ALBERT

Note: Contents: Contributors. - Preface. - Introduction and Scientific Background / J.C.R. Hunt, J. Norbury and I. Roulstone. - 1. A view of the equations of meteorological dynamics and various approximations / A. A. White. - 2. Extended-geostrophic Euler-Poincare models for mesoscale oceanographic flow / J. S. Allen, D. D. Holm and P. A. Newberger. - 3. Fast singular oscillating limits of stably-stratified 3D Euler and Navier-Stokes equations and ageostrophic wave fronts / A. Babin, A. Mahalov and B. Nicolaenko. - 4. New mathematical developments in atmosphere and ocean dynamics, and their application to computer simulations / M. J. P. Cullen. - 5. Rearrangements of functions with applications to meteorology and ideal fluid flow / R. J. Douglas. - 6. Statistical methods in atmospheric dynamics: probability metrics and discrepancy measures as a means of defining balance / S. Baigent and J. Norbury.

Note: Contents: Foreword. - Preface. - Summary for Policymakers. - Technical Summary. - 1 The Climate System: an Overview. - 2 Observed Climate Variability and Change. - 3 The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. - 4 Atmospheric Chemistry and Greenhouse Gases. - 5 Aerosols, their Direct and Indirect Effects. - 6 Radiative Forcing of Climate Change. - 7 Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks. - 8 Model Evaluation. - 9 Projections of Future Climate Change. - 10 Regional Climate Information - Evaluation and Projections. - 11 Changes in Sea Level. - 12 Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes. - 13 Climate Scenario Development. - 14 Advancing Our Understanding. - Appendix I Glossary. - Appendix II SRES Tables. - Appendix Ill Contributors to the IPCC WGI Third Assessment Report. - Appendix IV Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Third Assessment Report. - Appendix V Acronyms and Abbreviations. - Appendix VI Units. - Appendix VII Some Chemical Symbols used in this Report. - Appendix VIII Index.

Note: Contents: Preface. - PART 1 FRAMEWORK OF CLIMATE SCIENCE. - 1 Overview of Climate Science. - Climate and Climate Change. - 1-1 Geologic Time. - 1-2 How This Book Is Organized. - Development of Climate Science. - 1-3 How Scientists Study Climate Change. - Overview of the Climate System. - 1-4 Components of the Climate System. - 1-5 Climate Forcing. - 1-6 Climate System Responses. - 1-7 Time Scales of Forcing versus Response. - 1-8 Response Rates and Interactions Within the Climate System. - 1-9 Feedbacks in the Climate System. - Tools Of Climate Science: Temperature Scales. - 2 Earth's Climate System Today. - Heating Earth. - 2-1 Incoming Solar Radiation. - 2-2 Receipt and Storage of Solar Heat. - 2-3 Heat Transformation. - Heat Transfer in Earth's Atmosphere. - 2-4 Overcoming Stable Layering in the Atmosphere. - 2-5 Tropical-Subtropical Atmospheric Circulation. - 2-6 Atmospheric Circulation at Middle and High Latitudes. - Heat Transfer in Earth's Oceans. - 2-7 The Surface Ocean. - 2-8 Deep-Ocean Circulation. - Ice on Earth. - 2-9 Sea Ice. - 2-10 Glacial Ice. - Earth's Biosphere. - 2-11 Response of the Biosphere to the Physical Climate System. - 2-12 Effects of the Biosphere on the Climate System. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: The Structure of Earth's Atmosphere. - Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: Albedo/Temperature. - Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: Water in the Climate System. - Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: Water Vapor. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: The Conolis Effect. - Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: Vegetation-Climate Feedbacks. - 3 Climate Archives, Oata, and Models. - Climate Archives. - 3-1 Types of Archives. - 3-2 Dating Climate Records. - 3-3 Climate Resolution. - Climate Data. - 3-4 Biotic Data. - 3-5 Geological and Geochemical Data. - Climate Models. - 3-6 Physical Climate Models. - 3-7 Geochemical (Mass Balance) Models. - PART II TECTONIC-SCALE CLIMATE CHANGE. - 4 CO2 and Long-term Climate. - Greenhouse Worlds. - The Faint Young Sun Paradox. - Carbon Exchanges between Rocks and the Atmosphere. - 4-1 Volcanic Input of Carbon from Rocks to the Atmosphere. - 4-2 Chemical Weathering Removal of CO2 from the Atmosphere. - Climate Factors That Control Chemical Weathering. - Chemical Weathering: Earth's Thermostat?. - Is Life the Ultimate Control on Earth's Thermostat?. - 4-3 The Gaia Hypothesis. - Climate Debate: A Snowball Earth?. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: The Organic Carbon Subcycle. - 5 Plate Tectonics and Climate. - Plate Tectonics. - 5-1 Structure and Composition of Tectonic Plates. - 5-2 Evidence of Past Plate Motions. - The Polar Position Hypothesis. - 5-3 Glaciations and Continental Positions since 500 Myr Ago. - Modeling Climate on the Supercontinent Pangaea. - 5-4 Input to the Model Simulation of Pangaean Climate. - 5-5 Output from the Model Simulation of Pangaean Climate. - Tectonic Control of CO2 Input: The BLAG Spreading Rate Hypothesis. - 5-6 Control of CO2 Input by Seafloor Spreading. - 5-7 Initial Evaluation of the BLAG Spreading Rate Hypothesis. - Tectonic Control of CO2 Removal: The Uplift Weathering Hypothesis. - 5-8 Rock Exposure and Chemical Weathering. - 5-3 Uplift and Chemical Weathering. - What Controls Chemical Weathering?. - 5-10 Weathering: Climate Forcing and Feedback. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Brief Glatiation 430 Myr Ago. - 6 Greenhouse Earth. - What Explains Greenhouse Warmth 100 Myr Ago?. - 6-1 Model Simulations of a Greenhouse World. - 6-2 What Explains the Data-Model Mismatch?. - Sea Level Changes and Climate. - 6-3 Causes of Tectonic-Scale Changes in Sea Level. - 6-4 Effect of Sea Level Changes on Climate. - Asteroid Impacts. - Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: The Effect of CO2 on Climate. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Calculating Changes in Sea Level. - 7 Back into the Icehouse: The Last 55 Million years. - Global Climate Change Since 55 Myr Ago. - 7-1 Evidence from Ice and Vegetation. - 7-2 Oxygen Isotope Data. - Why Did Global Climate Cool over the Last 55 Myr?. - 7-3 Evaluating the BLAG Spreading Rate Hypothesis. - 7-4 Evaluating the Uplift Weathering Hypothesis. - 7-5 Evaluating the Ocean Heat Transport Hypothesis. - 7-6 Causes of Brief Tectonic-Scale Climate Change. - Understanding and Predicting Tectonic Climate Change. - Tools Of Climate Science: Oxtygen Isotope Ratios (δ18O). - Climate Debate: The Timing of Uplift in Western North America. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Is 87Sr/86Sr an Index of Chemical Weathering?. - PART III ORBITAL-SCALE CLIMATE CHANGE. - 8 Astronomical Control of Solar Radiation. - Earth's Orbit Today. - 8-1 Earth's Tilted Axis of Rotation and the Seasons. - 8-2 Earth's Eccentric Orbit: Changes in the Distance Between Earth and Sun. - Long-Term Changes in Earth's Orbit. - 8-3 Changes in Earth's Axial Tilt Through Time. - 8-4 Changes in Earth's Eccentric Orbit Through Time. - 8-5 Precession of Solstices and Equinoxes around Earth's Orbit. - Changes in Insolation Received on Earth. - 8-6 Insolation Changes by Month and Season. - 8-7 Insolation Changes According to Caloric Season. - Looking for Orbital-Scale Changes in Climate Records. - 8-8 Time Series Analysis. - 8-9 Aliasing of Climate Records. - 8-10 Tectonic-Scale Changes in Earth's Orbit. - Tools Of Climate Science: Cycles and Modulation. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Earth's Precession as a Sine Wave. - 9 Insolation Control of Monsoons. - Monsoon Circulations. - 9-1 Orbital-Scale Control of Summer Monsoons. - Evidence of Orbital-Scale Changes in Summer Monsoons. - 3-2 "Stinky Muds" in the Mediterranean. - 9-3 Freshwater Diatoms in the Tropical Atlantic. - 9-4 Upwelling in the Equatorial Atlantic. - Refinements of the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis. - 9-5 Lag of Monsoons Behind Summer Insolation. - 9-6 Clipped Monsoon Responses and Monsoon Harmonics. - Monsoon Forcing Earlier in Earth's History. - 8-7 Monsoons on Pangaea 200 Myr Ago. - 9-8 Joint Tectonic and Orbital Control of Monsoons. - 10 Insolation Control of Ice Sheets. - What Controls the Size of Ice Sheets?. - 10-1 Orbital-Scale Control of Ice Sheets. - The Milankovitch Theory. - Modeling the Behavior of Ice Sheets. - 10-2 Insolation Control of Ice Sheet Size. - 10-3 Ice Sheet Lags behind Summer Insolation Forcing. - 10-4 Delayed Bedrock Response Beneath Ice Sheets. - 10-5 Full Cycle of Ice Growth and Decay. - 10-6 Ice Slipping and Calving. - Northern Hemisphere Ice Sheet History. - 10-7 Conceptual Model: Evolution of Ice Sheet Cycles. - 10-8 Evidence from δ18O: How Ice Sheets Actually Evolved. - 10-9 Confirming Ice Volume Changes: Coral Reefs and Sea Level. - 10-10 Using Astronomical and δ18O Signals as a Chronometer. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Ice Volume Response to Insolation. - Climate Debate: Antarctic Deglaciation 3 Myr Ago?. - Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Sea Level on Uplifting Islands. - 11 Orbital-Scale Changes in Carbon Dioxide and Methane. - Ice Cores. - 11-1 Drilling and Dating Ice Cores. - 11-2 Trapping Gases in the Ice. - Orbital-Scale Changes in Methane. - Orbital-Scale Changes in CO2. - 11-3 Physical Oceanographic Explanations of CO2 Changes. - 11-4 Orbital-Scale Carbon Reservoirs. - 11-5 Tracking Carbon through the Climate System. - 11-6 Can δ13C Evidence Detect Glacial Changes in Carbon Reservoirs?. - 11-7 Pumping of Carbon into the Deep Ocean during Glaciations. - 11-8 Changes in the Circulation of Deep Water during Glaciations. - Tools Of Climate Science: Carbon Isotope Ratios (δ13C). - Climate Debate: Do Winds Fertilize the Glacial Ocean?. - 12 Orbital-Scale Interactions in the Climate System. - Orbital-Scale Forcing and Response Revisited. - Ice-Driven Climate Responses. - 12-1 Ice-Driven Responses in High Northern Latitudes. - 12-2 Orbital Cycles in Regions Remote fro

