ALBERT

Description: Through the Surveyor 3 and 7, and Apollo 11-17 missions a knowledge of the mechanical properties of Lunar regolith were gained. These properties, including material cohesion, friction, in-situ density, grain-size distribution and shape, and porosity, were determined by indirect means of trenching, penetration, and vane shear testing. Several of these properties were shown to be significantly different from those of terrestrial soils, such as an interlocking cohesion and tensile strength formed in the absence of moisture and particle cementation. To characterize the strength and deformation properties of Lunar regolith experiments have been conducted on a lunar soil simulant at various initial densities, fabric arrangements, and composition. These experiments included conventional triaxial compression and extension, direct tension, and combined tension-shear. Experiments have been conducted at low levels of effective confining stress. External conditions such as membrane induced confining stresses, end platten friction and material self weight have been shown to have a dramatic effect on the strength properties at low levels of confining stress. The solution has been to treat these external conditions and the specimen as a full-fledged boundary value problem rather than the idealized elemental cube of mechanics. Centrifuge modeling allows for the study of Lunar soil-structure interaction problems. In recent years centrifuge modeling has become an important tool for modeling processes that are dominated by gravity and for verifying analysis procedures and studying deformation and failure modes. Centrifuge modeling is well established for terrestrial enginering and applies equally as well to Lunar engineering. A brief review of the experiments is presented in graphic and outline form.

Description: The Multispectral Atmospheric Mapping Sensor (MAMS) is an airborne scanner which collects imagery in eight visible and three IR bands, with ground resolution of 100 m at a nominal aircraft altitude of 20 km. The visible channels provide continuous spectral coverage from 0.42 to 1.05 microns, and the IR channels measure upwelling and reflected radiation at combinations of 3.7, 6.5, 11.1, and 12.5 microns. These include channels nearly identical to the Landsat TM channels 1-4, and similar to those on the VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) and AVHRR instruments. The high spatial resolution permits investigation of surface thermal and atmospheric water vapor structure at scales not available from current stabilities. Significant modifications have been made since engineering flights in 1985 to improve the radiometric performance. The increased data quality and recent multidisciplinary applications of this data are presented.

Description: In summer 1988 an intensive field experiment was conducted in the vicinity of the Pisgah lava flow in the Mojave Desert. Physical properties such as microtopography, composition, soil moisture, and dielectric constant were measured at five sites representing surfaces with rms heights varying from less than one centimeter to tens of centimeters. In addition, polarimetric radar images at P-band, L-band, and C-band were acquired at three different incidence angles with the NASA/JPL airborne imaging radar polarimeter. Using trihedral corner reflectors deployed in the area prior to imaging, the L- and C-band images were calibrated to provide sigma0 values for each resolution element in the scene. The results of inferring geophysical parameters such as rms surface height and correlation length of the measured surfaces by fitting the observed signatures with those predicted by the small-perturbation model are presented: for smoother surfaces, the rms height values inferred are in good agreement with in situ measurements.

Description: Radar modeling of mangal forest stands in the Sundarbans area of southern Bangladesh is discussed. The modeling uses radar system parameters with forest data on tree height, spacing, biomass, species combinations, and water content (including slightly conductive water) in leaves and trunks of the mangal. For Sundri and Gewa tropical mangal forests, six model components are proposed; the models are required to explain the contributions of various combinations of forest species in the attenuation and scattering of mangal-vegetated nonflooded or flooded surfaces. Statistical data of simulated images have been compared with those of SIR-B images both to refine the modeling procedures and to characterize the model output appropriately. The possibility of delineation of flooded or nonflooded boundaries is discussed.

Description: Surface-air temperature differences are commonly used in a bulk resistance equation for estimating sensible heat flux (H), which is inserted in the one-dimensional energy balance equation to solve for the latent heat flux (LE) as a residual. Serious discrepancies between estimated and measured LE have been observed for partial-canopy-cover conditions, which are mainly attributed to inappropriate estimates of H. To improve the estimates of H over sparse canopies, one- and two-layer resistance models that account for some of the factors causing poor agreement are developed. The utility of the two models is tested with remotely sensed and micrometeorological data for a furrowed cotton field with 20 percent cover and a dry soil surface. It is found that the one-layer model performs better than the two-layer model when a theoretical bluff-body correction for heat transfer is used instead of an empirical adjustment; otherwise, the two-layer model is better.

Description: Experimental treatments in a Douglas-fir forest in NE New Mexico were carried out to determine whether differences in forest canopy chemistry could be detected using data from the Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS-2). Experimental treatments consisted of nitrogen fertilizer additions, sawdust additions, and control plots. After AIS-2 data were collected, the digital number of a given pixel was extracted from each channel, yielding 128 values that were used to form a spectrum. Four spectra were extracted from each treatment plot. Multiple stepwise linear regressions between first and second difference transformations of AIS-2 spectra and the canopy characteristics of biomass, nitrogen concentration, and nitrogen content were performed. The results showed a coefficient of multiple determination of 0.71 between first-difference AIS-2 spectra and measured nitrogen concentration in foliage, indicating that it may be possible to predict nitrogen concentration in Douglas fir using AIS-2 spectra.

Description: The information content in polarimetric SAR images is examined, and the polarimetric image variables containing the information that is important to the classification of terrain features in the images are determined. It is concluded that accurate classification can be done when just over half of the image variables are retained. A reduction in image data dimensionality gives storage savings, and can lead to the improvement of classifier performance. In addition, it is shown that a simplified radar system with only phase-calibrated CO-POL or SINGLE TX channels can give classification performance which approaches that of a fully polarimetric radar.

Description: The spatial and phenological distribution of vegetation was examined in a remote sensing geobotanical study of the East Africa Rift region. Six normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) AVHRR (advanced very high resolution radiometer) scenes (February, June, and September of both 1984 and 1987) were used as a measure of vegetation presence. NOAA ETOPO-5 elevation and geographic coordinate data were coregistered with the multitemporal NDVI images. Univariate and multivariate statistics indicate that the NDVI values are significantly associated with elevation, latitude, and longitude. This supports the concept of quantifiable, regional gradients that affect large-scale geobotanical studies. A quadratic regression line was fitted to the NDVI, elevation, latitude, and longitudinal data. In this way a regional trend, as affected by elevation, was determined. The deviation of the actual data from this regional trend was displayed as an image, and shows the local climatic and geological influences.

Description: The statistical characteristics of image speckle are reviewed. Existing segmentation techniques that have been used for speckle filtering, edge detection, and texture extraction are sumamrized. The relative effectiveness of each technique is briefly discussed.

Description: Theory and experiments have shown that passive microwave radiometers can be used to measure soil moisture. However, the presence of a vegetative cover alters the measurement that might be obtained under bare conditions. Deterministically accounting for the effect of vegetation and developing algorithms for extracting soil moisture from observations of a vegetable-soil complex present significant obstacles to the practical use of this approach. The presence of a vegetation canopy reduces the sensitivity of passive microwave instruments to soil moisture variations. The reduction in sensitivity, as compared to a bare-soil relationship, increases as microwave frequency increases, implying that the longest wavelength sensors should provide the most information. Sensitivity also decreases as the amount of vegetative wet biomass increases for a given type of vegetation.

