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  • Articles  (471)
  • Wiley-Blackwell  (471)
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  • 1995-1999  (471)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Three-dimensional yield strength properties of jointed rock mass as a homogenized medium (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 1-24 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: jointed rocks ; strength criterion ; homogenization method ; yield design ; anisotropy ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A comprehensive three-dimensional formulation for the strength criterion of regular jointed rocks is derived in this paper. The approach is based upon the implementation of the homogenization method of periodic media within the framework of the yield design theory. A rigorous explicit expression of the macroscopic criterion is given as a function of the strength properties of the intact rock and of the joints modelled as interfaces. Attention is focused on the particular case of an infinitely resistance intact rock. It is shown in particular how the relevant velocity jumps for the homogenized medium can be characterized from the introduction of the set of admissible stress vectors acting upon an elementary surface. The results make it possible to perform the static and kinematic approaches in order to address the stability analysis of rock masses cut by sets of regular joints, even for the three-dimensional geometries.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Time dependent mechanical behaviour of loose sands (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 45-73 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: loose sand ; load controlled triaxial tests ; creep tests ; time dependency delayed mechanical response ; elasto viscoplasticity ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The time dependency of loose sands mechanical behaviour has been experimentally analysed and theoretically interpreted. A series of load controlled triaxial tests, by imposing finite load increments, has been performed. The single load increments are followed by variable time periods, in order to carry out many classical creep tests.According to the authors, the considered time dependency is due to the internal fabric rearrangement of the granular assembly, i.e. to the plastic strain development with time.This mechanical peculiarity is theoretically interpreted by means of an elastoviscoplastic constitutive model. This is a very simple extension of a previous incremental elastoplastic constitutive model and appears to be capable to reproduce experimental data quite well.Finally, the importance of the considered time dependency is underlined, both by considering numerical solutions and in analysing unstable natural and experimental phenomena.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Plane shear waves and loss of stability in a saturated granular body (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 25-44 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: shear waves ; spontaneous liquefaction ; stability ; hypoplasticity ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A theoretical study of plane shear waves in a fully saturated granular medium is presented using a hypoplastic constitutive relation for the solid constituent. Dynamic equations for small disturbances about an initial state are derived and analysed with constitutive parameters for Karlsruhe sand. Permanent changes in stresses during the propagation of waves are shown to result in the liquefaction of the material. As follows from the equations, in the general case the propagation is characterized by two different wave speeds, corresponding to the plus or minus sign of the velocity gradient, i.e. to different directions of an instantaneous shear. The values of the wave speeds depend on the initial state (stresses and void ratio) as well as on the orientation of the wave with respect to the principal stresses of the initial stress tensor. If the granular material is loose enough and the initial stress state differs from the hydrostatic one, it is possible that one of the wave speeds becomes imaginary, i.e. physically does not exist. This case means a loss of stability of the body in the sense that a small boundary disturbance results in a flow of the whole mass which cannot be prevented by a boundary control. Such a solution can be viewed as a model of spontaneous liquefaction. The condition obtained for stability is compared with the one derived from the analysis of the second-order work.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Computational aspects of a softening plasticity model for plain concrete (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 75-94 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete modelling ; softening plasticity ; fracture energy models ; stress return ; five parameter model ; improved predictors ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Several computational aspects of the fracture energy based softening plasticity model for plain concrete are considered. A need for a more robust stress return strategy is identified, as the basic closest point projection algorithm leads to regions of nonconvergence, associated with zones of high curvature near the compressive meridian close to the apex. The use of an intermediate stress return to an auxiliary surface to establish an improved predictor is proposed, in conjunction with a controlled scaling of stress return increments, ensuring convergence and providing an efficient and robust stress return strategy.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Editorial (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. iii 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cfm.1600010101
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A multiphase medium model for localisation and postlocalisation simulation in geomaterials (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 95-114 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: multiphase material ; strain localisation ; averaging theories ; pore pressure ; cavitation ; finite element method ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: It is recalled that negative water pressures are of importance in localisation phenomena of fully saturated, undrained samples of dilatant geomaterials. A model to simulate cavitation phenomena connected with such pore water tractions is developed and implemented in a simplified form in a dynamics code for partially saturated porous media. A case of localisation is studied from the onset of the instability up to the full developed shear band. The weak mesh dependence of the maximum effective plastic strain, due to the employed physical model, is also shown.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Experimental investigation of concrete fracture under uniaxial compression (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 115-127 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete ; fracture ; uniaxial compression tests ; boundary restraint ; slenderness ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Localization of deformations has been investigated in a series of displacement controlled uniaxial compression experiments. Of main interest are the effects of specimen slenderness and friction between loading platen and specimen. Both effects have a direct influence on the development of localized fracture zones in the specimen. The results indicate that the use of a double layer of teflon with an intermediate layer of grease yields size-independent results as far as the pre-peak stress-strain behaviour and the peak strength are concerned. However, in terms of stress and strain, a significant influence of both the specimen slenderness and the amount of boundary restraint has been observed in the post-peak regime. It is found that the post-peak curves become almost completely identical when they are plotted in terms of nominal stress and post-peak displacement. For any type of loading platen used, the post-peak relative stress-displacement curves are found to be independent of the specimen height. Furthermore, since during post-peak localization relative sliding and movements of larger parts of the specimen are observed, the definition of a unique Poisson's ratio is virtually impossible.