Note: Contents Prologue Acknowledgments List of Symbols PART I Foundations 1 INTRODUCTION: The Basic Challenge 1.1 The Climate System 1.2 Some Basic Observations 1.3 External Forcing 1.3.1 Astronomical Forcing 1.3.2 Tectonic Forcing 1.4 The Ice-Age Problem 2 TECHNIQUES FOR CLIMATE RECONSTRUCTION 2.1 Historical Methods 2.1.1 Direct Quantitative Measurements 2.1.2 Descriptive Accounts of General Environmental Conditions 2.2 Surficial Biogeologic Proxy Evidence 2.2.1 Annually Layered Life Forms 2.2.2 Surface Geomorphic Evidence 2.3 Conventional Nonisotopic Stratigraphic Analyses of Sedimentary Rock and Ice 2.3.1 Physical Indicators 2.3.2 Paleobiological Indicators (Fossil Faunal Types and Abundances) 2.4 Isotopic Methods 2.4.1 Oxygen Isotopes 2.4.2 Deuterium and Beryllium in Ice Cores 2.4.3 Stable Carbon Isotopes 2.4.4 Strontium and Osmium Isotopes 2.5 Nonisotopic Geochemical Methods 2.5.1 Cadmium Analysis 2.5.2 Greenhouse Gas Analysis of Trapped Air in Ice Cores 2.5.3 Chemical and Biological Constituents and Dust Layers in Ice Cores 2.6 Dating the Proxy Evidence (Geochronometry) 3 A SURVEY OF GLOBAL PALEOCLIMATIC VARIATIONS 3.1 The Phanerozoic Eon (Past 600 My) 3.2 The Cenozoic Era (Past 65 My) 3.3 The Plio-Pleistocene (Past 5 My) 3.4 Variations during the Last Ice Age: IRD Events 3.5 The Last Glacial Maximum (20 ka) 3.6 Postglacial Changes: The Past 20 ky 3.7 The Past 100 Years 3.8 The Generalized Spectrum of Climatic Variance 3.9 A Qualitative Discussion of Causes 4 GENERAL THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 The Fundamental Equations 4.2 Time Averaging and Stochastic Forcing 4.3 Response Times and Equilibrium 4.4 Spatial Averaging 4.5 Climatic-Mean Mass and Energy Balance Equations 4.5.1 The Water Mass Balance 4.5.2 Energy Balance 5 SPECIAL THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PALEOCLIMATE: Structuring a Dynamical Approach 5.1 A Basic Problem: Noncalculable Levels of Energy and Mass Flow 5.2 An Overall Strategy 5.3 Notational Simplifications for Resolving Total Climate Variability 5.4 A Structured Dynamical Approach 5.5 The External Forcing Function, F 5.5.1 Astronomical/Cosmic Forcing 5.5.2 Tectonic Forcing 6 BASIC CONCEPTS OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS: Prototypical Climatic Applications 6.1 Local (or Internal) Stability 6.2 The Generic Cubic Nonlinearity 6.3 Structural (or External) Stability: Elements of Bifurcation Theory 6.4 Multivariable Systems 6.4.1 The Two-Variable Phase Plane 6.5 A Prototype Two-Variable Model 6.5.1 Sensitivity of Equilibria to Changes in Parameters: Prediction of the Second Kind 6.5.2 Structural Stability 6.6 The Prototype Two-Variable System as a Stochastic-Dynamical System: Effects of Random Forcing 6.6.1 The Stochastic Amplitude 6.6.2 Structural Stochastic Stability 6.7 More Than Two-Variable Systems: Deterministic Chaos PART II Physics of the Separate Domains 7 MODELING THE ATMOSPHERE AND SURFACE STATE AS FAST-RESPONSE COMPONENTS 7.1 The General Circulation Model 7.2 Lower Resolution Models: Statistical-Dynamical Models and the Energy Balance Model 7.2.1 A Zonal-Average SDM 7.2.2 Axially Asymmetric SDMs 7.2.3 The Complete Time-Average State 7.3 Thermodynamic Models 7.3.1 Radiative-Convective Models 7.3.2 Vertically Averaged Models (the EBM) 7.4 The Basic Energy Balance Model 7.5 Equilibria and Dynamical Properties of the Zero-Dimensional (Global Average) EBM 7.6 Stochastic Resonance 7.7 The One-Dimensional (Latitude-Dependent) EBM 7.8 Transitivity Properties of the Atmospheric and Surface Climatic State: Inferences from a GCM 7.9 Closure Relationships Based on GCM Sensitivity Experiments 7.9.1 Surface Temperature Sensitivity 7.10 Formal Feedback Analysis of the Fast-Response Equilibrium State 7.11 Paleoclimatic Simulations 8 THE SLOW-RESPONSE "CONTROL" VARIABLES: An Overview 8.1 The Ice Sheets 8.1.1 Key Variables 8.1.2 Observations 8.2 Greenhouse Gases: Carbon Dioxide 8.3 The Thermohaline Ocean State 8.4 A Three-Dimensional Phase-Space Trajectory 9 GLOBAL DYNAMICS OF THE ICE SHEETS 9.1 Basic Equations and Boundary Conditions 9.2 A Scale Analysis 9.3 The Vertically Integrated Ice-Sheet Model 9.4 The Surface Mass Balance 9.5 Basal Temperature and Melting 9.6 Deformable Basal Regolith 9.7 Ice Streams and Ice Shelves 9.8 Bedrock Depression 9.9 Sea Level Change and the Ice Sheets: The Depression-Calving Hypothesis 9.10 Paleoclimatic Applications of the Vertically Integrated Model 9.11 A Global Dynamical Equation for Ice Mass 10 DYNAMICS OF ATMOSPHERIC CO2 10.1 The Air-Sea Flux, Q↑ 10.1.1 Qualitative Analysis of the Factors Affecting Q↑ 10.1.2 Mathematical Formulation of the Ocean Carbon Balance 10.1.3 A Parameterization for Q↑ 10.2 Terrestrial Organic Carbon Exchange, W↑G 10.2.1 Sea Level Change Effects 10.2.2 Thermal Effects 10.2.3 Ice Cover Effects 10.2.4 Long-Term Terrestrial Organic Burial, W↓G 10.2.5 The Global Mass Balance of Organic Carbon 10.3 Outgassing Processes, V↑ 10.4 Rock Weathering Downdraw, W↓ 10.5 A Global Dynamical Equation for Atmospheric CO2 10.6 Modeling the Tectonically Forced CO2 Variations, µˆ : Long-Term Rock Processes 10.6.1 The Long-Term Oceanic Carbon Balance 10.6.2 The GEOCARB Model 10.7 Overview of the Full Global Carbon Cycle 11 SIMPLIFIED DYNAMICS OF THE THERMOHALINE OCEAN STATE 11.1 General Equations 11.1.1 Boundary Conditions 11.2 A Prototype Four-Box Ocean Model 11.3 The Wind-Driven, Local-Convective, and Baroclinic Eddy Circulations 11.3.1 The Wind-Driven Circulation: Gyres and Upwelling 11.3.2 Local Convective Overturnings and Baroclinic Eddy Circulations 11.4 The Two-Box Thermohaline Circulation Model: Possible Bimodality of the Ocean State 11.4.1 The Two-Box System 11.4.2 A Simple Model of the TH Circulation 11.4.3 Meridional Fluxes 11.4.4 Dynamical Analysis of the Two-Box Model 11.5 Integral Equations for the Deep Ocean State 11.5.1 The Deep Ocean Temperature 11.5.2 The Deep Ocean Salinity 11.6 Global Dynamical Equations for the Thermohaline State: θ and Sφ PART III Unified Dynamical Theory 12 THE COUPLED FAST- AND SLOW-RESPONSE VARIABLES AS A GLOBAL DYNAMICAL SYSTEM: Outline of a Theory of Paleoclimatic Variation 12.1 The Unified Model: A Paleoclimate Dynamics Model 12.2 Feedback-Loop Representation 12.3 Elimination of the Fast-Response Variables: The Center Manifold 12.4 Sources of Instability: The Dissipative Rate Constants 12.5 Formal Separation into Tectonic Equilibrium and Departure Equations 13 FORCED EVOLUTION OF THE TECTONIC-MEAN CLIMATIC STATE 13.1 Effects of Changing Solar Luminosity and Rotation Rate 13.1.1 Solar Luminosity (S) 13.1.2 Rotation Rate (Ω) 13.2 General Effects of Changing Land-Ocean Distribution and Topography (h) 13.3 Effects of Long-Term Variations of Volcanic and Cosmic Dust and Bolides 13.4 Multimillion-Year Evolution of CO2 13.4.1 The GEOCARB Solution 13.4.2 First-Order Response of Global Ice Mass and Deep Ocean Temperature to Tectonic CO2 Variations 13.5 Possible Role of Salinity-Driven Instability of the Tectonic-Mean State 13.6 Snapshot Atmospheric and Surficial Equilibrium Responses to Prescribed y-Fields Using GCMs 14 THE LATE CENOZOIC ICE-AGE DEPARTURES: An Overview of Previous Ideas and Models 14.1 General Review: Forced vs. Free Models 14.1.1 Models in Which Earth-Orbital Forcing Is Necessary 14.1.2 Instability-Driven (Auto-oscillatory) Models 14.1.3 Hierarchical Classification in Terms of Increasing Physical Complexity 14.2 Forced Ice-Line Models (Box 1, Fig. 14-1) 14.3 Ice-Sheet Inertia Models 14.3.1 The Simplest Forms (Box 2) 14.3.2 More Physically Based Ice-Sheet Models: First Applications 14.3.3 Direct Bedrock Effects (Box 3) 14.3.4 Bedrock-Calving Effects (Box 4) 14.3.5 Basal Meltwater and Sliding (Box 5) 14.3.6 Ice Streams and Ice Shelf Effects 14.3.7 Continental Ice-Sheet Movement (Box 6) 14.3.8 Three-Dimensional (λ, φ, hI) Ice-Sheet Models 14.4 The Need for Enhancement of the Coupled Ice-Sheet/Atmospheric Climate Models 14.5 Ice-Sheet Variables Coupled with Additional Slow-Response Variables 14.5.1 Regolith Mass, mr (Box 7) 14.5.2 The Deep Ocean Te

