing earth and environmental materials and processes. Finally, Chapter 9 (Myneni) presents a review of the principles and applications of soft X-ray microspectroscopic studies of natural organic materials. All of these chapters review the state of the art of synchrotron radiation applications in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, and offer speculations on future developments. The reader of this volume will acquire an appreciation of the theory and applications of synchrotron radiation in low temperature geochemistry and environmental science, as well as the significant advances that have been made in this area in the past two decades (especially since the advent of the third-generation synchrotron sources). We hope that this volume will inspire new users to "see the light" and pursue their research using the potent tool of synchrotron radiation.

Description / Table of Contents: This book has been several years in the making, under the experienced and careful oversight of Ed Grew (University of Maine), who edited (with Larry Anovitz) a similar, even larger volume in 1996: Boron: Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geochemistry (RiMG Vol. 33, reprinted with updates and corrections, 2002). Many of the same reasons for inviting investigators to contribute to a volume on B apply equally to a volume on Be. Like B, Be poses analytical difficulties, and it has been neglected in many studies. However, with recent improvements in analytical technology, interest in Be and its cosmogenic isotopes has increased greatly. Chapter 1 (Grew) is an overview of Be studies in the earth sciences backed by an extensive reference list, and an annotated list of the 110 mineral species reported to contain essential Be as of 2002, together with commentary on their status. A systematic classification of Be minerals based on their crystal structure is presented in Chapter 9 (Hawthorne and Huminicki), while analysis of these minerals by the secondary ion mass spectroscopy is the subject of Chapter 8 (Hervig). Chapter 13 (Franz and Morteani) reviews experimental studies of systems involving Be. Chapter 2 (Shearer) reviews the behavior of Be in the Solar System, with an emphasis on meteorites, the Moon and Mars, and the implications of this behavior for the evolution of the solar system. Chapter 3 (Ryan) is an overview of the terrestrial geochemistry of Be, and Chapter 7 (Vesely, Norton, Skrivan, Majer, Krám, Navrátil, and Kaste) discusses the contamination of the environment by this anthropogenic toxin. The cosmogenic isotopes Be-7 and Be-10 have found increasing applications in the Earth sciences. Chapter 4 (Bierman, Caffee, Davis, Marsella, Pavich, Colgan and Mickelson) reports use of the longer lived Be-10 to assess erosion rates and other surficial processes, while Chapter 5 (Morris, Gosse, Brachfeld and Tera) considers how this isotope can yield independent temporal records of geomagnetic field variations for comparison with records obtained by measuring natural remnant magnetization, be a chemical tracer for processes in convergent margins, and can date events in Cenozoic tectonics. Chapter 6 (Kaste, Norton and Hess) reviews applications of the shorter lived isotope Be-7 in environmental studies. Beryllium is a lithophile element concentrated in the residual phases of magmatic systems. Residual phases include acidic plutonic and volcanic rocks, whose geochemistry and evolution are covered, respectively, in Chapters 11 (London and Evensen) and 14 (Barton and Young), while granitic pegmatites, which are well-known for their remarkable, if localized, Be enrichments and a wide variety of Be mineral assemblages, are reviewed in Chapter 10 (Cerny). Not all Be concentrations have obvious magmatic affinities; for example, one class of emerald deposits results from Be being introduced by heated brines (Chapters 13; 14). Pelitic rocks are an important reservoir of Be in the Earth's crust and their metamorphism plays a critical role in recycling of Be in subduction zones (Chapter 3), eventually, anatectic processes complete the cycle, providing a source of Be for granitic rocks (Chapters 11 and 12).