Description: Spectral bidirectional reflectances were measured over three natural soil sites using a specially designed radiometer called the Parabola. Two of the sites were bare soils, and the third had a sparse cover of desert scrub. The reflectances were strongly non-Lambertian for all three surfaces, but with markedly different patterns. The measured data were fitted with a quasi-physical reflectance model in which the surface backscattering and forwardscattering are separately formulated. A soil reflectance characterization was obtained by assessing the contributions of the forward, backward, and Lambertian components. This three-parameter characterization produced a satisfactory fit to the measured reflectances and appears promising as a basis for soils categorization.

Description: A radiative-transfer model for the bidirectional reflectance-distribution function (BRDF) shows that snow is moderately anisotropic in the NIR wavelengths. Although the directional-hemispherical albedo of snow decreases as the grains become larger, the forward scattering also increases, with the result that the illumination and viewing geometry must be considered when interpreting physical properties of the surface layer of the snow pack from remote sensing data. Measurements of the BRDF and the transmittance for a variety of snow conditions were made throughout the winter and spring seasons with an SE-590 spectroradiometer, for wavelengths from 0.38 to 1.11 microns. Coincident with these, the surface grain properties were analyzed by stereological methods. A sphere with the same surface-to-volume ratio as the ice grains is used as the equivalent sphere.

Description: Nonthermal radio emissions from earth, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are reviewed. The dominant source of emission at each planet appears to be AKR-like auroral emission in the X-mode. O-mode emissions are substantially responsible. There is a remarkably constant scaling factor relating the total solar wind input power into each planetary system and the AKR-like auroral emissions.

Description: This article presents the results of a fit of a model of the Martian satellite orbits to earthbased and spacecraft-based observations. An assessment of the orbit accuracies is given and the orbits are compared with those obtained by previous investigators.

Description: The petrology and chronology of early lunar crust is examined using the least equivocal of the available petrographic and age data on lunar rock samples, and the possible processes which produced the lunar crust are discussed. The results suggest that the lunar anorthositic crust was formed by about 120 Ma after the primary accretion of the moon at 4.56 Ga. At least some members of the diverse Mg-suites of rocks, such as norites, troctolites, and dunites, crystallized within a very few 100s of Ma after 4.56 Ga. A trace-element-rich material (KREEP) was formed by about 4.3 Ga ago, and this residue was subsequently reworked in melting and impact processes such that most samples which contain it have ages around 3.9-4.0 Ga. The findings also suggest that the onset of ferrous mare basalt volcanism began about 4.33 Ga, much earlier than was once assumed, and was still in process before the end of the most intense period of bombardment (3.9-4.0 Ga ago).

Description: Remotely sensed data are being used to estimate foliar chemical content. This paper reviews how stepwise multiple regression and deconvolution have been used to extract chemical information from foliar spectra, and concludes that both methods are useful, but neither is ideal. It is recommended that the focus of research be modeling in the long term and experimentation in the short term. Long-term research should increase our understanding of the interaction between radiation and foliar chemistry so that the focus of research can move from leaf model to canopy model to field experiment. Short-term research should aim to design experiments in which remotely sensed data are used to generate unambiguous and accurate estimates of foliar chemical content.

Description: Surface energy balance components were evaluated by combining satellite-based spectral data with on-site measurements of solar irradiance, air temperature, wind speed, and vapor pressure. Maps of latent heat flux density and net radiant flux density were produced using Landsat TM data for three dates. The TM-based estimates differed from Bowen-ratio and aircraft-based estimates by less than 12 percent over mature fields of cotton, wheat, and alfalfa.

Description: Multipolarization P-, L-, and C-band airborne SAR data sets were acquired over a coastal zone and a forested wetland of southern Louisiana. The data sets were used with field-collected surface-parameter data in order to determine the value of SAR systems in assessing and mapping coastal-zone surface features. The coastal-zone surface features in this study are sediments, sediment distribution, and the formation of new isles and banks. Results of the data analysis indicate that the P-band radar with 68-cm wavelength is capable of detecting the submerged sediment if the area is very shallow (i.e., a water depth of less than one meter). The penetration capability of P-band radar is also demonstrated in the forested wetland area. The composition and condition of the ground surface can be detected, as well as the standing water beneath dense tree leaves.

Description: The findings made by the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter are reviewed. Data on the bowshock, magnetic field, magnetosphere, rings, plasma sheet, aurora, moons, and dust of Neptune are discussed. Findings made concerning Triton are summarized.

Description: Multiband radiometric data from an airborne imaging thermal scanner are being studied for use in finding buried gravel deposits. The techniques are based on measuring relative differences in the thermal properties between gravel-laden targets and the surrounding gravelless background. These properties are determined from modeling the spectral radiant emittance recorded over both types of surfaces in conjunction with ground measurements of the most significant heat flows above and below the surface. Thermodynamic properties of sampled materials from control sites are determined, and diurnal and annual subsurface heat waves are recorded. Thermal models that account for heat exchange at the surface, as well as varying levels of soil moisture, humidity, and vegetation, are needed for adaptation and modification to simulate the physical and radiative environments of this region.

Description: The advanced solid-state array spectroradiometer (ASAS) is an airborne, off-nadir pointing imaging spectroradiometer used to acquire bidirectional radiance data for terrestrial targets. As its platform aircraft flies over a target the sensor can image the target through a sequence of at least seven fore-to-aft view directions ranging up to 45 deg on either side of nadir. ASAS acquires data for 29 spectral bands in the visible and near-infrared portions of the spectrum with a resolution of 15 nm. ASAS data were recently acquired for a prairie ecosystem and a northern forest ecosystem. The data demonstrate the combined effects of reflectance anisotropy and increased atmospheric path length on off-nadir observations. One result of these effects is a variation in vegetation indices as a function of view direction. Normalized-difference-vegetation-indices for prairie grass, coniferous, and deciduous canopies varied up to 14 percent, 23 percent, and 6 percent, respectively, relative to nadir as a function of view zenith angle along the solar principal plane.

Description: During the First International Land Surface Climatology Project (ISLSCP) Field Experiment (FIFE), 80 gigabytes of image data were generated from a variety of satellite and airborne sensors in a multidisciplinary attempt to study energy and mass exchange between the land surface and the atmosphere. To make these data readily available to researchers with a range of image data handling experience and capabilities, unique image-processing software was designed to perform a variety of nonstandard image-processing manipulations and to derive a set of standard-format image products. The nonconventional features of the software include: (1) adding new layers of geographic coordinates, and solar and viewing conditions to existing data; (2) providing image polygon extraction and calibration of data to at-sensor radiances; and, (3) generating standard-format derived image products that can be easily incorporated into radiometric or climatology models. The derived image products consist of easily handled ASCII descriptor files, byte image data files, and additional per-pixel integer data files (e.g., geographic coordinates, and sun and viewing conditions). Details of the solutions to the image-processing problems, the conventions adopted for handling a variety of satellite and aircraft image data, and the applicability of the output products to quantitative modeling are presented. They should be of general interest to future experiment and data-handling design considerations.