Note: Contents Acknowledgements Executive Summary with Key Findings and Recommendations Current State of the Art Key Scientific Challenges and Recommendations Major New Synthesis Initiative Required Implementation of Arctic-CHAMP Policy Implications Summary 1. Introduction Rationale for Pan-Arctic Hydrologic Synthesis Report Framework 2. A Strategy for Detecting and Understanding Arctic Hydrological Change: Arctic-CHAMP Arctic-CHAMP Basic Long-Term Monitoring Arctic-CHAMP Field-Based Process Studies Arctic-CHAMP Synthesis Modeling Execution of Arctic-CHAMP 3. Role and Importance of Water in the Arctic System The Integrated Water Cycle of the Pan-Arctic Land Atmosphere Ocean Importance of Arctic Hydrology to the Arctic System Importance of the Arctic to the Earth System 4. Unprecedented Change to Arctic Hydrological Systems Changes to the Land-Based Hydrologic Cycle Changes to the Atmosphere The Changing Arctic Ocean and its Regional Seas 5. Impacts and Feedbacks Associated with Arctic Hydrological Change Direct Impacts on Ecosystems Arctic Water Cycle Change and Humans Land-Atmosphere-Ocean Feedbacks Land-Atmosphere-Ocean-Human Feedbacks 6. Implementation of Arctic-CHAMP References Appendix 1. NSF-ARCSS Arctic Hydrology Workshop Participants Appendix 2. Current Gaps in Understanding the Pan-Arctic Hydrological Cycle Appendix 3. Integration of Arctic-CHAMP with NSF and Other Federal Agency Initiatives Appendix 4. International Collaborations

Note: The Economic-Legal System and the Role of Property Rights: An Introduction ; 1 Foundation Stones: Politically-Based Versus Judge-Made Law ; Efficiency ; Two Basic Propositions ; Two Major Theorems on Property Rights ; 2 Society's Machinery: Coordination and Constitutions ; Markets and Firms ; Political Processes ; 3 Property, Breach of Contract, Tort, Crime: Formalized Property Rights ; Injunctions ; Damages or Punishment? ; Negligence: The Simplest Case ; Joint Responsibility ; Intent, Strict Liability, Insurance ; The Stringency of Sanctions ; The Behavior of Disputant Parties and Courts ; 4 Contracts, Companies, Regulation: Contracts: Problems and Solutions ; The Contractual and Legal Structure of Firms ; Limits of Freedom of Contract ; 5 Epilogue: Conclusions and Final Comments