Description / Table of Contents: The scientific discoveries that have been made with noble gas geochemistry are of such a profound and fundamental nature that earth science textbooks should be full of examples. Surprisingly, this really is not so. The "first discoveries" include presolar components in our _ solar system, extinct radionuclides, primordial volatiles in the Earth, the degassing history of Mars, secular changes in the solar wind, reliable present day mantle degassing fluxes, the fluxes of extraterrestrial material to Earth, groundwater paleotemperatures and the ages of the oldest landscapes on Earth. Noble gas geochemistry has scored so many such "firsts" or "home runs" that it should permeate a lot of earth science thinking and teaching. Yet rather surprisingly it does not. Noble gas geochemistry also is a broader and more versatile field than almost any other area of geochemistry. It pervades cosmochemistry, Earth sciences, ocean sciences, climate studies and environmental sciences. Yet most modern Earth, planetary and environmental science departments do not consider noble gas geochemistry to be at the top of their list in terms of hiring priorities these days. Furthermore, with the exception of Ar geochronologists, noble gas geochemists are a surprisingly rare breed. Why is the above the case? Perhaps the reasons lie in the nature of the field itself. First, although noble gas geochemists work on big problems, the context of their data is often woefully under-constrained so that it becomes hard to make progress beyond the first order fundamental discoveries. Noble gas data are often difficult to interpret. Although some concepts are straightforward and striking in their immediate implications (e.g. mantle 3He in the oceans), others are to this day shrouded in lack of clarity. The simple reason for this is that in many situations it is only the noble gases that offer any real insights at all and the context of other constraints simply does not exist. Some examples of the big issues being addressed by noble gases are as follows and I have deliberately posed these as major unresolved questions that only exist because noble gas geochemistry has opened windows through which to view large-scale issues and processes that otherwise would be obscure. (1) Is the presolar noble gas component present in a tiny fraction of submicroscopic meteoritic C or is it ubiquitously distributed? (2) How did solar noble gases get incorporated into the Earth? (3) How did solar noble gases survive the protracted accretion of the Earth via giant impacts? (4) What is the origin of the noble gas pattern in the Earth's atmosphere? (5) Why are the Earth and Mars almost opposites in terms of the relative isotopic differences between atmosphere and mantle? (6) What is the Eresent source of Earth's primordial helium? Can we ignore the core? (7) What is the 2~e/ 2Ne of the mantle, how was it acquired and why is it different from the atmosphere? (8) How does one reconcile the stronlJ fractionation in terrestrial Xe with data for other noble gases? (9) How much radiogenic Ar should the Earth have? How well do we know KIU? (10) Are the light isotopes of Xe the same in the mantle and the atmosphere? If not, why not? (11) How are noble gases transported through the creeping solid earth? (12) How does one explain the heat - helium paradox? (13) How incompatible are the noble gases during melting? (14) How are atmospheric components incorporated into volcanic samples? (15) How are the excess air components incorporated into groundwater? (16) Why are continental noble gas paleotemperature records offset from oceanic temperature records? Noble gas data tell us that the Earth and solar system represent very complex environments. When we make our simple first order conclusions and models we are only at the tip of the iceberg of discoveries that are needed to arrive at a thorough understanding of the behavior of volatiles in the solar system. Who wants to hear that things are complicated? Who wants to hire in a field that will involve decades of data acquisition and analysis in order to sort out the solar system? Sadly, too few these days. This is the stuff of deep scientific giants and bold, technically difficult long-term research programs. It is not for those who prefer superficiality and quick, glamorous, slick answers. Noble gas geochemists work in many areas where progress is slow and difficult even though the issues are huge. This probably plays a part in the limited marketability of noble gas geochemistry to the nonspecialist. Second, noble gases is a technically difficult subject. That is, noble gas geochemists need to be adept 11t technique development and this has to include skills acquired through innovation in the lab. Nobody can learn this stuff merely with a book or practical guide. Reading Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (by Robert Pirsig) would give you a clearer picture. This magnificent MSA-GS volume is going to be enormously useful but on its own it won't make anybody into a noble gas geochemist. Although the mass spectrometry principles are not complex, the tricks involved in getting better data are often self taught or passed on by working with individuals who themselves are pushing the boundaries further. Furthermore, much of the exciting new science is linked with technical developments that allow us to move beyond the current measurement capabilities. Be they better crushing devices, laser resonance time of flight, multiple collection or compressor sources - the technical issues are central to progress. Lastly, noble gas geochemists need a broad range of other skills in order to make progress. They have to be good at mass spectrometry as already stated. However, nowadays they also need to be able to understand fields as different as mantle geochemistry, stellar evolution, cosmochemistry, crustal fluids, oceanography and glaciology. They are kind of "Renaissance" individuals. Therefore, if you are thinking broadly about hiring scientists who love science and stand a good chance of making a major difference to our understanding of the solar system, earth and its environment - I would recommend you hire a really good noble gas geochemist. However, the results may take a while. If you want somebody who will crank out papers at high speed and quickly increase the publication numbers of your department then you may need to think about somebody else. The two are not mutually exclusive but think hard about what is really important. There was no short course associated with this volume, although an attempt was undertaken to get the volume printed in time for the V. M. Goldschmidt conference in Davos, Switzerland (mid-August 2002) at which there was a major symposium on noble gases.