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Damage and localisation in elastic materials with voids (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 129-144 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: damage ; void growth ; softening ; localisation ; bifurcation ; rupture ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An extension of the theory of elastic material with voids to the case where the material undergoes an irreversible void growth is presented. The particularity of this theory is that the continuum is described by two kinematic variables: the displacements and the variation of the volume fraction of material in the porous continuum. Motion is controlled by two governing equations, the classical one involving the displacement or stresses and another one that involves the other kinematic variable, similar to the governing equation in heat conduction problems. The degradation of the elastic moduli is described in the model by a damage scalar variable. A simplified model where the damage variable is proportional to the irreversible variation of volume fraction of material is discussed. From the governing equations, it is deduced that the equation which governs the growth of damage involves the second gradient of damage and a material parameter which plays the role of an internal length according to the analysis of strain localisation. The finite element implementation of the theory is briefly presented. The two variables are discretised separately and the form of the equations to be solved is similar to those obtained in coupled thermoelasticity. One dimensional finite element results of strain localisation show that a proper convergence upon mesh refinement is obtained. The equation which governs the irreversible variation of volume fraction (or the damage growth) acts as a localisation limiter.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Failure criterion, flow rule and dissipation function derived from hypoplasticity (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 145-163 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: constitutive model ; hypoplasticity ; failure criterion ; flow rule ; dissipation function ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Failure criterion, flow rule and dissipation function derived from a class of incrementally non-linear, so-called hypoplastic, constitutive equations are presented. Although the hypoplastic model is developed without recourse to some concepts pertinent to pasticity theory, such as failure surface, plastic potential, flow rule and decomposition of deformation into elastic and plastic parts, it is shown how these concepts may be obtained as natural outcomes of the constitutive model. A connection of the hypoplastic model to Truesdell's hypoelasticity theory and of the derived failure criterion and flow rule to their hypoelastic counterparts is made. By defining the plastic strain rate properly, the dissipation surface is obtained based on the principle of maximum entropy production. Furthermore, the plastic potential is constructed with reference to the direction of plastic strain rate. Finally, the failure surface, flow rule and dissipation surface obtained with a specific hypoplastic constitutive equation are presented and compared with experimental results in the literature.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Homogenization for Granular Materials: non reversible behaviour (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 199-218 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: homogenization ; granular material ; yield surface ; elasticity ; plasticity ; modelling ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Using a homogenization framework, this paper proposes a description of the non-reversible behaviour of granular materials. First the basic equations are reviewed and some general elasticity results are presented with a comparison to DEM simulations. The global non-reversible behaviour is introduced by the definition of local conditions of contact stability: loss of contact and sliding. The first consequence is the possible definition of global yield surfaces and thus failure surfaces. These surfaces are compared to the usual plastic criteria. The influence of the different homogenization parameters introduced by the definition of localization and averaging operators is also studied. In the last section, a simulation of non-reversible behaviour is presented. Comparisons to experimental data are made in the case of simple loading paths (isotropic compression, triaxial test) as well as in complex loading histories.
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996) 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cfm.1600010201
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Validity and Limits of the Effective Stress Concept in Geomechanics (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 219-234 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: effective stress ; theory of mixture ; compressibility ; pore-water pressure ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The effective stress concept in geomechanics advocated by Terzaghi is historically reviewed and the mechanical interpretation of this concept is clarified based on the theory of mixtures. In the interpretation of the effective stress concept, both the compressibility of the constituents and the balance of force are taken into consideration. The effectiveness of the effective stress comes from the fact that the descriptions of the effective stress in undrained and unjacketed conditions are approximately equal, although the role of the pore-water pressure under different test conditions is not the same. It is shown that the effective stress concept is also applicable to soft rock. Finally, classical interpretations and various definitions of the effective stresses are critically examined.
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Creep, damage and failure around large rectangular-like caverns and galleries (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 165-197 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: creep ; dilatancy ; damage ; stability ; failure ; galleries ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An analysis of stability of rectangular-like galleries or caverns is developed from the point of view of creep, creep failure and short-time failure. The initial stress distribution around the cavern just after excavation is obtained with an exact elastic solution. Further this solution is used in conjunction with an elastic/viscoplastic non-associated constitutive equation to determine first the domains around the excavation where the rock becomes dilatant, where compressible, and where a short-time failure is expected. This constitutive equation is further used to determine the creep of the rock around the opening, and where and when a creep failure is to be expected due to excessive dilatancy. It is shown that the location of the incipient creep failure depends on the stress concentration due to the presence of the ‘corners’, on the possible elongated shape of the cavern, and also to the stress concentration induced by the far field stresses. This location also depends on the internal pressure and on depth, and it can be determined quite accurately. Thus the location of incipient creep damage depends on a variety of parameters and the determination of this exact location is very important, and is described in this paper. It is shown that the evolutive damage is spreading mainly in the direction of minimum far field stresses or in the direction of greater elongation of the cross-section. The same constitutive equation allows us to determine the creep convergence (or divergence) of the walls, where this creep is quite fast and when for the first time the incipient creep failure due to dilatancy is to be expected. This timing depends primarily on the magnitude of octahedral shear stress. The time up to creep failure is shorter if this stress is larger (close to the short-term failure value), but tends towards infinity if the stress is relatively small (close but still above the compressibility/dilatancy boundary). Once the various failure modes are well understood the orientation and magnitude of far field stresses can be determined by this analysis if not known a priori. Also, once the location of losing the stability and that of the volume of rock involved in fast creep and creep failure are determined, one can suggest the optimal design of a support. The way in which the stress variation is influencing the above mentioned problem will be discussed in forthcoming papers. While the authors recognize the importance of the pre-existing rock discontinuities in the overall cavern stability, it was thought that a better understanding of this stability starts from analyzing a rock without such pre-existing discontinuities. The examples are given for rock salt.
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Announcement (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. i 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cfm.1600010202
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Book Review: Computational Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Günter Hofstetter and Herbert A. Mang. Vieweg, Weisbaden, Germany, 1995. 366pp. (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 357-357 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    On shear band localization phenomena of liquid-saturated granular elastoplastic porous solid materials accounting for fluid viscosity and micropolar solid rotations (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 301-320 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: theory of porous media ; micropolar grain rotations ; liquid-saturated cohesive-frictional granular elastoplastic skeleton materials ; single-surface yield function ; non-associated flow ; shear band localization ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Elastoplastic deformations of cohesive-frictional liquid-saturated granular solid materials can be described by use of a macroscopic continuum mechanical approach within the well-founded framework of the theory of porous media (TPM). In the present contribution, the TPM formulation of the skeleton material is extended by micropolar degrees of freedom in the sense of the Cosserat brothers. Proceeding from two basic assumptions, material incompressibility of both constituents (skeleton material and pore liquid) and geometrically linear solid deformations, the non-symmetric effective skeleton stress and the couple stress tensor are determined by linear elasticity laws. In the framework of the ideal plasticity concept, the plastic yield limit is governed by a smooth and closed single-surface yield function together with non-associated flow rules for both the plastic strain rate and the plastic rate of curvature tensor. Fluid viscosity is taken into account by the drag force.The inclusion of micropolar degrees of freedom, in contrast to the usual continuum mechanical approach to the TPM, allows, on the one hand, for the determination of the local average grain rotations and, on the other hand, additionally yields a regularization effect on the solution of the strongly coupled system of governing equations when shear banding occurs. However, in the framework of the original TPM formulation of fluid-saturated porous materials, the inclusion of the fluid viscosity alone also yields a certain regularization on shear band computations. The numerical examples are solved by use of finite element discretization techniques, where, in particular, the computation of shear band localization phenomena is carried out by the example of the well-known base failure problem of geotechnical engineering. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Closed-form solution on the thermoplastic behaviour of a deep tunnel in a thermal-softening material (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 321-337 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: thermal-softening behaviour ; transient evolution ; corner flow ; analytical solution ; convergence-confinement concept ; thermomechanical interaction ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A closed-form solution of deep tunnel subject to an internal pressure and to an axisymmetrical time-dependent temperature field is presented. The material is supposed to have a thermal-softening behaviour, the cohesion decreasing with the temperature. The thermal expansion generates plastic zones with face flow and corner flow, which can coexist and interact. The explicit character of the solution allows rigorous demonstrations of the evolution of such plastic zones, as well as other interesting and fundamental properties of the thermoplastic behaviour of deep tunnels. On the other hand, the causal relationship between the thermomechanical loading and the structural response (convergence, extension of rupture zones) is rendered transparent, thanks to the simplicity of the analytical solution. The consequence of thermal-softening is clearly shown by comparison with the analytical solution for a constant cohesion previously established. Quantitatively, its importance is illustrated by a restricted parametric study, to which the analytical solution is ideally suited. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