Note: Contents: Initial circumstances. - Conclusions. - State of affairs. - Detection and attribution of climate change. - Climate impact research. - The political dimension of climate change. - Climate protection from ethical points of view. - Economic aspects of climate politics. - Flexible instruments - the situation in Germany. - Legal framework for climate protection. - Trans-disciplinary evaluation of climate problems. - Trans-disciplinary evaluation of modelling future climates. - Preconditions for the determination of objectives in climate politics. - Elements of rational climate politics. - Precautionary principle and the principle of adequacy. - Economic and ethical rationality. - Strategies for coherent climate politics. -

Note: Contents: Preface. - Acknowledgments. - 1 How the Ocean-Atmosphere System Is Driven. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 The Amount of Energy Received by the Earth. - 1.3 Radiative Equilibrium Models. - 1.4 The Greenhouse Effect. - 1.5 Effects of Convection. - 1.6 Effects of Horizontal Gradients. - 1.7 Variability in Radiative Driving of the Earth. - 2 Transfer of Properties between Atmosphere and Ocean. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Contrasts in Properties of Ocean and Atmosphere. - 2.3 Momentum Transfer between Air and Sea, and the Atmosphere's Angular Momentum Balance. - 2.4 Dependence of Exchange Rates on Air-Sea Velocity, Temperature, and Humidity Differences. - 2.5 The Hydrological Cycle. - 2.6 The Heat Balance of the Ocean. - 2.7 Surface Density Changes and the Thermohaline Circulation of the Ocean. - 3 Properties of a Fluid at Rest. - 3.1 The Equation of State. - 3.2 Thermodynamic Variables. - 3.3 Values of Thermodynamic Quantities for the Ocean and Atmosphere. - 3.4 Phase Changes. - 3.5 Balance of Forces in a Fluid at Rest. - 3.6 Static Stability. - 3.7 Quantities Associated with Stability. - 3.8 Stability of a Saturated Atmosphere. - 3.9 Graphical Representation of Vertical Soundings. - 4 Equations Satisfied by a Moving Fluid. - 4.1 Properties of a Material Element. - 4.2 Mass Conservation Equation. - 4.3 Balance for a Scalar Quantity like Salinity. - 4.4 The Internal Energy (or Heat) Equation. - 4.5 The Equation of Motion. - 4.6 Mechanical Energy Equation. - 4.7 Total Energy Equation. - 4.8 Bernoulli's Equation. - 4.9 Systematic Effects of Diffusion. - 4.10 Summary List of the Governing Equations. - 4.11 Boundary Conditions. - 4.12 A Coordinate System for Planetary Scale Motions. - 5 Adjustment under Gravity in a Nonrotating System. - 5.1 Introduction: Adjustment to Equilibrium. - 5.2 Perturbations from the Rest State for a Homogenous Inviscid Fluid. - 5.3 Surface Gravity Waves. - 5.4 Dispersion. - 5.5 Short-Wave and Long-Wave Approximations. - 5.6 Shallow-Water Equations Derived Using the Hydrostatic Approximation. - 5.7 Energetics of Shallow-Water Motion. - 5.8 Seiches and Tides in Channels and Gulfs. - 6 Adjustment under Gravity of a Density-Stratified Fluid. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 The Case of Two Superposed Fluids of Different Density. - 6.3 The Baroclinic Mode and the Rigid Lid Approximation. - 6.4 Adjustments within a Continuously Stratified Incompressible Fluid. - 6.5 Internal Gravity Waves. - 6.6 Dispersion Effects. - 6.7 Energetics of internal waves. - 6.8 Internal Waves Generated at a Horizontal Boundary. - 6.9 Effects on Boundary-Generated Waves of Variations of Buoyancy Frequency with Height. - 6.10 Free Waves in the Presence of Boundaries. - 6.11 Waves of Large Horizontal Scale: Normal Modes. - 6.12 An Example of Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Stratified Fluid. - 6.13 Resolution into Normal Modes for the Ocean. - 6.14 Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Stratified Compressible Fluid. - 6.15 Examples of Adjustment in a Compressible Atmosphere. - 6.16 Weak Dispersion of a Pulse. - 6.17 Isobaric Coordinates. - 6.18 The Vertically Integrated Perturbation Energy Equation in Isobaric Coordinates. - 7 Effects of Rotation. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 The Rossby Adjustment Problem. - 7.3 The Transients. - 7.4 Applicability, to the Rotating Earth. - 7.5 The Rossby Radius of Deformation. - 7.6 The Geostrophic Balance. - 7.7 Relative Geostrophic Currents: The Thermal Wind. - 7.8 Available Potential Energy. - 7.9 Circulation and Vorticity. - 7.10 Conservation of Potential Vorticity for a Shallow Homogeneous Layer. - 7.11 Circulation in a Stratified Fluid and Ertel's Potential Vorticity. - 7.12 Perturbation Forms of the Vorticity Equations in a Uniformly Rotating Fluid. - 7.13 Initialization of Fields for Numerical Prediction Schemes. - 8 Gravity Waves in a Rotating Fluid. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Effect of Rotation on Surface Gravity Waves: Poincare Waves. - 8.3 Dispersion Properties and Energetics of Poincare Waves. - 8.4 Vertically Propagating Internal Waves in a Rotating Fluid. - 8.5 Polarization Relations. - 8.6 Energetics. - 8.7 Waves Generated at a Horizontal Boundary. - 8.8 Mountain Waves. - 8.9 Effects of Variation of Properties with Height. - 8.10 Finite-Amplitude Topographic Effects. - 8.11 Dissipative Effects in the Upper Atmosphere. - 8.12 The Liouville-Green or WKBJ Approximation. - 8.13 Wave Interactions. - 8.14 The Internal Wave Spectrum in the Ocean. - 8.15 Wave Transport and Effects on the Mean Flow. - 8.16 Quasi-geostrophic Flow (f Plane): The Isallobaric Wind. - 9 Forced Motion. - 9.1 Introduction. - 9.2 Forcing Due to Surface Stress: Ekman Transport. - 9.3 Wind-Generated Inertial Oscillations in the Ocean Mixed Layer. - 9.4 Ekman Pumping. - 9.5 Bottom Friction: Velocity Structure of the Boundary Layer. - 9.6 The Laminar Ekman Layer. - 9.7 The Nocturnal Jet. - 9.8 Tide-Producing Forces. - 9.9 Effect of Atmospheric Pressure Variations and Wind on Barotropic Motion in the Sea: The Forced Shallow-Water Equation. - 9.10 Baroclinic Response of the Ocean to Wind Forcing: Use of Normal Modes. - 9.11 Response of the Ocean to a Moving Storm or Hurricane. - 9.12 Spin-Down by Bottom Friction. - 9.13 Buoyancy Forcing. - 9.14 Response to Stationary Forcing: A Barotropic Example. - 9.15 A Forced Baroclinic Vortex. - 9.16 Equilibration through Dissipative Effects. - 10 Effects of Side Boundaries. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Effects of Rotation on Seiches and Tides in Narrow Channels and Gulfs. - 10.3 Poincare Waves in a Uniform Channel of Arbitrary Width. - 10.4 Kelvin Waves. - 10.5 The Full Set of Modes for an Infinite Channel of Uniform Width. - 10.6 End Effects: Seiches and Tides in a Gulf That Is Not Narrow. - 10.7 Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Channel. - 10.8 Tides. - 10.9 Storm Surges on an Open Coastline: The Local Solution. - 10.10 Surges Moving along the Coast: Forced Kelvin Waves. - 10.11 Coastal Upwelling. - 10.12 Continental Shelf Waves. - 10.13 Coastally Trapped Waves. - 10.14 Eastern Boundary Currents. - 11. The Tropics. - 11.1 Introduction. - 11.2 Effects of Earth's Curvature: Shallow-Water Equations on the Sphere. - 11.3 Potential Vorticity for a Shallow Homogeneous Layer. - 11.4 The Equatorial Beta Plane. - 11.5 The Equatorial Kelvin Wave. - 11.6 Other Equatorially Trapped Waves. - 11.7 The Equatorial Waveguide: Gravity Waves. - 11.8 Planetary Waves and Quasi-geostrophic Motion. - 11.9 Baroclinic Motion near the Equator. - 11.10 Vertically Propagating Equatorial Waves. - 11.11 Adjustment under Gravity near the Equator. - 11.12 Transient Forced Motion. - 11.13 Potential Vorticity for Baroclinic Motion: The Steady Limit. - 11.14 Steady Forced Motion. - 11.15 The Tropical Circulation of the Atmosphere. - 11.16 Tropical Ocean Currents. - 12 Mid-latitudes. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 The Mid-latitude Beta Plane. - 12.3 Planetary Waves. - 12.4 Spin-Up of the Ocean by an Applied Wind Stress. - 12.5 Steady Ocean Circulation. - 12.6 Western Boundary Currents. - 12.7 Vertical Propagation of Planetary Waves in a Medium at Rest. - 12.8 Nonlinear Quasi-geostrophic Flow in Three Dimensions. - 12.9 Small Disturbances on a Zonal Flow Varying with Latitude and Height. - 12.10 Deductions about Vertical Motion from the Quasi-geostrophic Equations. - 13 Instabilities, Fronts, and the General Circulation. - 13.1 Introduction. - 13.2 Free Waves in the Presence of a Horizontal Temperature Gradient. - 13.3 Baroclinic Instability: The Eady Problem. - 13.4 Baroclinic Instability: The Charney Problem. - 13.5 Necessary Conditions for Instability. - 13.6 Barotropic Instability. - 13.7 Eddies in the Ocean. - 13.8 Fronts. - 13.9 The Life Cycle of a Baroclinic Disturbance. - 13.10 General Circulation of the Atmosphere. - Appendix One Units and Their SI Equivalents. - Appendix Two Useful