Description / Table of Contents: This volume highlights some of the frontiers in the study of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. The research into the plastic properties of minerals and rocks had a major peak in late 1960s to early 1970s, largely stimulated by research in the laboratory of D. T. Griggs and his students and associates. It is the same time when the theory of plate tectonics was established and provided a first quantitative theoretical framework for understanding geological processes. The theory of plate tectonics stimulated the study of deformation properties of Earth materials, both in the brittle and the ductile regimes. Many of the foundations of plastic deformation of minerals and rocks were established during this period. Also, new experimental techniques were developed, including deformation apparatus for high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, electron micros-copy study of defects in minerals, and the X-ray technique of deformation fabric analysis. The field benefited greatly from materials science concepts of deformation that were introduced, including the models of point defects and their interaction with dislocations. A summary of progress is given by the volume Flow and Fracture of Rocks: The Griggs Volume, published in 1972 by the American Geophysical Union. Since then, the scope of Earth sciences has greatly expanded. Geodynamics became concerned with the Earth's deep interior where seismologists discovered heterogeneities and anisotropy at all scales that were previously thought to be typical of the crust and the upper mantle. Investigations of the solar system documented new mineral phases and rocks far beyond the Earth. Both domains have received a lot of attention from mineralogists (e.g., summarized in MSA's Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 36, Planetary Materials and Volume 37, Ultra-High Pressure Mineralogy). Most attention was directed towards crystal chemistry and phase relations, yet an understanding of the deformation behavior is essential for interpreting the dynamic geological processes from geological and geophysical observations. This was largely the reason for a rebirth of the study of rock plasticity, leading to new approaches that include experiments at extreme conditions and modeling of deformation behavior based on physical principles. A wide spectrum of communities emerged that need to use information about mineral plasticity, including mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, seismology, geodynamics and engineering. This was the motivation to organize a workshop, in December 2002 in Emeryville, California, to bridge the very diverse disciplines and facilitate communication. This volume written for this workshop should help one to become familiar with a notoriously difficult subject, and the various contributions represent some of the important progress that has been achieved. The spectrum is broad. High-resolution tomographic images of Earth's interior obtained from seismology need to be interpreted on the bases of materials properties to understand their geodynamic significance. Key issues include the influence of deformation on seismic signatures, such as attenuation and anisotropy, and a new generation of experimental and theoretical studies on rock plasticity has contributed to a better understanding. Extensive space exploration has revealed a variety of tectonic styles on planets and their satellites, underlining the uniqueness of the Earth. To understand why plate tectonics is unique to Earth, one needs to understand the physical mechanisms of localization of deformation at various scales and under different physical conditions. Also here important theoretical and experimental studies have been conducted. In both fields, studies on anisotropy and shear localization, large-strain deformation experiments and quantitative modeling are critical, and these have become available only recently. Complicated