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    Modelling the strengths of engineering materials in three dimensions (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 339-356 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: biaxial tests ; combined stresses ; compressive strength ; engineering materials ; failure ; failure surfaces ; mathematical models ; tensile strength ; triaxial tests ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A general, three-dimensional failure criterion is presented. This criterion is formulated in terms of the first and third stress invariants of the stress tensor, and it involves only three independent material parameters. Although these parameters interact with one another, each parameter corresponds to one of three failure characteristics of material behaviour. These material parameters may be determined from any type of strength test, including the simplest possible, such as uniaxial compression and tension tests or biaxial tests for materials with cohesion and tensile strength, and by triaxial compression tests for materials without tensile strength. The procedure for determination of the three material parameters is demonstrated and comparisons between the failure criterion and experimental results are presented for different types of engineering materials. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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  • 19
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    Assessment of some failure criteria for strongly anisotropic geomaterials (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 1-26 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: anisotropy ; failure criterion ; schist ; sedimentary rock ; rock joints ; laboratory testing ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This paper is devoted to the assessment of some representative failure criteria in the framework of modelling the failure behaviour of strongly anisotropic geomaterials. Experimental data concerning the failure behaviour of a typical strongly anisotropic rock; the schist of Angers are first presented. Nine widely used failure criteria are then selected and classified into three groups, the mathematical continuous models, the empirical continuous models and the discontinuous weakness planes based models. This classification is made up according to the main assumptions and techniques used in each criterion to describe the strength anisotropy. The calibration of each one is carried out with respect to the laboratory data of Angers schist. Qualitative and quantitative comparisons between the selected criteria and with the experimental data are provided. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
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    A new anisotropic failure criterion for transversely isotropic solids (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 89-103 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: transversely isotropic material ; elliptic paraboloid failure surface ; strength differential effect ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A coordinate-free formulation of a failure criterion for transversely isotropic solids is proposed. In the three-dimensional stress space the criterion is represented by an elliptic paraboloid. The anisotropic form of the proposed criterion is based on generalization of the second invariant of the deviatoric stress and of the mean stress obtained through the introduction of a unique fourth-order tensor. For isotropic conditions, the criterion reduces to the Mises-Schleicher failure condition. It is shown that the criterion satisfactorily predicts the strength anisotropy of transversely isotropic rocks subjected to an axisymmetric stress state. The procedure for the identification of the parameters of the criterion from a few simple laboratory tests is outlined. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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  • 21
    Electronic Resource
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    A model for ageing visco-elastic tension softening materials (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 27-39 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: creep ; effective spring concept ; Kelvin chain model ; load bearing volume ; micromechanical model ; relaxation ; softening spring ; solidification ; tension softening ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An analytical constitutive model similar to the Kelvin chain rheological model associated with solidification theory, is developed for time-dependent tension softening of ageing materials like concrete. The stiffness of spring elements is allowed to vary with time via a function of load bearing volume fraction as in the solidification theory. The development of cracks reduces the load bearing volume fraction with time, so that the overall behaviour of springs is a softening type. A reduction in the load bearing volume with time ensures a gradual reduction in the spring stiffness without violating prescribed retardation times. In some circumstances, depending on the boundary conditions, the stress in a structure can remain unchanged over a period of time. During this period, any cracks in the structure will continue to experience an increased opening due to creep. In other parts of the structure, again depending on the boundary conditions, the crack opening displacements may remain unchanged over a period of time, so that the stress will relax over these parts of the structure. In a large concrete structure, creep and relaxation may be taking place simultaneously in different parts or in the same part but at different times. There is thus a need for a visco-elastic tension softening model for ageing concrete that will cater for both creep and relaxation. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    A constitutive model coupling elastoplasticity and damage for cohesive-frictional materials (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 41-63 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: elastoplasticity ; damage ; bonded geomaterials ; triaxial testing ; intact and remoulded specimen ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In order to model the various phenomena which govern the mechanical response of bonded geomaterials under monotonic loadings, an elastoplastic model coupled with an elastic model with damage was developed, taking into account both the frictional and cohesive aspects of these materials. First, the principles at the base of the model are presented, as well as the physical meaning of the parameters which were used in the elastic model with damage. In order to illustrate the capabilities of the model to reproduce the mechanical behaviour of bonded geomaterials, we simulated triaxial tests on various materials: a deep cemented clay, whose heterogeneity from one specimen to another appeared mainly due to the calcium carbonate content; an assembly of sintered glass balls; and an artificially cemented sand. In this last example, various initial mean stresses allowed us to enlighten the brittle-ductile transition which was modelled by introducing the mean confining pressure in the damage evolution law. We demonstrated that the parameters of each part of the model could be adapted to reproduce the observed general trends. For weak bonds, the elastoplastic part played the predominant role, whereas for strong bonds, the elastic part with damage governed the mechanical behaviour. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    An investigation on the uniqueness of the incremental response of elastoplastic models for virgin sand (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 65-87 
    Details
    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: elastoplasticity ; sand ; constitutive modelling ; controllability ; instability ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The paper investigates the possibility of the occurrence of a multiplicity of homogeneous responses of soil specimens under the same incremental loading, and the associated non-controllability of the imposed loading path.It is shown that for non-associated elastoplastic strain-hardening constitutive laws, such a possibility exists even in the hardening regime. Only when the stiffness matrix is positive-definite is the incremental solution unique for any loading programme.A particular constitutive model is chosen and the shape of the loci of non-uniqueness is calculated for various loading programmes. It is shown that the conditions for the occurrence of a shear band and of a peak of the deviator stress in a triaxial undrained test can be seen as special cases of the theory presented. Accordingly, the so-called ‘instability line’ concept in undrained conditions is generalized. © 1998 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    ALE analyses of localization in wave propagation problems (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 105-125 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: localization ; non-local damage ; Perzyna viscoplasticity ; mesh adaptivity ; Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian technique ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The computational modelling of localization of deformation in cohesive-frictional materials must be carried out in a proper, accurate and efficient manner. A proper solution can be obtained by using an enriched material description such as a non-local damage model or Perzyna's viscoplasticity model. However, still a large number of finite elements is needed for an accurate description of the localization zone. To improve efficiency, mesh adaption is applied here by means of the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) technique. The ALE technique must typically be applied in combination with an enriched material model. Otherwise, the use of a standard model gives a zero-width solution of the localization zone and therefore remeshing results in a continuing decrease of finite element size. Implementation of this method requires the addition of convective forces in the equations of motion, transport of the state variables and the formulation of a remeshing strategy. The remeshing strategy heavily determines the success of the ALE method. Three examples of wave propagation have been treated and it is shown that a suitable remeshing strategy in combination with an enriched material model leads to proper, accurate and efficient analyses of the localization process. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons. Ltd.