Note: Section 1. Weather rankings -- Section 2. Major storm events -- Section 3. State chapters -- Section 4. Appendices.

Note: Contents: Contributors. - Foreword by Paul J. Crutzen. - Preface by David Schimel. - Introduction. - 1 Uncertainties of Global Biogeochemical Predictions / E. D. Schulze, D. S. S. Schimel. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 The IGBP Transect Approach. - 1.2.1 The Patagonian Transect. - 1.2.2 The Australian Transect. - 1.2.3 The European Transect. - 1.3 Variability in Processes. - 1.4 Biome Approach and Functional Types. - 1.5 New Approaches to Functional Diversity. - 1.6 Conclusions. - References. - 2 Uncertainties of Global Climate Predictions / L. Bengtsson. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Observational Evidence. - 2.3 Physical Rationale. - 2.3.1 Stochastic Forcing. - 2.3.2 Solar irradiation Changes. - 2.3.3 Volcanic Effects. - 2.3.4 Anthropogenic Effects. - 2.4 Response to Forcing of the Climate System. - 2.5 Results from Climate Change Prediction Experiments. - 2.6 Summary and Conclusions. - References. - 3 Uncertainties in the Atmospheric Chemical System / G. P. Brasseur, E. A. H. Holland. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.2 Synthetic View of Chemical Processes in the Troposphere. - 3.3 The IMAGES Model. - 3.4 Changes in the Chemical Composition of the Global Troposphere. - 3.5 Concluding Remarks. - References. - 4 Inferring Biogeochemical Sources and Sinks from Atmospheric Concentrations: General Consideration and Applications in Vegetation Canopies / M. Raupach. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Scalar and Isotopic Molar Balances. - 4.2.1 General Principles. - 4.2.2 Single-Point Eulerian Equations. - 4.2.3 Source Terms for CO2. - 4.2.4 Single-Point Lagrangian Equations. - 4.3 Inverse Methods for Inferring Scalar Sources and Sinks in Canopies. - 4.3.1 General Principles. - 4.3.2 Localized Near Field Theory. - 4.3.3 The Dispersion Matrix. - 4.3.4 Turbulent Velocity Field. - 4.3.5 Solutions for Forward, Inverse and Implicit Problems. - 4.3.6 Field Tests. - 4.4 Inverse Methods and Isotopes in Canopies. - 4.4.1 Path Integrals and Keeling Plots. - 4.4.2 Inverse Lagrangian Analysis of Isotopic Composition. - 4.5 Summary and Conclusions. - Appendix A. - Appendix B. - References. - 5 Biogeophysical Feedbacks and the Dynamics of Climate / M. Claussen. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Synergisms. - 5.2.1 High Northern Latitudes. - 5.2.2 Subtropics. - 5.3 Multiple Equilibria. - 5.4 Transient Interaction. - 5.5 Perspectives. - References. - 6 Land-Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions and Monsoon Climate Change: A Paleo-Perspective / J. E. Kutzbach, Michael T. Coe, S. P. Harrison and M. T. Coe. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Response of the Monsoon to Orbital Forcing. - 6.3 Ocean Feedbacks on the Monsoon. - 6.4 Land-Surface Feedbacks on the Monsoon. - 6.5 Synergies between the Land, Ocean and Atmosphere. - 6.6 The Role of Climate Variability. - 6.7 Final Remarks. - References. - 7 Paleobiogeochemistry / I. C. Prentice, D. Raynaud. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Methane. - 7.3 Carbon Dioxide. - 7.4 Mineral Dust Aerosol. - 7.5 Scientific Challenges Posed by the Ice-Core Records. - 7.5.1 Methane. - 7.5.2 Carbon Dioxide. - 7.5.3 Mineral Dust Aerosol. - 7.6 Towards an Integrated Research Strategy for Palaeobiogeochemistry. - References. - 8 Should Phosphorus Availability Be Constraining Moist Tropical Forest Responses to Increasing CO2 Concentrations / J. Lloyd, M. I. Bird, E. M. Veenendaal and B. Kruijt. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Phosphorus in the Soils of the Moist Tropics. - 8.2.1 Soil Organic Phosphorus. - 8.2.2 Soil Inorganic Phosphorus. - 8.2.3 Soil Carbon/Phosphorus Interactions. - 8.3 States and Fluxes of Phosphorus in Moist Tropical Forests. - 8.3.1 Inputs and Losses of Phosphorus Through Rainfall, Dry Deposition and Weathering: Losses Via Leaching. - 8.3.2 Internal Phosphorus Flows in Moist Tropical Forests. - 8.3.3 Mechanisms for Enhanced Phosphorus Uptake in Low P Soils. - 8.4 Linking the Phosphorus and Carbon Cycles. - 8.4.1 To What Extent Does Phosphorus Availability Really Limit Moist Tropical Forest Productivity?. - 8.4.2 Tropical Plant Responses to Increases in Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations. - 8.4.3 Using a Simple Model to Examine CO2/Phosphorus Interactions in Tropical Forests. - References. - 9 Trees in Grasslands: Biogeochemical Consequences of Woody Plant Expansion / S. Archer, T. W. Boutton and K. A. Hibbard. - 9.1 Introduction. - 9.2 Woody Plant Encroachment in Grasslands and Savannas. - 9.3 The La Copita Case Study. - 9.3.1 Biogeographical and Historal Context. - 9.3.2 Herbaceous Retrogression and Soil Carbon Losses. - 9.3.3 Woody Plant Encroachment and Ecosystem Biogeochemistry. - 9.4 Degradation: Ecological Versus Socioeconomic. - 9.5 Implications for Ecosystem and Natural Resources Management. - 9.6 Summary. - References. - 10 Biogeochemistry in the Arctic: Patterns, Processes and Controls / S. Jonasson, F.S. Chapin, III and G. R. Shaver. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Tundra Organic Matter. - 10.2.1 Distribution of Organic Matter. - 10.2.2 Patterns and Controls of Organic Matter Turnover between Ecosystem Types. - 10.3 Tundra Nutrients. - 10.3.1 Nutrient Distribution and Controls of Nutrient Cycling. - 10.3.2 Nutrient Mineralization and Plant Nutrient Uptake. - 10.3.3 Are there Unaccounted Plant Sources of Limiting Nutrients?. - 10.4 Biogeochemical Responses to Experimental Ecosystem Manipulations. - 10.4.1 Applicability of Experimental Manipulations. - 10.4.2 Responses to Water Applications. - 10.4.3 Response to Nutrient Addition and Warming. - 10.4.4 Responses in Ecosystem Carbon Balance. - 10.5 Summary. - References. - 11 Evaporation in the Boreal Zone During Summer - Physics and Vegetation / F. M. Kelliher, I. Lloyd, C. Rebmann, C. Wirth and E. D. Schulze, D. D. Baldocchi. - 11.1 Introduction. - 11.2 Climate and Soil Water. - 11.3 Evaporation Theory. - 11.4 Evaporation During Summer and Rainfall. - 11.5 Forest Evaporation, Tree Life Form and Nitrogen. - 11.6 Conclusions. - References. - 12 Past and Future Forest Response to Rapid Climate Change / M.B. Davis. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Long-Distance Dispersal. - 12.3 Estimating Jump Distances. - 12.4 Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Constraints on Establishment. - 12.5 Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Competition for Light and Resulting Constraints on Population Growth. - 12.6 Conclusions. - References. - 13 Biogeochemical Models: Implicit vs. Explicit Microbiology / J. Schimel. - 13.1 Introduction. - 13.2 Microbiology in Biogeochemical Models. - 13.3 Dealing with Microbial Diversity in Models. - 13.4 Kinetic Effects of Microbial Population Size. - 13.5 Microbial Recovery from Stress. - 13.6 Conclusions. - References. - 14 The Global Soil Organic Carbon Pool / M. I. Bird, H. Santruckova, J. Lloyd and E. M. Veenendaal. - 14.1 Introduction: the Soil Carbon Pool and Global Change. - 14.2 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Soil Organic Carbon. - 14.3 Global Variations in the SOC Pool. - 14.4 The Limitations of Available Observational SOC Data. - 14.5 A Stratified Sampling Approach. - 14.6 Conclusions: Sandworld and Clayworld. - References. - 15 Plant Compounds and Their Turnover and Stability as Soil Organic Matter / G. Gleixner, C. Czimczik, C. Kramer, B. M. Lühker and M. W. I. Schmidt. - 15.1 Introduction. - 15.2 Pathways of Soil Organic Matter Formation. - 15.2.1 Formation and Decomposition of Biomass. - 15.2.2 The Influence of Environmental Conditions on SOM Formation. - 15.2.3 For