interplay among chemical reactions (including partial melting) is a key to understand the evolution of Earth. This book contains two chapters on the developments of new techniques of experimental studies: one is large-strain shear deformation (Chapter 1 by Mackwell and Paterson) and another is deformation experiments under ultrahigh pressures (Chapter 2 by Durham et al.). Both technical developments are the results of years of efforts that are opening up new avenues of research along which rich new results are expected to be obtained. Details of physical and chemical processes of deformation in the crust and the upper mantle are much better understood through the combination of well controlled laboratory experiments with observations on "real" rocks deformed in Earth. Chapter 3 by Tullis and Chapter 4 by Hirth address the issues of deformation of crustal rocks and the upper mantle, respectively. In Chapter 5 Kohlstedt reviews the interplay of partial melting and deformation, an important subject in understanding the chemical evolution of Earth. Cordier presents in Chapter 6 an overview of the new results of ultrahigh pressure deformation of deep mantle minerals and discusses microscopic mechanisms controlling the variation of deformation mechanisms with minerals in the deep mantle. Green and Marone review in Chapter 7 the stability of deformation under deep mantle conditions with special reference to phase transformations and their relationship to the origin of intermediate depth and deep-focus earthquakes. In Chapter 8 Schulson provides a detailed description of fracture mechanisms of ice, including the critical brittle-ductile transition that is relevant not only for glaciology, planetology and engineering, but for structural geology as well. In Chapter 9 Cooper provides a review of experimental and theoretical studies on seismic wave attenuation, which is a critical element in interpreting distribution of seismic wave velocities and attenuation. Chapter 10 by Wenk reviews the relationship between crystal preferred orientation and macroscopic anisotropy, illustrating it with case studies. In Chapter 11 Dawson presents recent progress in poly-crystal plasticity to model the development of anisotropic fabrics both at the microscopic and macroscopic scale. Such studies form the basis for geodynamic interpretation of seismic anisotropy. Finally, in Chapter 12 Montagner and Guillot present a thorough review of seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle covering the vast regions of geodynamic interests, using a global surface wave data set. In Chapter 13 Bercovici and Karato summarize the theoretical aspects of shear localization. All chapters contain extensive reference lists to guide readers to the more specialized literature. Obviously this book does not cover all the areas related to plastic deformation of minerals and rocks. Important topics that are not fully covered in this book include mechanisms of semi-brittle deformation and the interplay between microstructure evolution and deformation at different levels, such as dislocation substructures and grain-size evolution ("self-organization"). However, we hope that this volume provides a good introduction for graduate students in Earth science or materials science as well as the researchers in these areas to enter this multidisciplinary field.

Description / Table of Contents: Zeolites were looked upon as a geological curiosity until the latter part of the 20th century, but they are now known to be widespread throughout the world in sedimentary and igneous deposits and in soils. This volume describes their formation and occurrence in these environments. It also describes the latest information on their crystal structures and chemistry and presents entirely new information on zeolite stability and on cation exchange. Four chapters also describe applications of natural zeolites ranging from building material to high-tech refrigeration devices.