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    Daphnis: a new model for the description of post-localization behaviour: application to sands (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 127-153 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: constitutive equations ; post-localization behaviour ; large strain ; interface model ; bifurcation ; shear band ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This paper addresses developments on a constitutive model able to describe the post-localized behaviour of structures composed by geomaterials. The behaviour of the shear band is defined by means of a specific non-linear constitutive equation in the framework of large strain. Concept of ‘consistency’ of this model with the CLoE model from which it is derived at the onset of localization is discussed. During the post-localization regime this model evolves in a specific way by introducing the concept of critical void ratio. After some recalls about the CLoE framework and about a Rice bifurcation analysis involving CLoE models, the basic concepts of the Daphnis model are introduced. The last part of this paper is devoted to numerical results on an initially homogeneous frictionless biaxial test. The behaviour of the sample is modelled by means of a plane Mohr Coulomb model defined in the CLoE framework and its associated Daphnis model is used to characterize the specific behaviour of the shear band in the post-localization regime. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Development of a plasticity bond model for steel reinforcement (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 155-180 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: reinforced concrete ; bond model ; plasticity ; interface ; yield surface ; modelling ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The development of an interface, non-associative, plasticity model for bond between ribbed, steel bars and concrete is discussed. The model relates average local slip and radial dilation to average bond shear stress and radial confinement stress. The model partially accounts for the response of the damaged, finite-thickness region around the bar - the bond zone. The model is developed for standard steel bars that are initially unstrained. With simplifying assumptions, data for the components of a plasticity law are extracted from a key set of experimental results. In this paper, we emphasize the development of an expression for the yield surface for monotonic loading. While the forms of the model's components are empirically derived, they qualitatively reflect the mechanics of the mechanical interaction of ribbed bars with the adjacent concrete. A characteristic length, related to the rib pattern, helps quantify this interaction. The mechanics of the bond are difficult to characterize in a simple form, but the calibrated model only requires four physical properties and reproduces with acceptable accuracy experimental results with various levels of radial confinement stress. Model refinements are suggested for future work. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    FE-Simulation of compaction and solid-state sintering of cemented carbides (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 181-205 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: cemented ; carbide ; finite ; element ; compaction ; sintering ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: We have developed a tool for simulating the press cycle and the sintering cycle of cemented carbides. A constitutive model for compaction and tensile fracture has been implemented in the explicit FE programme LS-DYNA2D, and it has been tuned to experiments of hydrostatic compression, uniaxial strain and conventional triaxial compression. The programme simulates the complete compaction cycle in a robust manner. Friction against the tooling is properly taken into account. We have further developed a constitutive model for the stress-free solid-state sintering to also account for a mechanical stress field. The sintering model is based on physical concepts, diffusion parameters, free surface energy, dimensions of carbide grains, etc. of the constituents, and was tuned to successfully simulate the unloaded and loaded sintering of simple specimens. The models of compaction and sintering have a common set of state variables, such that after the compaction cycle, and at raising the temperature the sintering starts out with proper account of the residual stress field. Finally, the potential of the model is demonstrated by simulating the production cycle of a simple WC-Co tool piece until sintering to 75% of full density. The final geometrical shape of the specimen is compared to experimental data. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    A superstable time-discrete scheme for the numerical integration of viscous constitutive equations (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 229-256 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: finite element method ; viscous constitutive equations ; time-discrete scheme ; stability ; superstability ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The general framework of the paper deals with the finite element modelling of mechanical problems involving viscous materials such as bitumen or bituminous concrete. Its aim is to present a second-order-accurate discrete scheme which remains unconditionally superstable when used for the time discretization of the linear and non-linear viscoelastic constitutive equations considered. After stating the space- and time-continuous mechanical problem we focus on the time discretization of these equations, considering three different schemes. For both of them sufficiently small values of the time step are required in order to ensure the superstability, whereas the third remains unconditionally superstable. Eventually, some numerical results are presented. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Numerical simulations of impacts using a discrete element method (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 257-276 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: impacts ; structural damage ; discrete element method ; dynamic loading ; scabbing ; perforation ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Impacts of rigid spherical nose shaped missiles on concrete beams are simulated with a discrete element method. The history of the structural damage of the beam is followed from the very first crushing and fracturing processes to the ultimate fragmentation step. Spalling, scabbing, penetration and perforation events are characterized and compared with real test cases of the civil engineering industry. It is found that these phenomena depend not only on the kinetic energy of the missile as predicted by some recent empirical laws but also on its momentum. This means that the dynamic impact loading time is determinant in the scabbing and perforation thicknesses. When the numerical data is plotted against the empirical rules determined from experimental data, the fit is good although the model is two dimensional. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Failure design of jointed rock structures by means of a homogenization approach (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 207-228 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: jointed rock masses ; stability ; failure ; yield design ; homogenization ; strength anisotropy ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: Conceived as a potential alternative to the methods usually employed for evaluating the stability of jointed rock masses, the homogenization approach developed in this paper stems from the intuitive idea that, from a macroscopic point of view, a rock mass intersected by a regular network of joint surfaces may be perceived as a homogeneous continuum. The failure criterion of such an equivalent medium is theoretically determined from the knowledge of the failure conditions of the individual constituents, namely the intact rock matrix and joint interfaces. Owing to the existence of privileged material directions associated with the joint orientation distribution, this criterion turns out to be of the anisotropic frictional type, as shown by the closed-form expression obtained in the particular case of two mutually orthogonal joint sets. This criterion is then applied to the investigation of two illustrative engineering problems: the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of a shallow foundation on a jointed rock half-space and the stability analysis of an excavation. Both problems are handled by means of the kinematic method of yield design, making use of the previously determined macroscopic failure condition. The upper bound estimates thus derived appear to be significantly better than those obtained from a direct analysis in which the intact rock matrix and joints are considered separately. In spite of some limitations regarding its range of applicability, which are underlined throughout the paper, the homogenization approach may constitute an appropriate general framework for the design of densely jointed rock structures. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Experimental behaviour of fibre concrete slabs on soil (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 277-290 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: experimental analysis ; slabs on soil ; reinforced concrete ; steel fibres ; fracture energy ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The cracking control of plain concrete slabs on soil foundation requires the execution of joints with mechanisms of load transfer between adjacent panels. These joints increase the construction costs and, often, are the source of local damage and loss of service performance. Slabs reinforced with steel wire mesh have been used in order to increase the load-carrying capacity and to enhance the cracking control. However, the use of this conventional reinforcement increases the costs, mainly due to labour time spent on the arrangement and positioning of the reinforcement.Fibre-reinforced concrete is a recent material well fitted for applications in industrial floors on soil foundation. The cost of fibres is compensated by a faster construction process and a reduction in the number of expansion joints. The fatigue, impact and flexural strength are significantly improved when steel fibres are added to the concrete mix.The work developed aims to contribute to the on going research effort to clarify the behaviour of fibre-reinforced concrete slabs on soil foundation. For this purpose, an experimental and numerical investigation were carried out. The present article deals basically with the experimental work developed, describing the tests performed and discussing the main results obtained. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Enhanced consolidation in brittle geomaterials susceptible to damage (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 291-303 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: poroelasticity ; isotropic damage ; brittle geomaterials ; enhanced consolidation ; saturated geomaterials ; computational modelling ; indentation of geomaterials ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This paper examines consolidation behaviour of saturated geomaterials with a matrix component which is susceptible to damage. Finite-element-based computational model accounts for the alteration in both the deformability and permeability characteristics of the porous material due to damage evolution. The isotropic damage criteria governing the evolution of elastic stiffness and hydraulic conductivity parameters are characterized by the dependency of the damage variable on the distortional strain invariant. The computational procedure is utilized to evaluate the extent to which the time-dependent axisymmetric indentation behaviour of a rigid circular punch on a poroelastic half-space can be influenced by the damage evolution in the porous skeleton. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    A multilayered mixed beam element in gradient plasticity for the analysis of localized failure modes (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 305-322 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: strain localization ; finite element ; mesh sensitivity ; regularization ; gradient plasticity ; multilayered concrete beams ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A gradient-dependent plasticity theory is applied to finite element solutions of static strain localization problems. Assuming weak satisfaction of constitutive equations, a multilayered beam finite element with a mixed character is developed. The plastic strain field is discretized in addition of the displacement field. A consistent Newton-Raphson algorithm for this approach is presented. Some examples are carried out in order to illustrate the approach and verify the performances of the element. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Sliding friction, Physical Principles and Applications by Bo N. J. Persson, Springer, Berlin, 1998 (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 365-365 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: No Abstract
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    Gradient-enhanced damage modelling of concrete fracture (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 323-342 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete fracture ; computational modelling ; continuum damage mechanics ; localization ; regularization ; gradient enhancement ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Classical continuum damage theory for quasi-brittle fracture exhibits an extreme sensitivity to the fineness and orientation of the spatial discretization in finite element simulations. This sensitivity is caused by the fact that the mathematical description becomes ill-posed at a certain level of accumulated damage. The ill-posedness can be removed by the use of a gradient-enhanced damage model. In this model, higher-order deformation gradients give rise to a non-local effect, which regularizes the localization of deformation and thus renders numerical analyses mesh-objective.The mesh objectivity of the gradient-enhanced damage approach is demonstrated by the application to two concrete fracture experiments: a double-edge notched bar subjected to a uniaxial, tensile load and a single-edge notched beam under anti-symmetric four-point loading. Both the initiation and the propagation of damage can be simulated. Particularly the latter aspect calls for an appropriate definition of the strain measure which governs the evolution of damage. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    On the linearization of the microplane model (1998)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3 (1998), S. 343-364 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete modelling ; microplane model ; anisotropic damage ; consistent linearization ; localization analysis ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: The paper addresses the microplane model in the context of localization analysis. Capable of reproducing experimental results of concrete specimens, the microplane model includes anisotropic damage in a natural and conceptually simple and explicit way. However, the efficiency of former microplane implementations suffers from the expense of the solution procedure being based on the secant stiffness method. Within this paper, the macroscopic constitutive equation derived by kinematically constraining the microplane strains to the macroscopic strain tensor is consistently linearized resulting in quadratic convergence of the Newton-Raphson iteration for the equilibrium equations. A fully three-dimensional model will be presented and linearized incorporating the two-dimensional case in a natural fashion. Furthermore, the localization criterion is analysed, indicating locally the onset of localization in terms of the acoustic tensor. Several examples demonstrate the features of the microplane model in predicting the material behaviour of concrete in tension and compression as well as in shear. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Boundary element analysis of the pullout behaviour of an anchor bolt embedded in concrete (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 235-249 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: boundary element method ; concrete ; fracture mechanics ; fictitious crack model ; crack growth ; contact mechanics ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: A boundary element formulation for the analysis of pullout behaviour of an anchor bolt embedded in concrete is presented. The pullout analysis involves modelling two different bodies (i.e. anchor head and concrete) which are in contact over a certain region. The fracture of concrete is represented by the fictitious crack model (FCM) in which the fracture zone is replaced by applying closing forces on both crack surface. The FCM in conjunction with the boundary element method (BEM) allows the simulation of crack growth in concrete in a straight forward manner without remeshing. The crack path need not be known in advance as it is calculated during the iteration process. The numerical results obtained are compared with the round-robin analysis of pullout test proposed by RILEM TC 90-FMA.