Note: Enth.: Giess, W.: Die in der Zentralem Namib von Südwestafrika / Namibia festgestellten Pflanzenarten und ihre Biotope

Note: Contents: Part I. Introduction: 1. Probabilistic risk analysis ; Part II. Theoretical Issues and Background: 2. What is uncertainty? ; 3. Probabilistic methods ; 4. Statistical inference ; 5. Weibull analysis ; Part II. System Analysis and Quantification: 6. Fault and event trees ; 7. Fault trees - analysis ; 8. Dependent failures ; 9. Reliability data bases ; 10. Expert opinion ; 11. Human reliability ; 12. Software reliability ; Part IV. Uncertainty Modeling and Risk Measurement: 13. Decision theory ; 14. Influence diagrams and belief nets ; 15. Project risk management ; 16. Probabilistic inversion ; 17. Uncertainty analysis ; 18. Risk measurement and regulation ; Bibliography ; Index.

Note: Contents: 1 Introduction ; 2 Income Taxation ; 3 Models of Optimal Lifetime Income Taxation with Time-Consistent Preferences ; 4 Models of Optimal Lifetime Income Taxation with Time-Inconsistent Preferences ; 5 Incomplete Markets and Social Security ; 6 Models of Optimal Retirement Incentives with Varying Disutility of Labor ; 7 Models of Optimal Retirement Incentives with Varying Life Expectancy ; 8 Pension Insurance Reform with a Focus onGermany ; 9 Theory and Policy

Note: N.F. entfällt ab 57.2000. - Volltext auch als Teil einer Datenbank verfügbar , Ersch. ab 2000 in engl. Sprache mit dt. Hauptsacht.

Note: Literaturverz. S. 265 - 280

Note: Contents: Contents: 1. A long, dark shadow over democratic politics ; 2. The doctrine of democratic irrationalism ; 3. Is democratic voting inaccurate? ; 4. The Arrow general possibility theorem ; 5. Is democracy meaningless? Arrow's condition of unrestricted domain ; 6. Is democracy meaningless? Arrow's condition of the independence of irrelevant alternatives ; 7. Strategic voting and agenda control ; 8. Multidimensional chaos ; 9. Assuming irrational actors: the Powell Amendment ; 10. Assuming irrational actors: the Depew amendment ; 11. Unmanipulating the manipulation: the Wilmot proviso ; 12. Unmanipulating the manipulation: the election of Lincoln ; 13. Antebellum politics concluded ; 14. More of Riker's cycles debunked ; 15. Other cycles debunked ; 16. New dimensions ; 17. Plebiscitarianism against democracy : 18. Democracy resplendent

Note: Contents: Introduction ; Part 1 - Spin Glasses ; 1. The Replica Approach ; 2 The Tap Approach ; 3 Breaking the Replica Symmetry ; 4 The Nature of the Spin Glass Phase ; 5 The Cavity Method ; 6 Dynamics ; Part 2 - Optimization ; 7 Combinatorial Optimization Problems ; 8 Simulated Annealing ; 9 Analytical Results ; Part 3 - Biological Application ; 10 Introduction ; 11 Prebiotic Evolution and Spin ; 12 Brain Modelling ; 13 The Hopfield Model and its Variations

Note: Contents: Introduction / Günther G. Schulze and Heinrich W. Ursprung -- International trade, investment, and the environment: theoretical issues / Günther G. Schulze and Heinrich W. Ursprung -- the empirical evidence on trade, investment, and the environment / Günther G. Schulze and Heinrich W. Ursprung -- the political economy of international trade and the environment / Günther g. Schulze and Heinrich W. Ursprung -- Trade, agriculture, and the environment / David E. Ervin -- International trade and sustainable forestry / Edward B. Barbier -- International trade in Hazardous waste Michael Rauscher -- Environmental taxation in open economies: trade policy distortions and the double dividend / Sjak Smulders -- Sustainable growth in open economies / Lucas Bretschger and Hannes Egli -- Incentives for international environmental cooperation: theoretical models and economic instruments / Carsten Schmidt -- Governing the global environmental commons: the political economy of international environmental treaties and institutions / Roger Congleton

Note: Contents: 1:Information, Equilibrium, Efficiency Concepts ; 2:No-Trade Theorems, Asset Pricing, Bubbles ; 3:Market Microstructure Models ; 4:Dynamic Models, Technical Analysis and Volume ; 5:Herding and Informational Cascades ; 6:Crashes, Investigative Herding, Bank Runs