Description / Table of Contents: The review chapters in this volume were the basis for a short course on molecular modeling theory jointly sponsored by the Geochemical Society (GS) and the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) May 18-20, 2001 in Roanoke, Virginia which was held prior to the 2001 Goldschmidt Conference in nearby Hot Springs, Virginia. Dr. William C. Luth has had a long and distinguished career in research, education and in the government. He was a leader in experimental petrology and in training graduate students at Stanford University. His efforts at Sandia National Laboratory and at the Department of Energy's headquarters resulted in the initiation and long-term support of many of the cutting edge research projects whose results form the foundations of these short courses. Bill's broad interest in understanding fundamental geochemical processes and their applications to national problems is a continuous thread through both his university and government career. He retired in 1996, but his efforts to foster excellent basic research, and to promote the development of advanced analytical capabilities gave a unique focus to the basic research portfolio in Geosciences at the Department of Energy. He has been, and continues to be, a friend and mentor to many of us. It is appropriate to celebrate his career in education and government service with this series of courses in cutting-edge geochemistry that have particular focus on Department of Energy-related science, at a time when he can still enjoy the recognition of his contributions. Molecular modeling methods have become important tools in many areas of geochemical and mineralogical research. Theoretical methods describing atomistic and molecular-based processes are now commonplace in the geosciences literature and have helped in the interpretation of numerous experimental, spectroscopic, and field observations. Dramatic increases in computer power-involving personal computers, workstations, and massively parallel supercomputers-have helped to increase our knowledge of the fundamental processes in geochemistry and mineralogy. All researchers can now have access to the basic computer hardware and molecular modeling codes needed to evaluate these processes. The purpose of this volume of Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry is to provide the student and professional with a general introduction to molecular modeling methods and a review of various applications of the theory to problems in the geosciences. Molecular mechanics methods that are reviewed include energy minimization, lattice dynamics, Monte Carlo methods, and molecular dynamics. Important concepts of quantum mechanics and electronic structure calculations, including both molecular orbital and density functional theories, are also presented. Applications cover a broad range of mineralogy and geochemistry topics-from atmospheric reactions to fluid-rock interactions to properties of mantle and core phases. Emphasis is placed on the comparison of molecular simulations with experimental data and the synergy that can be generated by using both approaches in tandem. We hope the content of this review volume will help the interested reader to quickly develop an appreciation for the fundamental theories behind the molecular modeling tools and to become aware of the limits in applying these state-of-the-art methods to solve geosciences problems.

Description / Table of Contents: Over the years, volumes in this series have taken a variety of forms. Many have focused on mature fields of investigation to draw together a comprehensive body of work and provide a definitive, up to date reference. A few, however, have sought to provide enough coverage of an emerging or re-emerging field to allow the reader to identify important and exciting gaps in current knowledge and opportunities for new research. This volume falls into the later category. Our primary goal in convening the short course and assembling this text it is to invigorate future research. Early “Reviews in Mineralogy” dealt with specific groups of minerals, one (or two) volumes at a time. In contrast, this volume deals explicitly with the topic of crystal size in many different systems. Until recently, the special and complicated nature of the very smallest particles rendered them nearly impossible to study by conventional methods. Even today, the challenges associated with evaluating the size-dependence of a mineral’s bulk and surface structures, properties, and reactivity are significant. However, ongoing improvements in sophisticated characterization, theory, and data analysis make particles previously described (often inaccurately) as “amorphous” (or even more mysteriously as “x-ray amorphous”) amenable to quantitative evaluation. Thermochemical, crystal chemical, and computational chemical approaches must be combined to understand particles with diameters of 1 to 100 nanometers. Determination of …