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    A hypoplastic relation for granular materials with a predefined limit state surface (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 251-271 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: constitutive law ; plasticity ; hypoplasticity ; asymptotic state ; limit surface ; sand ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: A hypoplastic theory for granular materials developed by Gudehus and Bauer is discussed. The description of asymptotic states is of particular interest. Three forms of asymptotic states are defined. Useful criteria to describe the tensorial part of the constitutive relation is developed for one of them, namely for the critical states. The terms proposed by Wu are correlated to the well-known formulations of elastic plastic theory: the Drucker/Prager model and the yield condition by Matsuoka/Nakai. The suitability of the Matsuoka/Nakai criterion for critical states is discussed.Specification of tensorial functions follows in two steps. First the hypoplastic Drucker/Prager model is developed, and then the limit condition by Matsuoka/Nakai is implemented. The resulting tensorial functions require the critical friction angle as the only material constant. The limit condition in critical states obtained from the hypoplastic law coincide with the one by Matsuoka/Nakai. A more comprehensive hypoplastic constitutive relation based on these new tensorial functions is discussed and applied to simulations of element tests. These numerical results are compared with experimental results for sand.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996) 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cfm.1600010301
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    A matrix formulation for the elastoplastic homogenisation of layered materials (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 273-294 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: homogenisation ; layered media ; non-linear analysis ; plasticity ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: In this article attention is given to the homogenisation of periodic layered materials. Based on the assumption of a homogeneous state of stress and strain in each layer, a novel matrix formulation capable of representing the elastic behaviour of the composite material is established. The matrix formulation yields a much clearer implementation of linear elastic homogenisation algorithms and a relatively straightforward extension to inelastic behaviour. The theory of plasticity, which is adopted to describe the inelastic behaviour, follows modern concepts, including a unconditionally stable implicit Euler backward return mapping, a local Newton-Raphson method and a consistent tangent stiffness matrix. A comparison between the homogenised continuum and the standard continuum with an exact discretisa tion of the geometry of the composite shows excellent agreement, both in the presence of elastic and inelastic material behaviour.
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    Time-dependent tension softening (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 295-304 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: creep ; effective spring concept ; micromechanical model ; relaxation ; rheological model ; softening-type spring ; tension softening ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: A methodology that combines a rheological model for viscoelastic behaviour with a micromechanical model for tension softening through the effective spring concept is developed for materials exhibiting both tension softening and time-dependent behaviour. Spring elements with softening characteristics and dashpot with varying viscosity are used for this purpose. The characteristics of the spring elements and dashpot are obtained from a micromechanical model which relates the microstructure of the material to its tension softening response. The softening-type springs ensure gradual reduction in stiffness, whereas the dashpot with varying viscosity ensures that the retardation and relaxation times equal prescribed values. In this way, both the stress and crack opening are allowed to vary with time to reflect the real behaviour of a time-dependent tension softening material. The methodology is illustrated on the simple Poynting- Thompson rheological model, without restricting its application to more sophisticated models.
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    Numerical analysis of concrete structures subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 305-319 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete structures ; alkali-aggregate reaction ; plasticity ; finite elements ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: In this paper a simple continuum theory, as recently proposed by Pietruszczak (Int. J. Computers Struct., 58, 1093-1099 (1996)), is applied to describe the mechanical effects of the alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete structures. The formation of alkali- silica gel leads to a progressive expansion of the material. The progress in the reaction is assumed to be coupled with the degradation of mechanical properties, the latter described within the framework of elastoplasticity. The paper discusses the details of the numerical implementation of the constitutive model, including an implicit integration scheme and the computation of an updated tangent operator. Numerical examples are provided to assess the performance of the proposed algorithm. The formulation is then used to analyse the junction between the right-wing dam and the water intake structure of the Beauharnois powerhouse situated in Quebec (Canada). A non-linear 3D finite element analysis is performed simulating the time history of the deformation due to continuing reaction.
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    A unilateral damage model for masonry based on a homogenisation procedure (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 349-366 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: damage ; fracture energy ; homogenisation ; masonry ; mesh dependence ; unilateral effect ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: By considering masonry as a composite material, its mechanical properties are obtained by taking into account the properties of the components (bricks and mortar) through a homogenisation technique. To describe the behaviour of the material components a unilateral damage model is proposed. This model, based on the introduction of three damage variables, describes the behaviour of brittle materials subjected to alternating tensile-compressive cyclic loads. The model is applied to the simulation of tests on masonry panels and miniaturised walls; numerical results are discussed and successfully compared with experimental data.
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    Crush-crack': a non-local damage model for concrete (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 321-347 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: damage ; dilatancy ; failure-modes ; fractures ; localization ; shear ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A model is presented based on the non-local damage theory. It sets out to describe the behavior of concrete under free-variable loads, which are constant in sign. Its purpose is to analyze shear behavior and high strain-gradient localized problems, and it takes Mazar's model as a starting point with reference to the basic idea of a scalar isotropic non-local damage controlled by principal tensile strains. In addition, the other two main features are an internal variable denoted to the control or reversible volumetric expansion in compression, and irreversible strains aimed at modelling crushing in compression and cracks both in tension and compression. As a consequence, induced-anisotropy, dilatancy and path-dep endency can be reproduced. In particular, the modelling of micro- and macrocracks makes it possible to capture mixed-mode cracking as well as aggregate interlock, which requires a residual stiffness to guarantee the transmission of transversal and normal stresses for assigned slips. The model requires the knowledge of the material response in uniaxial tension and compression, and biaxial compression tests which can be introduced directly by adopting experimental curves, or by means of a reduced number of parameters. The effectiveness of the model is shown through comparisons with several sets of experimental tests on both small specimens, assumed to be homogeneous, and boundary value problems.
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    Implicit integration and consistent linearization for yield criteria of the Mohr-Coulomb type (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 367-383 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: plasticitity ; isotropy ; Mohr-Coulomb ; consistent linearization ; algorithmic tangent stiffness ; multisurface plasticity ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: In this paper, we discuss the efficient treatment of yield criteria that are of the Mohr-Coulomb type for elastic and plastic isotropy. On the basis of the fully implicit method, we derive the explicit expression for the integrated stress along with a flow rule that represents volumetric non-associativity. The integration algorithm covers all the possible cases of regular, corner and apex solutions including the suitable indicator for each case. We also establish the consequent consistently linearized tangent stiffness modulus tensor, which is shown to appear in the form of an additive modification of the continuum tangent stiffness tensor. The convergence properties of the consistent tangent stiffness tensor are compared with its feasible approximations. The results indicate the strongly sensitivity to the proper treatment of the corner conditions at the establishment of the ATS-tensor.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996) 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cfm.1600010401
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    Examination of the possibility of a fluid-mechanics treatment of dense granular flows (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 1 (1996), S. 385-403 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: granular flow ; constitutive equation ; simple fluid ; friction ; collision ; microstructural model ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: The aim of this paper is to examine the possibility of a simple fluid-mechanics treatment of rapid dense granular flows. In other words, we examine whether the constitutive equation can be sought in a simple relationship between the strain-rate and stress tensors. With this aim, we first show that an inclined channel is an appropriate device for providing rheological data. Here we provide a complete rheometrical treatment, which allows to infer the shear-stress/shear-rate curve (for simple shear flows) from the flow-depth/mass-flow-rate curve. Experi-ments performed with glass beads and sand grains revealed an apparent decrease in the shear stress with increasing shear rate. We then demonstrate that this result, although paradoxical, is not unphysical. Moreover, more detailed theoretical analysis shows that the main issues raised by our experiments may be overcome by ‘microstructural’ models. We finally give two examples of models including a single microstructural parameter, which are able to qualitatively account for the main features of our experiments.