Description: In order to evaluate the importance of surface thermal flux and emissivity variations on surface and boundary layer processes, a technique that uses thermal data from an airborne multispectral scanner to determine the surface skin temperature and thermal emissivity over a regional area has been developed. These values are used to estimate the total flux density emanating from the surface and at the top of the atmosphere. Data from the multispectral atmospheric mapping sensor (MAMS) collected during the First ISLSCP Field Experiment (FIFE) are used to develop the technique, and to show the time and space variability of the flux values. The ground truth data available during FIFE provide a unique resource to evaluate this technique.

Description: A common problem in acquiring ground-truth data for use in microwave interaction modeling is the capture of surface roughness data that are both sampled at distances comparable to a fraction of the wavelength and extensive enough to represent the surface statistics in at least one resolution cell of the microwave remote sensor used. A technique has been developed for acquiring the necessary photogrammetric data using twin 70-mm film cameras mounted on a helicopter boom. The apparatus is described, and the accuracy with which ground surface roughness can be characterized using this device is estimated. Both standard and cross-correlation methods were used for data reduction. Stereogrammetry is compared with a completely automated image-matching technique. Dense disparity images were generated from the helicopter stereo pairs. Using interior orientation parameters supplied by the camera manufacturers, and assuming that exterior orientation parameters remain constant between control target and test field photography, an extremely dense DEM (digital elevation model) for a test field has been derived. Results are compared, and accuracy estimates are presented.

Description: Algorithms to correct for atmospheric-scattering effects in high-spatial resolution land-surface images require the ability to perform rapid and accurate computations of the top-of-atmosphere diffuse radiance field for arbitrarily general surface reflectance distributions (which may be both heterogeneous and non-Lambertian) and atmospheric models. Using three-dimensional radiative transfer (3DRT) theory algorithms are being developed. The methodology used to perform the 3DRT calculations is described. It is shown how these calculations are used to perform atmospheric corrections, and the sensitivity of the retrieved surface reflectances to atmospheric structural parameters is illustrated.

Description: A model for the brightness temperature of a canopy which is based on the physical characteristics of the vegetation is being developed. This model uses the Peake model to relate the scattering coefficient of the vegetation to its radiometric brightness temperature and a discrete scattering model to computer the scattering coefficient. A distorted Born approximation is used to provide a tractable solution to the scattering problem. To verify the theory a comparison has been made with experiments. Radiometric measurements of brightness temperature were made at L- and C-bands over a crop of mature soybeans, along with ground truth measurements. All model input parameters were measured; there were no free parameters to adjust to obtain agreement with the measurements. Results showed that agreement between theory and measurements was reasonable for horizontal polarization at both L- and C-bands with dry underlying soil.

Description: During the spring of 1988, the NASA/JPL multifrequency, multipolarization SAR (synthetic aperture radar) flew in series of calibration experiments over the Goldstone dry lake bed. An array of calibration devices was deployed, including dihedral and trihedral corner reflectors, polarimetric active radar calibrators, passive receivers, and CW (continuous wave) tone generators. The aim of the campaign was to calibrate both amplitude and phase of the resulting SAR images, over long and short time scales. The results of the analysis of the calibration data collected in the spring of 1988 are presented. Trihedral corner reflector signatures and certain image background measures are used to externally calibrate relative amplitude and phase between polarizations at a given frequency, and to calibrate across frequencies. Assessments are made of the calibration accuracy as a function of image frame position for each frequency, and the stability of the radar calibration over long and short time-scales.

Description: An unsupervised clustering algorithm is used to segment multifrequency polarimetric radar data from the NASA/JPL airborne SAR (synthetic aperture radar). Twenty-two parameters are evaluated for their discriminatory capability for each pixel of an image. A clustering analysis is then performed using different subsets of these parameters. This analysis relies on data taken as part of an intensive field experiment during the summer of 1988 in the vicinity of the Pisgah lava flow in the Mojave Desert in southern California. As part of the experiment, extensive ground truth was acquired, including dielectric constant and topography measurements. Segmentation results show good agreement with these measurements.

Description: The composition of lunar regolith and its attendant properties are discussed. Tables are provided listing lunar minerals, the abundance of plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, olivine, and ilmenite in lunar materials, typical compositions of common lunar minerals, and cumulative grain-size distribution for a large number of lunar soils. Also provided are charts on the chemistry of breccias, the chemistry of lunar glass, and the comparative chemistry of surface soils for the Apollo sites. Lunar agglutinates, constructional particles made of lithic, mineral, and glass fragments welded together by a glassy matrix containing extremely fine-grained metallic iron and formed by micrometeoric impacts at the lunar surface, are discussed. Crystalline, igneous rock fragments, breccias, and lunar glass are examined. Volatiles implanted in lunar materials and regolith maturity are also addressed.

Description: Theoretical models of planetary-ring dynamics are discussed in a detailed analytical review and illustrated with graphs and diagrams. The streamline concept is introduced, and the phenomena associated with the transport of angular momentum are described. Particular attention is then given to (1) broad rings like those of Saturn (shepherding, density-wave excitation, gaps, bending-wave excitation, multiringlet structures, inner-edge shepherding, and the possibility of polar rings around Neptune), (2) narrow rings like those of Uranus (shepherding, ring shapes, and a self-gravity model of rigid precession), and (3) ring arcs like those seen in stellar-occultation observations of Neptune.

Description: Images of Neptune obtained by the narrow-angle camera of the Voyager 2 spacecraft reveal large-scale cloud features that persist for several months or longer. The features' periods of rotation about the planetary axis range from 15.8 to 18.4 hours. The atmosphere equatorward of -53 deg rotates with periods longer than the 16.05-hour period deduced from Voyager's planetary radio astronomy experiment (presumably the planet's internal rotation period). The wind speeds computed with respect to this radio period range from 20 meters per second eastward to 325 meters per second westward. Thus, the cloud-top wind speeds are roughly the same for all the planets ranging from Venus to Neptune, even though the solar energy inputs to the atmospheres vary by a factor of 1000.

Description: The theory of turbulent plumes maintained above steady line sources of buoyancy is worked out in detail within the limitations of Taylor's entrainment assumption. It is applied to the structure of a pure plume injected into a stably stratified atmosphere. Volcanic basalt eruptions that develop from long, narrow vents create line source plumes, which rise well above the magmatic fire fountains playing near the ground level. The eruption of Laki in 1783 may provide an example of this style of eruption. Flood basalts are more ancient examples. Evidence of enormous fissure eruptions that occurred in the past on Mars and Venus also exists. Owing to the different properties of the atmospheres on these two planets from those on the earth, heights of line source plumes are expected to vary in the ratios 1:6:0.6 (earth:Mars:Venus). It is very unlikely that the observed increase of sulfur dioxide above the Venusian cloud deck in 1978 could have been due to a line source volcanic eruption, even if it had been a flood basalt eruption.

Description: An analytical and numerical study of the stability of polar rings around Neptune is presented. The stability proofs are based on various methods used to study gas disks in galaxies. It is shown that stable polar rings can exist despite energy dissipation by collisions between particles. Also, four equilibrium orientations which pass nearly over the pole of Neptune are found, two of which are stable in the presence of dissipation.