Description / Table of Contents: This volume was prepared for Short Course on Stable Isotope Geochemistry presented November 2-4, 2001 in conjunction with the annual meetings of the Geological Society of America in Boston, Massachusetts. This volume follows the 1986 Reviews in Mineralogy (Vol. 16) in approach but reflects significant changes in the field of Stable Isotope Geochemistry. In terms of new technology, new sub-disciplines, and numbers of researchers, the field has changed more in the past decade than in any other since that of its birth. Unlike the 1986 volume, which was restricted to high temperature fields, this book covers a wider range of disciplines. However, it would not be possible to fit a comprehensive review into a single volume. Our goal is to provide state-ofthe-art reviews in chosen subjects that have emerged or advanced greatly since 1986. v The field of Stable Isotope Geochemistry was born of a good idea and nurtured by technology. In 1947, Harold Urey published his calculated values of reduced partition function for oxygen isotopes and his idea (a good one!) that the fractionation of oxygen isotopes between calcite and water might provide a means to estimate the temperatures of geologic events. Building on wartime advances in electronics, Alfred Nier then designed and built the dual-inlet, gassource mass-spectrometer capable of making measurements of sufficient precision and accuracy. This basic instrument and the associated extraction techniques, mostly from the 1950s, are still in use in many labs today. These techniques have become "conventional" in the sense of traditional, and they provide the benchmark against which the accuracy of other techniques is compared. The 1986 volume was based almost exclusively on natural data obtained solely from conventional techniques. Since then, revolutionary changes in sample size, accuracy, and cost have resulted from advances in continuous flow massspectrometry, laser heating, ion microprobes, and computer automation. The impact of new technology has differed by discipline. Some areas have benefited from vastly enlarged data sets, while others have capitalized on in situ analysis and/or micro- to nanogram size samples, and others have developed because formerly intractable samples can now be analyzed. Just as Stable Isotope Geochemistry is being reborn by new good ideas, it is still being nurtured by new technology. The organization of the chapters in this book follows the didactic approach of the 2001 short course in Boston. The first three chapters present the principles and data base for equilibrium isotope fractionation and for kinetic processes of exchange. Both inorganic and biological aspects are considered. The next chapter reviews isotope compositions throughout the solar system including massindependent fractionations that are increasingly being recognized on Earth. The fifth chapter covers the primitive compositions of the mantle and subtle variations found in basalts. This is followed by three chapters on metamorphism, isotope thermometry, fluid flow, and hydrothermal alteration. The next chapter considers water cycling in the atmosphere and the ice record. And finally, there are four chapters on the carbon cycle, the sulfur cycle, organic isotope geochemistry and extinctions in the geochemical record.

Description / Table of Contents: PREFACE Phase transformations occur in most types of materials, including ceramics, metals, polymers, diverse organic and inorganic compounds, minerals, and even crystalline viruses. They have been studied in almost all branches of science, but particularly in physics, chemistry, engineering, materials science and earth sciences. In some cases the objective has been to produce materials in which phase transformations are suppressed, to preserve the structural integrity of some engineering product, for example, while in other cases the objective is to maximise the effects of a transformation, so as to enhance properties such as superconductivity, for example. A long tradition of studying transformation processes in minerals has evolved from the need to understand the physical and thermodynamic properties of minerals in the bulk earth and in the natural environment at its surface. The processes of interest have included magnetism, ferroelasticity, ferroelectricity, atomic ordering, radiation damage, polymorphism, amorphisation and many others—in fact there are very few minerals which show no influence of transformation processes in the critical range of pressures and temperatures relevant to the earth. As in all other areas of science, an intense effort has been made to turn qualitative under-standing into quantitative description and prediction via the simultaneous development of theory, experiments and simulations. In the last few years rather fast progress has been made in this context, largely through an inter-disciplinary effort, and it seemed to us to be timely to produce a review volume for the benefit of the wider scientific community which summarises the current state of the art. The selection of transformation processes covered here is by no means comprehensive, but represents a coherent view of some of the most important processes which occur specifically in minerals. A number of the contributors have been involved in a European Union funded research network with the same theme, under the Training and Mobility of Researchers programme, which has stimulated much of the most recent progress in some of the areas covered. This support is gratefully acknowledged.