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    A continuum model for periodic two-dimensional block structures (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 31-46 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: block structure ; elasticity ; homogenization ; Cosserat continuum ; dynamics ; large deformation ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: A continuum model for regular block structures is derived by replacing the difference quotients of the discrete equations by corresponding differential quotients. The homogenization procedure leads to an anisotropic Cosserat Continuum. For elastic block interactions the dispersion relations of the discrete and the continuous models are derived and compared. Yield criteria for block tilting and sliding are formulated. An extension of the theory for large deformation is proposed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Implicit integration of elastoplastic constitutive models for frictional materials with highly non-linear hardening functions (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 1-29 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: numerical integration ; constitutive modelling ; frictional materials ; highly non-linear hardening functions ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: Constitutive relations in elastoplasticity may be formulated in a variety of ways, and different update algorithms may be employed to solve the resulting equations. Several implicit integration schemes, although some not widely used, have been suggested in the last years. Among them, the closest point projection method (CPPM) has proven to be an effective and robust integration scheme. In order to gain maximum control of the stress projection, a two-level CPPM iteration scheme is proposed. The hardening variables are fixed during the stress projection onto consequently fixed yield surfaces, and after the stress projection, new values of the hardening variables are calculated defining new yield surfaces. The update of the hardening parameters which, in general, may be highly nonlinear functions, may be determined by a combination of a Picard Iteration (PI) on the hardening variables and an adaptative order inverse interpolation (AOII) on the difference of subsequent iterations of the hardening variables.The integration scheme has been implemented in a general constitutive driver which has been formulated independent of the selected constitutive model and easily linked to finite element codes. A third stress invariant dependent, cone-cap elastoplastic constitutive model, referred to as the MRS-Lade, with a highly non-linear hardening function has been used to show the applicability of the proposed iteration scheme. Error analyses and accuracy assessment are presented along with some representative test results. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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    Undrained instability of very loose Hostun sand in triaxial compression and extension. Part 2: theoretical analysis using an elastoplasticity model (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 71-92 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: undrained instability ; static liquefaction ; non-associated plasticity ; loss of uniqueness ; model validations ; very loose sand ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: The characteristics of the loss of stability associated with the initiation of the static liquefaction phenomenon is obtained using the CJS model within the elastoplasticity framework. This model is based on the characteristic line concept. The determining factors involved in the prediction of this phenomenon and in the modelling process are identified. The importance of the elastic components is highlighted, in particular its non-linearity. The possibilities and the limits of the proposed model to describe the undrained behaviour of very loose sand are examined, taking into consideration the effects of the more or less complex stress history. Finally, the conditions leading to the appearance of the uniqueness domain are indicated. The findings of this theoretical study rely entirely on the experimental data presented in a companion paper, with emphasis on the triaxial tests on anisotropically consolidated samples. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Experimental analysis and theoretical interpretation of triaxial load controlled loose sand specimen collapses (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 93-120 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: loose sands ; load-controlled triaxial tests ; creep tests ; instability ; theoretical interpretation ; strain-rate sensitivity ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: A series of triaxial load-controlled tests is performed.Finite load increments are imposed. The single load-steps are followed by a time period during which the axial load is kept constant.At low stress levels the mechanical response is stable and characterized by a continuous decrease in strain rate with time. At higher stress levels, the mechanical response changes and, subsequently, the collapse takes place.The collapse is unexpected and occurs at a stress level less than that associated with the steady state, experimentally observed by performing strain triaxial controlled tests.In order to interpret such a behaviour, a theoretical discussion is introduced. This is based on a dynamical reinterpretation of the micromechani cal fabric rearrangement of granular assembly.In particular, the role played by the kinetic energy of the system, as well as that played by the anisotropy of the microstructure, have been analysed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Mech. cohesive-frictional mater. 2, 93-120 (1997)
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    Undrained instability of very loose Hostun sand in triaxial compression and extension. Part 1: experimental observations (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 47-70 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: instability ; liquefaction ; laboratory tests ; undrained ; triaxial ; loose sand ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: The undrained behavior of very loose Hostun RF sand in triaxial compression and extension tests is described. The samples are consolidated isotropically or anisotropically along constant effective stress ratio paths. Very loose sand exhibits partial liquefaction, deviator peak stress at relatively low to very low axial strain, gradual post-peak stress reduction to a small residual value at large strains, sharp loss of effective mean pressure due to generation of large pore pressure and overall volume reduction. The instability line of Lade is examined in the case of extension tests and extended for anisotropic samples. It is shown that monotonic and anisotropic consolidation strongly influences the instability concept. A higher positive anisotropic consolidation level produces a greater slope of the instability line in compression and a reverse trend can occur in extension. Complex stress history can develop a fossilized instability line depending on the amount of axial strain attained. Effective strain ratio increment at peak has an asymptotic stabilization effect. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Experimental micromechanical analysis of a 2D granular material: relation between structure evolution and loading path (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 121-163 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: granular materials ; micromechanics ; biaxial tests ; complex loading paths ; micro-macro relations ; fabric anisotropy ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: This paper is concerned with micromechanics of Schneebeli material specimens composed of wooden roller stacks. Several laboratory tests are carried out to analyse the material behaviour under complex loading conditions, involving loading-unloading cycles and principal axes rotations. In order to characterize micromechanical deformation features and structure evolution, a series of pictures is taken during loading. Pictures are then digitized using a stereo device, obtaining the position of each roller. Starting from these data a number of computer programs, conceived for the purpose, allow us to measure micromechanical variables and to analyse their evolution.In the following, after the description of the devices employed in this research, macromechanical results are analysed to evaluate the reliability of the laboratory model. Then, local variables are introduced and the use of continuum mechanics to describe granular materials behaviour is discussed. Finally, the evolution of local kinematic variables is described, focusing interest on the evolution of specimen anisotropy. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Mech. cohesive-frictional mater. 2, 121-163 (1997)