Description: Issues related to the establishment of lunar observatories are briefly addressed. The advantages of placing an observatory in a crater at one of the poles, where permanent darkness exists, are pointed out, and the methods required to emplace and operate such an observatory are considered. Planning for the installation of the first set of observatory instruments is discussed.

Description: An experiment to study the hypothesis that winter cold fronts are more important that violent summer storms in moving sediment in midlatitude coastal river deltas. The experiment is based on Calibrated Airborne Multispectral Scanner (CAMS) data. A new approach for the georeferencing of aircraft imagery has been developed for use in this experiment. The software for the approach uses the aircraft inertial navigation data and is able to automatically map a three-channel 1600 line file through a 90 deg rotation in less than 14 minutes. Results from tests of the technique show rms errors of less than 2/3 of a pixel.

Description: The phenomena of the Saturn system discovered by the Voyager missions are addressed. The characteristics of the rings, including grooves, spikes, and warps, are described, and the discovery of bombarded rings and young rings is discussed. The unique and unexplained properties of Enceladus are summarized, and the possibility that some moons of Saturn have been reassembled is addressed. The interaction of moons with the rings is examined, and the possibility that Titan's atmosphere may contain complex molecules that are the precursors of life is considered.

Description: Spectral data from earth observations have indicated the presence of N2 and CH4 on Triton. This paper outlines the use of the 1-D radiative-convective model developed for Titan to calculate the current pressure of N2 and CH4 on Triton. The production of haze material is obtained by scaling down from the Titan value. Results and predictions for the Voyager Triton encounter are as follows: A N2-CH4 atmosphere on Triton is thermodynamically self consistent and would have a surface pressure of approximately 50 millibar; due to the chemically produced haze, Triton has a hot atmosphere with a temperature of approximately 130 K; Triton's troposphere is a region of saturation of the major constituent of the atmosphere, N2.

Description: The process by which ambient gases can be implanted into silicates by shocks was investigated by analyzing the noble-gas content of several experimentally and naturally shocked silicate samples. The retentivity of shock-implanted gas during stepwise heating in the laboratory was defined in terms of two parameters, namely, the activation energy for diffusion and the extraction temperature at which 50 percent of the gas is released, both of which correlate with the shock pressure. The experiments indicate that, with increasing shock pressure, gas implantation occurs through an increasing production of microcracks/defects in the silicate lattice. The degree of annealing of these defects control the degree of diffusive loss of implanted gas.

Description: The long-term modulation of Saturn's nonthermal radio emission in the kilometric wavelength range has been studied based upon data obtained by Voyagers 1 and 2. A comparison of the ballistic and hydrodynamic propagation of solar wind features from the spacecraft to Saturn allows the uncertainty inherent in the projection to be determined. The results confirm the previous suggestion that momentum, ram pressure, and kinetic energy flux are the primary solar wind parameters that drive the nonthermal radio emission. It is suggested that, under certain conditions and for limited periods of time, the magnetic properties and time derivatives of the solar wind have increased importance.

Description: It has been observed from the plasma experiments on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter that the altitude of the upper boundary of the ionosphere decreases in response to increasing solar wind dynamic pressure. However, at pressures above about 2.5 x 10 to the -8th dynes/sq cm, the further decrease in the ionopause height is rather small. Following the model of Cloutier et al. (1969), it is suggested that during high solar wind conditions, when the ionopause is formed at lower altitudes, the solar wind induces vertical and horizontal flows which sweep away the ionospheric plasma that is produced locally by photoionization. As a result, a disturbed photodynamical ionosphere is formed which has the scale height of the ionizable neutral constituent. It is shown that such a photodynamical ionosphere is observed at the subsolar ionopause under these conditions. As a consequence of this interaction, the ionopause altitude is observed to follow the small-scale height of the ionizable species, atomic oxygen, showing only small changes with solar wind pressure.

Description: Asteroids appear in light of telescopic and meteority studies to be the most accessible repositories of early solar system history available. In the cooler regions of the outer asteroid belt, apparently unaffected by severe heating, the C, P, and D populations appear to harbor significant inventories of volatiles; the larger primordial belt population may have had an even greater percentage of volatile-rich, low-albedo asteroids, constituting a potent asteroid for veneering early terrestrial planet atmospheres. The volatile-rich asteroids contain carbon, structurally bound and adsorbed water, as well as remnants of interstellar material predating the solar system.

Description: The development and implementation of the Voyager missions are reviewed. The interplanetary missions preceding Voyager are discussed, focusing on the technological development leading up to the Voyager spacecraft. The main results from Voyager observations of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are outlined. Also, consideration is given to the prospects for observations of Neptune.

Description: Isotopic analysis of nesquehonite recovered from the surface of the LEW 85320 H5 ordinary chondrite shows that the delta C-13 and delta O-18 values of the two generations of bicarbonate (Antarctic and Texas) are different: delta C-13 = + 7.9 per mil and + 4.2 per mil; delta O-18 = + 17.9 per mil and + 12.1 per mil, respectively. Carbon isotopic compositions are consistent with equilibrium formation from atmospheric carbon dioxide at - 2 + or - 4 C (Antarctic) and + 16 + or - 4 C (Texas). Oxygen isotopic data imply that the water required for nesquehonite precipitation was derived from atmospheric water vapor or glacial meltwater which had locally exchanged with silicates, either in the meteorite or in underlying bedrock. Although carbonates with similar delta C-13 values have been identified in the SNC meteorites EETA 79001 and Nakhla, petrographic and temperature constraints argue against their simply being terrestrial weathering products.

Description: Space photography has been successfully used to extend the space remote sensing data base for environmental monitoring by a decade. In this study of Lake Chad, space photographs were digitized and registered to a topographic base map before water classifications were performed. From 1966 to 1985 over a 21,000-square-kilometer decrease in lake surface area was observed.

Description: Space Shuttle astronauts have used handheld cameras to take about 30,000 photographs of the earth as seen from orbit. These pictures provide valuable, true-color depictions of many geologically significant areas. While the photographs have areal coverages and resolutions similar to the more familiar Landsat MSS and TM images, they differ from the latter in having a wide variety of solar illumination angles and look angles. Astronaut photographs can be used as very small scale aerial photographs for geologic mapping and planning logistical support for field work. Astronaut photography offers unique opportunities, because of the intelligence and training of the on-orbit observer, for documenting dynamic geologic activity such as volcanic eruptions, dust storms, etc. Astronauts have photographed more than 3 dozen volcanic eruption plumes, some of which were not reported otherwise. The stereographic capability of astronaut photography also permits three-dimensional interpretation of geologic landforms which is commonly useful in analysis of structural geology. Astronauts have also photographed about 20 known impact craters as part of project to discover presently unknown examples in Africa, South America, and Australia.