Note: Contents Introduction 1 Climatic System: Data, Processes, Scales, and Deterministic Models 1.1 Main Components of the Climate System 1.1.1 "Thick" Subsystems 1.1.2 "Thin" Subsystems 1.1.3 Local and Discrete Objects 1.2 Climate Processes 1.2.1 Overview of Climate Processes 1.2.2 External Climate Mechanisms 1.2.3 Internal Mechanisms of Climatie Variations 1.2.4 Transfer-Accumulation Processes 1.3 Scales of Climatic Variability 1.3.1 Spatial Scales 1.3.2 Temporal Scales 1.4 Deterministic Climate Models 1.4.1 General Circulation Models and Coupled Models 1.4.2 Other Types of Climate Models 1.5 Observational Basis for Stochastic Climate Theory 1.5.1 Data on Variability of "Thick" Climatic Subsystems 1.5.1.1 Near-Surface Air Temperature 1.5.1.2 Other Atmospheric Variables 1.5.1.3 Sea Surface Temperature 1.5.1.4 Sea Level 1.5.1.5 lce Sheets 1.5.2 Data on Variables of Thin Earth Covers 1.5.2.1 Snow Cover 1.5.2.2 Sea lce 1.5.2.3 Vegetation Cover 1.5.3 Data on Discrete and Local Climatic Objects 1.5.3.1 River Runoff 1.5.3.2 Lakes 1.5.3.3 Mountain Glaciers 1.5.4 Conclusions on Observational Data 2 Theoretical Foundations of the Stochastic Approach to Climate Variability Studies 2.1 Basic Ideas and Principles of the Stochastic Climate Theory 2.1.1 Mathematical Models and Natural Processes 2.1.2 A Climatic Variable as a Random Variable 2.1.3 Evolution of a Climatic Variable as a Random Function 2.1.4 Stationarity of Climatic Processes 2.2 Introduction to the Theory of Random Functions with Emphasis on Climate Variability 2.2.1 Moments, Mean Value, Correlation Function 2.2.2 The Ergodicity of Climate Variability 2.2.3 Examples of Stationary Random Sequences 2.2.3.1 Uncorrelated Random Variables 2.2.3.2 Moving Averages 2.2.4 Spectral Representation of the Random Process 2.2.5 Climatic Meanings of the Spectral Distribution Function 2.2.6 Spectral Representation of Stationary Sequences 2.2.7 The Markov Sequence 2.2.8 The Discrete Wiener Process 2.2.9 Other Types of Random Functions 2.2.9.1 Autoregressive Models 2.2.9.2 Seasonal Models 2.2.9.3 Threshold Models 2.3 Estimation of Model Parameters 2.3.1 Theoretical Models and the Practice of Model Identification 2.3.2 Informational Approach to the Identification of Stochastic Models 2.3.3 Maximum Entropy Method and Autoregressive Models 2.3.4 Model Identification and Estimation of Model Parameters 2.3.5 An Example ofModel Identification and Parameter Estimation 2.3.6 Frequency Truncation Method of Normalized Spectral Estimates 2.3.7 Other Methods of Time Series Processing 2.3.7.1 Conventional Methods. Moving Average and ARMA models 2.3.7.2 "Deterministic Chaos". Other Methods of Nonlinear Analysis 2.4 Physical Basis of the Stochastic Climate Theory 2.4.1 Atmospheric Forcing ofthe Climate System 2.4.1.1 Observational Evidence 2.4.1.2 Atmospheric Model Results 2.4.1.3 Simple Nonlinear Model as Analog of Atmospheric Forcing 2.4.2 Hasselmann's Stochastic Climate Models 2.4.2.1 Hypothesis on Weather-Climate Two-Scale Separation 2.4.2.2 Classification of Climate Models 2.4.2.3 Analogies with Turbulent Fluid, Brownian Motion, and Other Physical Processes. The Central Limit Theorem 2.4.2.4 Spectra and Correlation Functions of the Stochastic Climate Models. Models Without Feedback 2.4.2.5 Models with Feedback 3 Stochastic Models of Recent Climatic Changes 3.1 Changes in Thick Climatic Subsystems 3.1.1 Local Changes 3.1.1.1 Analysis of Observational Data 3.1.1.2 Local Stochastic Dynamical Models 3.1.2 Regional, Spatially Averaged, and Two-Dimensional Patterns 3.1.2.1 20 Stochastic Patterns of Observational Data 3.1.2.2 Stochastic Dynamical Regional Models 3.1.2.3 Stochastic Models of ENSO Events 3.1.3 Globally Averaged Climate Variables 3.1.3.1 Global Water Mass Exchange. Global Mean Sea Level 3.1.3.2 Global Temperatures 3.1.3.3 "Minus Two" Law of Climatic Variability 3.1.3.4 Stochastic Dynamical Models of Global Temperatures 3.1.3.5 Local-Global Polarization Phenomenon 3.2 Variabilities of Thin Climatic Subsystems 3.2.1 Analyzed Oata 3.2.1.1 37 GHz Polarization Oifference and Related Data 3.2.1.2 Snow and Sea lce Remotely Sensed Data 3.2.1.3 Related Satellite-Based and Conventional Data on Global Air and Sea Temperatures 3.2.2 Comparison of Results for Remotely Sensed and Conventional Data 3.2.2.1 Comparison of Results on Local Scales 3.2.2.2 Globally Averaged 37 GHz Polarization Difference Data. Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 3.2.3 Results of Stochastic Analysis of Local and Regional Hydrological Changes 3.2.3.1 Results of 37 GHz PD Data Analysis for Floodable Areas 3.2.3.2 Results for 37 GHz PD Data on Vegetation Cover in Different Natural Zones 3.2.4 Results of Analysis of Global Changes in Hydrological and Related Parameters 3.2.5 Modeling the Dynamics of Thin Subsystems 3.2.6 Local-Global Polarization Phenomenon and Thin Climatic Subsystems 3.2.7 Discussion on the Global Climatic Subsystems 3.3 Changes in Local and Discrete Climatic Objects 3.3.1 Rivers and River Runoff 3.3.2 Mountain Glaciers 4 Stochastic Models for Glacial Cycles 4.1 Stochastic Analysis of Reconstructed Data on Glacial Cycles 4.1.1 Existing Paleoreconstructed Time Series 4.1.2 Results of Stochastic Analysis of the Last Deglaciation Period, 0 - 18 ka B.P. 4.1.3 Analysis of 200 - 300 ka Time Series 4.1.4 Longer Time Series. Features of Cyclicity 4.1.5 High Resolution Paleorecords 4.2 Zero-Dimensional Model of Glacial Cycles 4.2.1 Hypotheses, Assumptions, and Equations 4.2.2 Results of Numerical Experiments 4.3 Two-Dimensional Stochastic Dynamical Model of Glacial Cycles 4.3.1 Mathematical Model, Parameters, and Experiments 4.3.1.1 Computational Area 4.3.1.2 Equations and Parameters of the Model 4.3.1.3 Numerical Experiments 4.3.2 Results 4.3.2.1 Experiments Without External Forcing 4.3.2.2 Experiments With External Forcing. Globally Averaged Results 4.3.2.3 Zonally Averaged Results 4.3.2.4 Regional Results Conclusion References Index