Description / Table of Contents: The first half-century of X-ray crystallography, beginning with the elucidation of the sodium chloride structure in 1914, was devoted principally to the determination of increasingly complex atomic topologies at ambient conditions. The pioneering work of the Braggs, Pauling, Wyckoff, Zachariasen and many other investigators revealed the structural details and underlying crystal chemical principles for most rock-forming minerals (see, for example, Crystallography in North America, edited by D. McLachlan and J. P. Glusker, NY, American Crystallographic Association, 1983). These studies laid the crystallographic foundation for modem mineralogy. The past three decades have seen a dramatic expansion of this traditional crystallographic role to the study of the relatively subtle variations of crystal structure as a function of temperature, pressure, or composition. Special sessions on "High temperature crystal chemistry" were first held at the Spring Meeting of the American Geophysical Union (April 19, 1972) and the Ninth International Congress of Crystallography (August 30, 1972). The Mineralogical Society of America subsequently published a special 11-paper section of American Mineralogist entitled "High Temperature Crystal Chemistry," which appeared as Volume 58, Numbers 5 and 6, Part I in July-August, 1973. The first complete three-dimensional structure refinements of minerals at high pressure were completed in the same year on calcite (Merrill and Bassett, Acta Crystallographica B31, 343-349, 1975) and on gillespite (Hazen and Burnham, American Mineralogist 59, 1166-1176, 1974). Rapid advances in the field of non-ambient crystallography prompted Hazen and Finger to prepare the monograph Comparative Crystal Chemistry: Temperature, Pressure, Composition and the Variation of Crystal Structure (New York: Wiley, 1982). At the time, only about 50 publications documenting the three-dimensional variation of crystal structures at high temperature or pressure had been published, though general crystal chemical trends were beginning to emerge. That work, though increasingly out of date, remained in print until recently as the only comprehensive overview of experimental techniques, data analysis, and results for this crystallographic sub-discipline. This Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry volume was conceived as an updated version of Comparative Crystal Chemistry. A preliminary chapter outline was drafted at the Fall 1998 American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco by Ross Angel, Robert Downs, Larry Finger, Robert Hazen, Charles Prewitt and Nancy Ross. In a sense, this volume was seen as a "changing of the guard" in the study of crystal structures at high temperature and pressure. Larry Finger retired from the Geophysical Laboratory in July, 1999, at which time Robert Hazen had shifted his research focus to mineral-mediated organic synthesis. Many other scientists, including most of the authors in this volume, are now advancing the field by expanding the available range of temperature and pressure, increasing the precision and accuracy of structural refinements at non-ambient conditions, and studying ever more complex structures. The principal objective of this volume is to serve as a comprehensive introduction to the field of high-temperature and high-pressure crystal chemistry, both as a guide to the dramatically improved techniques and as a summary of the voluminous crystal chemical literature on minerals at high temperature and pressure. The book is largely tutorial in style and presentation, though a basic knowledge of X-ray crystallographic techniques and crystal chemical principles is assumed. The book is divided into three parts. Part I introduces crystal chemical considerations of special relevance to non-ambient crystallographic studies. Chapter 1 treats systematic trends in the variation of structural parameters, including bond distances, cation coordination, and order-disorder with temperature and pressure, while Chapter 2 considers P-V-T equation-of-state formulations relevant to x-ray structure data. Chapter 3 reviews the variation of thermal displacement parameters with temperature and pressure. Chapter 4 describes a method for producing revealing movies of structural variations with pressure, temperature or composition, and features a series of "flip-book" animations. These animations and other structural movies are also available as a supplement to this volume on the Mineralogical Society of America web site at (http://www.minsocam.orgIMSAlRimlRim41.html). Part II reviews the temperature- and pressure-variation of structures in major mineral groups. Chapter 5 presents crystal chemical systematics of high-pressure silicate structures with six-coordinated silicon. Subsequent chapters highlight temperature- and pressure variations of dense oxides (Chapter 6), orthosilicates (Chapter 7), pyroxenes and other chain silicates (Chapter 8), framework and other rigid-mode structures (Chapter 9), and carbonates (Chapter 10). Finally, the variation of hydrous phases and hydrogen bonding are reviewed in Chapter 11, while molecular solids are summarized in Chapter 12. Part III presents experimental techniques for high-temperature and high-pressure studies of single crystals (Chapters 13 and 14, respectively) and polycrystalline samples (Chapter 15). Special considerations relating to diffractometry on samples at non-ambient conditions are treated in Chapter 16. Tables in these chapters list sources for relevant hardware, including commercially available furnaces and diamond-anvil cells. Crystallographic software packages, including diffractometer operating systems, have been placed on the Mineralogical Society web site for this volume. This volume is not exhaustive and opportunities exist for additional publications that review and summarize research on other mineral groups. A significant literature on the high-temperature and high-pressure structural variation of sulfides, for example, is not covered here. Also missing from this compilation are references to a variety of studies of halides, layered oxide superconductors, metal alloys, and a number of unusual silicate structures.