Description: A primary concern in the formation of a multinational Mars-exploration program is that of technology transfer, which would be most acute in the U.S./U.S.S.R. case but would exist in lesser degree among other nations. Another concern is that of management-complexity, which could inflate total costs and substantially counteract the anticipated benefits of spreading program costs among a number of nations. It is presently suggested that these problems can be substantially reduced by having each nation become responsible for one (or more) complete flight system. Each nation's role in mission operations must be clear, and the cleanliness of interfaces among flight systems must carry over into mission operations.

Description: The environmental, geologic, meteorologic, and oceanographic phenomena documented by earth photography during the Space Shuttle STS-29 mission are reviewed. A map of the nadir point positions of earth-viewing photographs from the mission is given and color photographs of various regions are presented. The mission photographs include atmospheric dust and smoke over parts of Africa and Asia, Sahelian water sites, center pivot irrigation fields in the Middle East, urban smog over Mexico City, isolated burning in the Bolivian Amazon, and various ocean features and cloud formations.

Description: Observations of the stratospheric IR emission structure on Saturn are presented. The high-spatial-resolution global images show a variety of new features, including a narrow equatorial belt of enhanced emission at 7.8 micron, a prominent symmetrical north polar hotspot at all three wavelengths, and a midlatitude structure which is asymmetrically brightened at the east limb. The results confirm the polar brightening and reversal in position predicted by recent models for seasonal thermal variations of Saturn's stratosphere.

Description: An overview of the Voyager 2 encounter with Neptune is presented, including a brief discussion of the trajectory, the planned observations, and highlights of the results described in the 11 companion papers. Neptune's blue atmosphere has storm systems reminiscent of those in Jupiter's atmosphere. An optically thin methane ice cloud exists near the 1.5-bar pressure level, and an optically thick cloud exists below 3 bars. Neptune's magnetic field is highly tilted and offset from the planet's center; it rotates with a period of 16.11 hours. Two narrow and two broad rings circle the planet; the outermost of these rings has three optically thicker arc segments. Six new moons were discovered in circular prograde orbits, all well inside Triton's retrograde orbit. Triton has a highly reflective and geologically young surface, a thin nitrogen atmosphere, and at least two active geyser-like plumes.

Description: Remote sensing instruments for monitoring global changes are examined. The use of the earth observing system, a set of instrument platforms in polar, sun-synchoronous orbit that provide coverage of the entire globe, is discussed. The radar and imaging spectrometers utilized to obtain surface measurements are described. Atmospheric data is collected by the atmospheric IR sounder, the tropospheric emission spectrometer, and the stratospheric wind IR limb sounder. Consideration is given to the operation of the microwave limb sounder, the active cavity radiometer, and the TDRSS.

Description: Multispectral imaging systems provide much of the basic data used by the land and ocean civilian remote-sensing community. There are numerous multispectral imaging systems which have been and are being developed. A common way to compare the radiometric performance of these systems is to examine their noise-equivalent change in reflectance, NE Delta-rho. The NE Delta-rho of a system is the reflectance difference that is equal to the noise in the recorded signal. A comparison is made of the noise equivalent change in reflectance of seven different multispectral imaging systems (AVHRR, AVIRIS, ETM, HIRIS, MODIS-N, SPOT-1, HRV, and TM) for a set of three atmospheric conditions (continental aerosol with 23-km visibility, continental aerosol with 5-km visibility, and a Rayleigh atmosphere), five values of ground reflectance (0.01, 0.10, 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00), a nadir viewing angle, and a solar zenith angle of 45 deg.

Description: Analysis of SAR data of the Greenland ice sheet in summer and winter suggest the use of SAR to monitor the temporal hydrology of ice sheets. Comparisons of each SAR data set with summer Landsat TM imagery show an areal-positive correlation with summer SAR data and a negative correlation with winter SAR data. It is proposed that the summer SAR data are most sensitive to the variable concentrations of free water in the surface snow and that the winter SAR data indicate variations in snow grain size.

Description: The NASA Ames Ecosystem Science and Technology Branch and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases are conducting research to detect Rift Valley fever (RVF) vector habitats in eastern Africa using active and passive remote-sensing. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) calculated from Landsat TM and SPOT data is used to characterize the vegetation common to the Aedes mosquito. Relationships have been found between the highest NDVI and the 'dambo' habitat areas near Riuru, Kenya on both wet and dry data. High NDVI values, when combined with the vegetation classifications, are clearly related to the areas of vector habitats. SAR data have been proposed for use during the rainy season when optical systems are of minimal use and the short frequency and duration of the optimum RVF mosquito habitat conditions necessitate rapid evaluation of the vegetation/moisture conditions; only then can disease potential be stemmed and eradication efforts initiated.

Description: The possibility of using detailed spatial soil moisture maps as input to a runoff model was investigated. The water balance of a small drainage basin was simulated using a simple storage model. Aircraft microwave measurements of soil moisture were used to construct two-dimensional maps of the spatial distribution of the soil moisture. Data from overflights on different dates provided the temporal changes resulting from soil drainage and evapotranspiration. The study site and data collection are described, and the soil measurement data are given. The model selection is discussed, and the simulation results are summarized. It is concluded that a time series of soil moisture is a valuable new type of data for verifying model performance and for updating and correcting simulated streamflow.

Description: Multiwavelength, multipolarization radar image data can be processed to allow the clear depiction of most information in color composite displays. The first principal component, depicted as variations in image intensity, captures the dominant variation in the data and reduces noise without degradation of spatial detail. Other principal components, depicted primarily as variations in image chromaticity, are derived from spatially filtered data so that image colors can be attributed to significant wavelength and polarization contrasts, and not to speckle. Processing paths can be designed to emphasize wavelength contrasts, polarization contrasts, or overall discrimination of surface features.

Description: An analysis is made of time-dependent covariance of the greenness vegetation index with mapped terrain variables over the Konza Prarie (Kansas) during the 1987 growing season. The analysis was part of an ongoing project to establish appopriate ground-sampling and data-integration strategies for satellite-based monitoring of land surface climate conditions. Greenness images for six dates between May and October were derived from atmospherically corrected thematic mapper (TM) data and coregistered with maps of woody vegetation, fire, and soils. Local variance in greenness peaked in mid-June, falling rapidly until mid-August, and declining gradually thereafter. Greenness images exhibited positive autocorrelation up to distances of 180-210 m, but the dominant scale of pattern occurred at a block size of 60 m by 60 m throughout the growing season. 40-44 percent of total scene variance in July and August was accounted for by the effects of woody vegetation (8.9 percent of the area), prairie burning, and soil type. The effect of these terrain variables was fairly consistent between June and late August and was manifested as additional high-frequency spatial variation in imagery from that period.

Description: The Alaska SAR (synthetic-aperture radar) Facility (ASF) will be capable of receiving, processing, archiving, and producing a variety of SAR image products from three satellite-borne SARs: E-ERS-1 (ESA), J-ERS-1 (NASDA) and Radarsat (Canada). Crucial to the success of the ASF is the Alaska SAR processor (ASP), which will be capable of processing over 200 100-km x 100-km (Seasat-like) frames per day from the raw SAR data, at a ground resolution of about 30 m x 30 m. The processed imagery is of high geometric and radiometric accuracy, and is geolocated to within 500 m. Special-purpose hardware has been designed to execute a SAR processing algorithm to achieve this performance. This hardware is currently undergoing acceptance testing for delivery to the University of Alaska. Particular attention has been devoted to making the operations semi-automated and to providing a friendly operator interface via a computer workstation. The operations and control of the Alaska SAR processor are described.