Note: Contents List of Acronyms List of Symbols Foreword Preface Prologue Chapter 1 Introduction to Ocean Dynamics 1.1 Types, Advantages, and Limitations of Ocean Models 1.2 Recent Examples 1.3 Governing Equations 1.4 Vorticity Conservation 1.5 Nondimensional Numbers and Scales of Motion 1.6 Geostrophic Flow and Thermal Wind 1.7 Inertial Motions 1.8 Ekman Layers 1.9 Sverdrup Transport 1.10 Western Boundary Intensification (Stommel Solution) 1.11 Gyre Scale Circulation (Munk Solution) 1.12 Barotropic Currents over Topography 1.13 Baroclinic Transport over Topography 1.14 Coastal Upwelling and Fronts 1.15 Mesoscale Eddies and Variability 1.16 Thermohaline Circulation and Box (Reservoir) Models 1.17 Numerical Models Chapter 2 Introduction to Numerical Solutions 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Architecture 2.1.2 Computational Errors 2.2 Ordinary Differential Equations 2.2.1 Runge-Kutta Method 2.3 Partial.Differential Equations 2.3.1 Consistency, Convergence, and Stability 2.3.2 Elliptic, Hyperbolic, and Parabolic Systems 2.4 Elliptic Equations and Steady-State Problems 2.4.1 Direct Solvers 2.4.2 Iterative Solvers and Relaxation Methods 2.4.3 Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Method 2.4.4 Multigrid Methods 2.4.5 Pseudo-transient Method 2.5 Time Dependent Problems 2.5.1 Advection Equation and Hyperbolic Systems 2.5.2 Diffusion Equation and Parabolic Systems 2.6 Finite-Difference (Grid Point) Methods 2.6.1 Staggered Grids 2.6.2 Time Differencing and Filtering 2.6.3 Computational Grids 2.7 Spectral (Spectral Transform) Methods 2.8 Finite-Element Methods 2.8.1 Spectral Element Approach 2.9 Parameterization of Subgrid Scale Processes 2.10 Lateral Open Boundary Conditions 2.11 Computational Issues 2.12 Examples 2.12.1 Inertial Oscillations 2.12.2 Thermohaline Circulation 2.12.3 Normal Modes 2.12.4 Gyre Scale Circulation 2.12.5 Advection Problems 2.12.6 M.I.T. Nonhydrostatic Global Model Chapter 3 Equatorial Dynamics and Reduced Gravity Models Solutions 3.1 Oceanic Dynamical Response to Forcing 3.2 Governing Equations 3.3 Equatorial Waves 3.3.1 Kelvin Waves 3.3.2 Yanai Waves 3.3.3 Rossby Waves 3.3.4 Inertia-Gravity (Poincare) Waves 3.4 Equatorial Currents 3.5 Reduced Gravity Model of Equatorial Processes Chapter 4 Midlatitude Dynamics and Quasi-Geostrophic Models 4.1 Linear Motions 4.1.1 Inertia-Gravity (Sverdrup/Poincare) Waves 4.1.2 Kelvin Waves 298 4.1.3 Planetary Ross by Waves 4.1.4 Topographic Rossby Waves 4.2 Continuous Stratification 4.3 Geostrophic Adjustment and Instabilities 4.3.1 Geostrophic Adjustment 4.3.2 Instabilities 4.4 Spinup 4.5 Quasi-Geostrophic Models 4.5.1 Governing Equations 4.5.2 Applications Chapter 5 High-Latitude Dynamics and Sea-Ice Models 5.1 Salient Features of Ice Cover 5.2 Momentum Equations for Sea Ice 5.3 Constitutive Law for Sea Ice (Ice Rheology) 5.3.1 Viscous-Plastic Ice Rheology 5.3.2 Elastic-Viscous-Plastic Ice Rheology 5.4 Continuity Equations for Sea Ice 5.5 Response of Sea Ice to Storm Passage 5.6 Numerics 5.6.1 Governing Equations in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates 5.6.2 Solution Technique Chapter 6 Tides and Tidal Modeling 6.1 Description of Tides 6.2 Formulation: Tidal Potential 6.3 Body, Load, Atmospheric, and Radiational Tides 6.3.1 Body (Solid Earth) Tides 6.3.2 Load Tides 6.3.3 Atmospheric Tides 6.3.4 Radiational Tides 6.4 Dynamical Theory of Tides: Laplace Tidal Equations 6.5 Equilibrium Theory of Tides 6.6 Tidal Analysis: Orthotides 6.7 Tidal Currents 6.8 Global Tidal Models 6.9 Regional Tidal Models 6.10 Geophysical Implications 6.10.1 Tidal Dissipation and LOD 6.10.2 Tidal Energetics 6.11 Changes in Earth's Rotation 6.12 Baroclinic (Internal) Tides 6.13 Long-Period Tides 6.14 Shallow Water Tides and Residual Currents 6.15 Summary Chapter 7 Coastal Dynamics and Barotropic Models 7.1 Wind- and Buoyancy-Driven Currents 7.2 Tidal Motions 7.3 Continental Shelf Waves 7.4 Modeling Shelf Circulation 7.5 Barotropic Models 7.5.1 Coastal Ocean Response to Wind Forcing 7.5.2 Storm Surges and Storm Surge Modeling 7.5.3 Response to Pressure Forcing Chapter 8 Data and Data Processing 8.1 In Situ Observational Data 8.1.1 XBT, CTD, CM, ADCP, and Drifter Data 8.1.2 Historical Hydrographic Data 8.1.3 Historical Marine Surface Data 8.2 Remotely Sensed Data 8.2.1 Sea Surface Temperature from IR Sensors 8.2.2 Sea Surface Winds from Microwave Sensors 8.2.3 Chlorophyll and Optical Clarity from Color Sensors 8.2.4 Sea Surface Height from Satellite Altimetry 8.3 NWP Products 8.4 Preprocessing of Observational Data and Postprocessing of Model Output 8.4.1 Graphics and Visualization of Model Output 8.4.2 Analyses Chapter 9 Sigma-Coordinate Regional and Coastal Models 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Governing Equations 9.3 Vertical Mixing 9.4 Boundary Conditions 9.5 Mode Splitting 9.6 Numerics 9.6.1 Vertical Direction 9.6.2 Horizontal Direction 9.7 Numerical Problems 9.8 Applications 9.9 Code Structure Chapter 10 Multilevel Basin Scale and Global Models 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Governing Equations 10.3 Isopycnal Diffusion 10.4 Architecture and Other Model Features 10.5 Applications 10.6 Hybrid s-Coordinate Models 10.7 Regional z-Level Models Chapter 11 Layered and Isopycnal Models 11.1 Layered Models 11.2 Isopycnal Models Chapter 12 Ice-Ocean Coupled Models 12.1 Sea-Ice Models 12.2 Coupled Ice-Ocean Models Chapter 13 Ocean-Atmosphere Coupled Models 13.1 Coupling between the Ocean and the Atmosphere 13.2 Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere General Circulation Models 13.3 Regional Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Models Chapter 14 Data Assimilation and Nowcasts/ Forecasts 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Direct Insertion 14.3 Nudging 14.4 Statistical Assimilation Schemes 14.4.1 Kalman Filter 14.4.2 Reduced State Space Kalman Filters 14.4.3 Optimal Interpolation (OI) Scheme 14.5 Variational Methods 14.5.1 Adjoint Models 14.6 Predictability of Nonlinear Systems-Low Order Paradigms 14.7 Nowcasts/Forecasts in the Gulf of Mexico Appendix A Equations of State A.1 Equation of State for the Ocean A.2 Equation of State for the Atmosphere Appendix B Wavelet Transforms B.1 Introduction B.1.1 Theory B.1.2 Continuous Wavelet Transforms (CWT) B.1.3 Discrete Wavelet Transforms (DWT) B.2 Examples B.3 Wavelet Transforms and Stochastic Processes B.4 Two-Dimensional Wavelet Transforms B.5 Cross Wavelet Transforms (CrWT) B.6 Error Analysis Appendix C Empirical Orthogonal Functions and Empirical Normal Modes C.1 Empirical Orthogonal Functions C.1.1 Complex EOFs C.1.2 Singular Spectrum Analysis C.1.3 Extended EOFs C.1.4 Coupled Pattern Analysis C.2 Empirical Normal Modes Appendix D Units and Constants D.1 Useful Quantities D.1.1 SI (International System of Units) Units and Conventions D.1.2 Useful Conversion Factors D.1.3 Useful Universal Constants D.1.4 Useful Geodetic Constants D.1.5 Useful Physical Constants D.1.6 Useful Dynamical Quantities D.2 Important Scales and Quantities D.2.1 Length Scales D.2.2 Timescales D.2.3 Velocity Scales D.2.4 Nondimensional Quantities D.3 Useful Websites References Biographies Index

Note: Contents Foreword Preface Summary for Policymakers Synthesis Report Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9 Working Group Summaries Working Group I: The Scientific Basis Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability Working Group III: Mitigation Annexes A. Authors and Expert Reviewers B. Glossary of Terms C. Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Units D. Scientific, Technical, and Socio-Economic Questions Selected by the Panel E. List of Major IPCC Reports