Description / Table of Contents: PREFACE Sulfate is an abundant and ubiquitous component of Earth’s lithosphere and hydrosphere. Sulfate minerals represent an important component of our mineral economy, the pollution problems in our air and water, the technology for alleviating pollution, and the natural processes that affect the land we utilize. Vast quantities of gypsum are consumed in the manufacture of wallboard, and calcium sulfates are also used in sculpture in the forms of alabaster (gypsum) and papier-mâché (bassanite). For centuries, Al-sulfate minerals, or “alums,” have been used in the tanning and dyeing industries, and these sulfate minerals have also been a minor source of aluminum metal. Barite is used extensively in the petroleum industry as a weighting agent during drilling, and celestine (also known as “celestite”) is a primary source of strontium for the ceramics, metallurgical, glass, and television face-plate industries. Jarosite is a major waste product of the hydrometallurgical processing of zinc ores and is used in agriculture to reduce alkalinity in soils. At many mining sites, the extraction and processing of coal or metal-sulfide ores (largely for gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc) produce waste materials that generate acid-sulfate waters rich in heavy metals, commonly leading to contamination of water and sediment. Concentrated waters associated with mine wastes may precipitate a variety of metal-sulfate minerals upon evaporation, oxidation, or neutralization. Some of these sulfate minerals are soluble and store metals and acidity only temporarily, whereas others are insoluble and improve water quality by removing metals from the water column. There is considerable scientific interest in the mineralogy and geochemistry of sulfate minerals in both high-temperature (igneous and hydrothermal) and low-temperature (weathering and evaporite) environments. The physical scale of processes affected by aqueous sulfate and associated minerals spans from submicroscopic reactions at mineral-water interfaces to global issues of oceanic cycling and mass balance, and even to extraterrestrial applications in the exploration of other planets and their satellites. In mineral exploration, minerals of the alunite-jarosite supergroup are recognized as key components of the advanced argillic (acid-sulfate) hydrothermal alteration assemblage, and supergene sulfate minerals can be useful guides to primary sulfide deposits. The role of soluble sulfate minerals formed from acid mine drainage (and its natural equivalent, acid rock drainage) in the storage and release of potentially toxic metals associated with wet-dry climatic cycles (on annual or other time scales) is increasingly appreciated in environmental studies of mineral deposits and of waste materials from mining and mineral processing. This volume compiles and synthesizes current information on sulfate minerals from a variety of perspectives, including crystallography, geochemical properties, geological environments of formation, thermodynamic stability relations, kinetics of formation and dissolution, and environmental aspects. The first two chapters cover crystallography (Chapter 1) and spectroscopy (Chapter 2). Environments with alkali and alkaline earth sulfates are described in the next three chapters, on evaporites (Chapter 3). barite-celestine deposits (Chapter 4), and the kinetics of precipitation and dissolution of gypsum, barite, and celestine (Chapter 5). Acidic environments are the theme for the next four chapters, which cover soluble metal salts from sulfide oxidation (Chapter 6), iron and aluminum hydroxysulfates (Chapter 7), jarosites in hydrometallugy (Chapter 8), and alunite-jarosite crystallography, thermodynamics, and geochronology (Chapter 9). The next two chapters discuss thermodynamic modeling of sulfate systems from the perspectives of predicting sulfate-mineral solubilities in waters covering a wide range in composition and concentration (Chapter 10) and predicting interactions between sulfate solid solutions and aqueous solutions (Chapter 11). The concluding chapter on stable-isotope systematics (Chapter 12) discusses the utility of sulfate minerals in understanding the geological and geochemical processes in both high-and low-temperature environments, and in unraveling the past evolution of natural systems through paleoclimate studies. We thank the authors for their comprehensive and timely efforts, and for their cooperation with our various requests regarding consistency of format and nomenclature. Special thanks are due to the numerous scientists who provided peer reviews, which substantially improved the content of the chapters. This volume would not have been possible without the usual magic touch and extreme patience of Paul H. Ribbe, Series Editor for Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. Finally, we thank our families for their support and understanding during the past several months.