Description: The problem of estimating areal averages from point measurement has been extensively studied by mining engineers and hydrologists. Its application to satellite measurements has recently been introduced. The semivariaogram has been used in many geostatistical applications to estimate spatial structures of observed properties, such as mineral distributions. An examination is made of snow variations in Colorado from daily snow data collected in 11 SNOTEL stations. The associated semivariogram is estimated. The objective is to estimate the spatial structure of the snow field so that the point data can be used for comparison with, and validation for, satellite measurements.

Description: Spaceborne observations have become increasingly accepted for studies of the hydrological cycle and as a source of information that can be used for management and assessment of water resources over large areas. As data records are extended over long periods of time, using sensors that improve their reliability and quality, the utility of spaceborne observations will become increasingly evident. The Earth Observing System (EOS) concept being studied by NASA holds potential for providing improved means and procedures for hydrological studies, particularly on a global basis, using spaceborne sensors and a comprehensive information system. Continuing emphasis needs to be placed on research exploring the interpretation of remotely sensed observations through the assimilation and use of these data in models of hydrological processes.

Description: A study undertaken to determine SIR-C (Shuttle Imaging Radar-C) science requirements for polarimetric calibration is described. A model describing the effect of miscalibration is presented, followed by a description of specific experiments and the resulting requirements levied on the system. The effects of miscalibration on some commonly used measures which can be extracted from SAR (synthetic aperture radar) data are also discussed. It is concluded that polarimetric calibration requirements are strongly application-dependent, and that a compromise must be made to maximize the domain of application of the data without prohibitive cost. Data summarizing SIR-C polarimetric calibration goals are also presented.

Description: Regression and ratio estimators are used to integrate AVHRR-Global Area Coverage (GAC) and Landsat MSS digital data to estimate forest area in the continental United States. Forestlands are enumerated for the 48 contiguous states using five different AVHRR-GAC data sets. Results indicated that the GAC and MSS forest estimates were not highly correlated. Although the ratio of means and linear regression corrections were, on the average, closer to national U.S. Forest Service forest area estimates, these correction procedures did not consistently improve GAC estimates of forest area. GAC forest area estimates tended to be high in densely forested regions such as the northeast and low in sparsely forested areas.

Description: Consideration is given to the possibility of using Landsat TM data to detect differences and changes in the leaf area index (LAI) of closed canopy pine plantations in central Massachusetts. Field measurements of the LAI were obtained using locally-derived allometric relationships between leaf area and trunk diameter. The relationship between the Landsat TM Band 3/Band 4 ratio and regional differences in LAI is examined. A thinning treatment was conducted to demonstrate the ability of TM to detect a known reduction in LAI. It is concluded that, for the detection of moderate changes and differences in the LAI of closed canopy pine plantations at local scales, the TM sensor is better than field measurements involving allometric equations.

Description: Results are presented from field experiments relating spectral reflectance to intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and net CO2 exchange in a natural canopy composed of the marsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora). Reflectance measurements made by a hand-held radiometer with Landsat TM spectral wavebands are used to compute remote sensing indices such as the normalized difference vegetation index. Consideration is given to the impact of standing dead canopy material on the relationship between intercepted PAR and spectral vegetation indices and the impact of changes in photosynthetic efficiency on the relationship between vegetation indices and CO2 exchange rates. The results suggest that quantitative remote assessment of photosynthesis and net gas exchange in natural vegetation is feasible, especially if the analysis incorporates information on biological responses to environmental variables.

Description: A method to detect plant water stress by remote sensing is proposed using indices of near-IR and mid-IR wavelengths. The ability of the Leaf Water Content Index (LWCI) to determine leaf relative water content (RWC) is tested on species with different leaf morphologies. The way in which the Misture Stress Index (MSI) varies with RWC is studied. On test with several species, it is found that LWCI is equal to RWC, although the reflectances at 1.6 microns for two different RWC must be known to accurately predict unknown RWC. A linear correlation is found between MSI and RWC with each species having a different regression equation. Also, MSI is correlated with log sub 10 Equivalent Water Thickness (EWT) with data for all species falling on the same regression line. It is found that the minimum significant change of RWC that could be detected by appying the linear regression equation of MSI to EWT is 52 percent. Because the natural RWC variation from water stress is about 20 percent for most species, it is concluded that the near-IR and mid-IR reflectances cannot be used to remotely sense water stress.

Description: Recent models of the internal structure of Pluto and Charon, made possible by analysis of the Pluto/Charon mutual events are reviewed. At a mean density of just over 2 g/cu cm and a predicted rock mass fraction of roughly 0.7, the Pluto/Charon system is significantly rockier than the icy satellites of the giant planets, a contrast which may reflect its formation in a CO-rich outer solar nebula rather than a circumplanetary nebula. Pluto and Charon may in fact be so rocky that they lost volatiles early in their history (possibly during a Charon-forming impact event), although this is still an open issue.

Description: Preliminary results from electric field measurements in the environment of Mars using the plasma-wave system on board Phobos 2 are reported. Electron-plasma oscillations observed upstream of the bow shock correspond to a solar-wind density of 2/cu cm. The shock-foot boundary was crossed up to three times on each orbit. The shock ramp was detected at altitudes between 0.45 and 0.75 Mars radii R(M) above the planetary surface. The density increased by about a factor of two at the ramp. The shock position, although variable, seems to be consistent with previous measurements. The downstream magnetosheath contained broadband electric-field noise below the plasma frequency. The boundary of th obstacle, or plasmapause, was crossed at altitudes of the order of 0.28 R(M); the cold plasma density was highly variable within the planetopause and reached the unexpected value of 700/cu cm on the third orbit, at 0.25 R(M) altitude. Bursts of waves with frequencies below the electron cyclotron frequency occur within the planetopause.

Description: The magnetic fields of Mars have been measured from Phobos 2 with high temporal resolution in the tail and down to an 850-km altitude. During four successive highly elliptical orbits, the position of the bow shock as well as that of a transition layer, the 'planetopause', were identified. Subsequent circular orbits at 6000-km altitude provided the first high-resolution data in the planetary tail and indicate that the interplanetary magnetic field mainly controls the magnetic tail. Magnetic turbulence was also detected when the spacecraft crossed the orbit of Phobos, indicating the possible existence of a torus near the orbit of this moon.

Description: The formation of the ice-rock cores of the giant planets by density wave-assisted accretion is outlined. The process could be rapid (100,000-1,000,000 yr) and completed within the probable lifetime of the solar nebula. The mechanism works for both Jupiter and Saturn and does not require a large excess of mass over that believed present in their cores.

Description: This paper identifies and documents several well-preserved examples of Martian strike-slip faults and examines their relationships to wrinkle-ridges. The strike-slip faulting predates or overlaps periods of wrinkle-ridge growth southeast of Valles Marineris, and some wrinkle ridges may have nucleated and grown as a result of strike-slip displacements along the echelon fault arrays. Lateral displacements of several km inferred along these arrays may be related to tectonism in Tharsis.

Description: Results are presented on the long-term behavior of the main peak electron density in the Venus ionosphere during the solar cycle 21, based on 104 radio occultation measurements of the vertical electron density profile in the dayside ionosphere of Venus carried out aboard the Pioneer Venus Orbiter spacecraft (along with published data on 11 Venera 9-10 measurements). The equation representing the electron temperature at h = 140 km is presented. The results imply that the electron temperature at h = 140 km decreased by about 25 percent from solar maximum to solar minimum, compared to a decrease of 50-75 percent above 200 km found by Kliore and Mullen (1989).

Description: Theoretical models of early Martian atmospheric evolution describe the maintenance of a dense CO2 atmosphere and a warm, wet climate until the end of the heavy-bombardment phase of impacting. However, the presence of very young, earthlike fluvial valleys on the northern flank of Alba Patera conflicts with this scenario. Whereas the widespread ancient Martian valleys generally have morphologies indicative of sapping erosion by the slow outflow of subsurface water, the local Alba valleys were probably formed by surface-runoff processes. Because subsurface water flow might be maintained by hydrothermal energy inputs and because surface-runoff valleys developed late in Martian history, it is not necessary to invoke drastically different planet-wide climatic conditions to explain valley development on Mars. The Alba fluvial valleys can be explained by hydrothermal activity or outflow-channel discharges that locally modified the atmosphere, including precipitation and local overland flow on low-permeability volcanic ash.

Description: On the Mars rover sample-return mission, the rover vehicle will collect and select samples from different locations on the Martian surface to be brought back to earth for laboratory studies. It is anticipated that an in situ energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer will be on board the rover. On such a mission, sample selection is of higher priority than in situ quantitative chemical anlaysis. With this in mind, a pattern recognition technique is proposed as a simple, direct, and speedy alternative to detailed chemical analysis of the XRF spectra. The validity and efficacy of the pattern recognition technique are demonstrated by the analyses of laboratory XRF spectra obtained from a series of geological samples, in the form both of standardized pressed pellets and as unprepared rocks. It is found that pattern recognition techniques applied to the raw XRF spectra can provide for the same discrimination among samples as a knowledge of their actual chemical composition.

Description: The present photoelectric lightcurve observations of 44 Nysa at one aspect, and 64 Angelina at both polar aspects, indicate the presence of an opposition spike or brightening of approximately 0.25 mag within several deg of zero-phase angle. Since the three curves are identical within the bounds of observational scatter, the opposition spike cannot be judged anomalous within the asteroid taxonomic class E. The general similarity of the observed phase curves to those of the Uranian satellites and the rings of Saturn supports the status of the spike as an ordinary property of moderate-to-high albedo atmosphereless surfaces.

Description: In order to ascertain the features of organic compound-production in planetary atmospheres under the effects of plasmas and shocks, various mixtures of N2, CH4, and H2 modeling the atmosphere of Titan were subjected to discrete sparks, laser-induced plasmas, and UV radiation. The experimental results obtained suggest that UV photolysis from the plasma is an important organic compound synthesis process, as confirmed by the photolysis of gas samples that were exposed to the light but not to the shock waves emitted by the sparks. The thermodynamic equilibrium theory is therefore incomplete in the absence of photolysis.

Description: An account is given of the results of photometric light curve observations in the V band for asteroids, yielding estimates of the mean and maximum reduced magnitudes for each object. On the basis of fits of the H-G magnitude relation for 33 objects, the mean values of the slope parameter are examined for different taxonomic classes; these values are then applied to the analysis of less complete data sets. While in the case of the moderate albedo S and M class asteroids the H-G relation appears to fit the available data, the relation for dark asteroids appears to predict more of an opposition than is characteristically present.

Description: Voyager imaging, radio occultation, and stellar occultation data for the regular structure of Saturn's inner Cassini Division are presently analyzed. The regular optical depth variation observed by the radio occultation experiment scan and the feature noted in Voyager images is the same structure, namely the gravitational wakes of two 10-km radius satellites orbiting within the division. The structure is azimuthally symmetric, and is judged to rule out the possibility that large moonlets may be responsible for the observed structure.

Description: TEM and IR spectroscopy investigations of the interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) collected in the stratosphere have shown the majority of IDPs in the layer-lattice silicate and pyroxene classes to not have been heated to temperatures above 600 C during atmospheric entry. This implies that they arrive at the upper atmosphere with low geocentric encounter velocities, and limits the possible encounter trajectories for these particles to relatively circular prograde orbits. On this basis, it is judged unlikely that these IDPs are from earth-crossing comets or asteroids; collected IDPs dominated by olivine include a larger portion of above-600 C-heated particles, suggesting their capture from more eccentric orbits.

Description: The present examination of the west Deuteronilus Mensae region of Mars notes the changes in fretted terrain across the gradational boundary from uplands to lowlands to include a reduction of canyon wall slopes and depths, so that the fretted terrain north of the gradational boundary appears matted, but not obscured. The two process-classes that may account for the lateral overlap are the erosion of stratified upland terrain, and the deposition of plains materials onto the sloping upland margin and fretted terrain. A variety of plains-emplacement mechanisms is considered.

Description: The compositional contrast between the giant-planet satellites and the significantly rockier Pluto/Charon system is indicative of different formation mechanisms; cosmic abundance calculations, in conjunction with an assumption of the Pluto/Charon system's direct formation from solar nebula condensates, strongly suggest that most of the carbon in the outer solar nebula was in CO form, in keeping with both the inheritance from the dense molecular clouds in the interstellar medium, and/or the Lewis and Prinn (1980) kinetic-inhibition model of solar nebula chemistry. Laboratory studies of carbonaceous chondrites and Comet Halley flyby studies suggest that condensed organic material, rather than elemental carbon, is the most likely candidate for the small percentage of the carbon-bearing solid in the outer solar nebula.

Description: The Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery of the Basin and Range province of southern Nevada was analyzed to identify and map volcanic rock assemblages at three Tertiary calderas. It was found that the longer-wavelength visible and the NIR TM Bands 3, 5, and 7 provide more effective lithologic discrimination than the shorter-wavelength bands, due partly to deeper penetration of the longer-wavelength bands, resulting in more lithologically driven radiances. Shorter-wavelength TM Bands 1 and 2 are affected more by surficial weathering products including desert varnish which may or may not provide an indirect link to lithologic identity. Guidelines for lithologic analysis of volcanic terrains using Landsat TM imagery are outlined.

Description: Forest stand structure and biomass data were collected using conventional forest inventory techniques in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate forest biomes. The feasibility of detecting tropical forest successional age class and total biomass differences using Landsat-Thematic mapper (TM) data, was evaluated. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) calculated from Landsat-TM data were not significantly correlated with forest regeneration age classes in the mountain terrain of the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. The low sun angle and shadows cast on steep north and west facing slopes reduced spectral reflectance values recorded by TM orbital altitude. The NDVI, calculated from low altitude aircraft scanner data, was significatly correlated with forest age classes. However, analysis of variance suggested that NDVI differences were not detectable for successional forests older than approximately 15-20 years. Also, biomass differences in young successional tropical forest were not detectable using the NDVI. The vegetation index does not appear to be a good predictor of stand structure variables (e.g., height, diameter of main stem) or total biomass in uneven age, mixed broadleaf forest. Good correlation between the vegetation index and low biomass in even age pine plantations were achieved for a warm temperate study site. The implications of the study for the use of NDVI for forest structure and biomass estimation are discussed.

Description: Thematic Mapper data were analyzed with respect to its capability for mapping the complex structure and dynamics of suspended matter distribution in the coastal area of the German Bight (North Sea). Three independent pieces of information were found by factor analysis of all seven TM channels: suspended matter concentration, atmospheric scattering, and sea surface temperature. For the required atmospheric correction, the signal-to-noise ratios of Channels 5 and 7 have to be improved by averaging over 25 x 25 pixels, which also makes it possible to monitor the aerosol optical depth and aerosol type over cloud-free water surfaces. Near-surface suspended matter concentrations may be detected with an accuracy of factor less than 2 by using an algorithm derived from radiative transfer model calculation. The patchiness of suspended matter and its relation to underwater topography was analyzed with autocorrelation and cross-correlation.

Description: Reflectances calculated from TM data and corrected for atmospheric effects correspond with in situ measured reflectances in the nadir-viewing mode, and are shown to be related to a glacier's mass balance if measured over a period of years. A reflectance of 0.895 for a test site in the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska, was calculated from TM Band 4 (0.76 - 0.90 micron) data and corrected for atmospheric effects. This value was comparable to the in situ reflectance of 0.90 measured in the same 0.76 - 0.90 micron wavelength region. For the same site, a reflectance value of 0.79 derived from integrating over most (0.40 - 3.0 micron) of the reflective portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was quite different from the integrated reflectance of 0.95 calculated for the spectral range 0.40 - 1.0 micron. This demonstrates the importance of using the full reflective energy spectrum for calculating the albedo of snow, and for obtaining a meaningful computation of a glacier's energy and mass balance change.

Description: This paper's studies were initiated under the NASA program for the purpose of conducting the earth sciences research using the Landsat Thematic Mapper. The goals of the program include studies of the factors influencing the growth, health, condition, and distribution of vegetation on the earth; the processes controlling the evolution of the earth's crust; the earth's water budget and the hydrologic processes that operate at local, regional, and global scales; the physical and chemical interaction between different types of surficial materials; and the interaction between the earth's surface and its atmosphere. Twenty-seven domestic and five foreign investigations were initiated in 1985, with the results from most of them already published (one study was terminated due to the delay in the TDRSS). Twelve of the studies addressed hydrology, snow and ice, coastal processes, and near-shore oceanographic phenomena; seven addressed vegetation, soils, or animal habitat; and twelve addressed geologic subjects.

Description: An attempt is made to provide a constraint on the combined mass of Janus and Epimetheus from an analysis of Voyager I and Voyager 2 data and ground-based observations obtained during the 1966 and 1980 ring plane crossings. The results of the analysis presented here suggest that the total mass is 2.59 + or - 0.26 x 10 to the 21st g, the mass ratio is 3.61 + or - 0.01, and Janus' density is 0.67 + or - 0.10 g/cu cm. The low density of Janus is attributed to its porosity rather than composition.

Description: A coordinated multinational Mars Surveyor Program involving a series of robotic missions is proposed in order to select worthwhile human landing sites for discoveries, for safe operations, and for testing and proving technologies for making human flight to Mars possible. Some characteristics motivating exploration of the planet are briefly discussed, including the possibility of life, geological features, and meteorological conditions. The necessity for preliminary exploration of Mars by robots prior to human exploration is discussed, and the rationale behind a multinational approach for a Mars Surveyor Program is presented.

Description: Arecibo high-resolution (1.5 to 2 km) radar data of Venus for the area extending from Beta Regio to western Eisila Regio provide strong evidence that the mountains in Beta and Eisila Regiones and plains in and adjacent to Guinevere Planitia are of volcanic origin. Recognized styles of volcanism include large volcanic edifices on the Beta and Eisila rises related to regional structural trends, plains with multiple source vents and a mottled appearance due to the ponding of volcanic flows, and plains with bright features surrounded by extensive quasi-circular radar-dark halos. The high density of volcanic vents in the plains suggests that heat loss by abundant and widely distributed plains volcanism may be more significant than previously recognized. The low density of impact craters greater than 15 km in diameter in this region compared to the average density for the higher northern latitudes suggests that the plains have a younger age.

Description: In February and March 1989 the Phobos 2 spacecraft took 37 television images of Phobos from a distance of 190-1100 km. The data are being used to update the three-dimensional model of Phobos, to provide improved determinations of its density and orbital dynamics, and to study its surface color, composition, and texture. Preliminary findings are presented here which include different integrated photometric behavior in visible and near-infrared bands, observation of a region immediately west of Stickney which is relatively free of large grooves, the prevalence of bright rims on grooves and younger craters, and low bulk density.

Description: Comparison between the microwave polarized difference temperature (MPDT) derived from 37 GHz band data and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from near-infrared and red bands, from several empirical investigations are summarized. These indicate the complementary character of the two measures in environmental monitoring. Overall the NDVI is more sensitive to green leaf activity, whereas the MPDT appears also to be related to other elements of the above-ground biomass. Monitoring of hydrological phenomena is carried out much more effectively by the MPDT. Further work is needed to explain spectral and temporal variation in MPDT both through modelling and field experiments.

Description: Coincident Scanning Microwave Multi-channel Radiometer 37 GHz and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer normalized difference vegetation index satellite data have been compared from drought-affected regions of sub-Saharan Africa and northeastern Brazil for the time period of 1980-1985. Although the two satellite data types can be highly correlated, differences between them were found for the Sahel zone in 1985 and for northeastern Brazil from 1984-1985. These findings suggest that scattering or surface roughness contributions may be greater than previously assumed for the 37 GHz microwave data.

Description: The microwave polarization difference temperature (MPDT) prepared from 37 GHz Scanning Multifrequnecy Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) data from the Nimbus-7 satellite allows a unique vision of hydrological features, especially of humid areas. From the series of monthly images from 1979 to 1985 the major hydrological features of four major river basins of South America are briefly examined. These include rivers of the Amazon, La Plata, Orinoco and Sao Francisco, wetlands in the La Plata and Amazon basins and floods in the La Plata basin. Many hydrological features appear much as they do on conventional maps. An interesting prespective can be derived from the ways in which they differ from conventional maps.

Description: Monthly 37 GHz microwave polarization difference temperatures (MPDT) derived from the Nimbus-7 scanning multichannel microwave radiometer (SMMR) for southern Africa from 1979 to 1985 are compared with rainfall and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data. MPDT rose sharply during a drought episode which occurred within the period included in the data. The rise was seen not only in the growing season, but also in the dry season MPDT when no actively photosynthetic, water-containing leaves are present. The results suggest that scattering of the emitted microwave radiation by dead and living vegetation is a more important factor than has previously been recognized.