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    Implicit integrations in elastoplastic geotechnics (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 165-183 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: elastoplasticity ; pressure sensitive materials ; constitutive modelling ; dilatancy ; implicit integrations ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: The paper presents the derivation of a fully implicit Newton algorithm for direct integration of constitutive equations, in extended stress-internal variable space, involving hardening or softening of a general dilatant isotropic elastoplastic geomaterial. All relevant derivatives are provided in tensor notation, thus facilitating implementation. The consistent, algorithmic tangent stiffness tensor is derived. The relative accuracy of a template algorithm is assessed on a number of examples by means of iso-error maps. We present a rather simple, one-increment example concerning convergence properties of the Newton iterative scheme at the global, finite element level, associated with the consistent tangent stiffness tensor for integrating the weak form of the equilibrium equations. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Mech. Cohesive-frictional mater. 2, 165-183 (1977)
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    Enhanced finite element formulation for geometrically linear fluid-saturated porous media (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 185-203 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: fluid-saturated porous media ; enhanced element technology ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: This contribution is concerned with a new mixed finite element formulation for geometrically linear Terzaghi-Biot type fluid-saturated porous media. To this end, an extended Hu-Washizu type mixed variational principle is presented for fluid-saturated porous continua. Then, a suitable discretization and its implementation are discussed, resulting in an improved element behaviour especially in numerical localization analyses. The intriguing element performance is firstly demonstrated for the case of localization within an elastoplastic compression problem. Finally, an elastoplastic slope stability problem is examined, whereby the new element formulation proves to render more pronounced failure modes as compared with a standard element expansion. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Modelling of pollutant migration in porous media with interfacial transfer: local equilibrium/non-equilibrium (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 205-221 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: pollutant diffusion ; advection ; porous media ; surface transfer resistance ; physical modelling ; homogenization ; model classification ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: In the paper, an attempt to model local equilibrium and local non-equilibrium in pollutant migration in porous media is presented. Diffusion is assumed to occur in the pores as well as in the solid porous matrix. The macroscopic models are developed using the homogenization method (asymptotic expansion technique). The resulting macroscopic equations show either a one-concentration field or two-concentration fields or memory effects. The domains of validity of all the presented models are also determined. Local cell problems are provided to compute the effective diffusion tensors. The conditions for the local mass equilibrium assumption to be valid are derived in terms of the dimensionless characteristic parameters. The effect of pollutant source distributions is also investigated. © 1997 John Wiley & Son, Ltd.
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    Coherent vortex structures in deforming granular materials (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 223-236 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: granular materials ; vortices ; discrete element method ; coherent structures ; proper orthogonal decomposition ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: Discrete element models are used to investigate the formation of coherent structures within a deforming granular material. The numerical models predict the formation of coherent vortex-like structures, even when the boundary deformations introduce zero vorticity. We name these structures circulation cells because the particles instantaneously translate and rotate as a rigid body about a common centre. They occur for all the particle shapes and material properties tested. The size of these coherent structures range from approximately 20 to 600 particles, with the largest structures being limited by the test boundaries. Circulation cells are seen to play an important role in granular deformations including the formation of shear bands. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Dilation characteristics of confined concrete (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 237-249 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: concrete ; confinement ; dilation ; fibres ; plastics ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: Confinement of concrete enhances it strength and ductility by restraining lateral dilation. The accuracy of a confinement model depends on how well it captures the dilation tendency of concrete. In recent years, external confinement of concrete by fibre composites has become increasingly popular for civil infrastructure applications. This includes fibre-wrapping of existing columns or encasement of concrete in a fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) shell. A total of 54-concrete-filled FRP tubes were tested in uniaxial compression under displacement control mode. Full instrumentation of the specimens has allowed the variation of tangent Poisson's ratio for concrete to be captured. The dilation trend of confined concrete is shown to be a function of jacket stiffness. In steel-encased members, once steel yields, confining pressure becomes constant and the jacket renders itself ineffective in containing the dilation of concrete. On the other hand, for linear-elastic materials such as fibre composites, a strain reversal occurs that results in containment of dilation. A method for predicting the dilation is developed that can be easily adopted in any active confinement model. Moreover, a new confinement model for FRP-encased concrete is discussed. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Hypoplastic model for cohesionless soils with elastic strain range (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 279-299 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: constitutive model ; hypoplasticity ; plasticity ; grain contacts ; intergranular strain ; strain-space plasticity ; recent history ; small strain ; ratcheting ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: In order to eliminate ratcheting a so-called intergranular strain has been added to a hypoplastic constitutive model. This additional state variable represents the deformation of the interface layer between the grains. The new concept is outlined and comparisons with and without intergranular strain are presented. Some comments on numerical implementation and determination of material constants are made. A discussion on the uniqueness of the solution and objectivity of the rate of intergranular strain is added. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    An experimental and theoretical study of a partially saturated collapsible rock (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 2 (1997), S. 251-278 
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    ISSN: 1082-5010
    Keywords: Pietra Leccesse chalk ; laboratory tests ; constitutive modelling ; capillary forces ; partial saturation ; collapsible rocks ; Engineering ; Civil and Mechanical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    Notes: Experiments on Pietra Leccese chalk revealed that many of the material parameters describing its mechanical behaviour, such as the Young's modulus, the uniaxial compressive strength and the plastic yield stress, depend strongly on the water saturation and the ensuing capillary suction. The experimental results show that Bishop's generalized effective stress is not by itself adequate to explain the observed behaviour and in particular the spontaneous collapse which may occur upon water injection under stress. An elastoplastic constitutive model for partially-saturated collapsible rocks is proposed where the capillary suction is assumed to affect primarily the material properties related to the intergranular cohesion, such as the elastic stiffness, the plastic tension cut-off and pressure cap parameters. The model builds upon the well- established Mohr-Coulomb theory of elastoplasticity by including a pressure cap and considering the water saturation as an internal variable. In low levels of water saturation, as is often the case in oil reservoir formations, the experimental and theoretical results demonstrate the potential significance of capillary effects on the response of reservoir rocks, a mechanism that has been largely underestimated in the petroleum industry. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Experimental and analytical protocol for ignitabiilty of common materials (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 89-94 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In this study, a protocol was developed to increae accuracy, generality and efficiency when determining piloted ignition properties. A new procedure for calibrating the radiative and convective heat flux protiels on exposed speciments, such as Douglas-fir plywood, has been implemented for the lateral ignition and flame spread test (LIFT) apparatus. The boundary conditions needed for heat transfer anylysis are made unambiguous by including a simple, direct measure f surface emissivity. A new aluminum foil shutter improves accuracy for measuring ignition time. A recently developed theroy of ignitanility provides a formula to account for the transition form thick to thin thermal behaior, allowing specimens of finite thicknesses and a fuln range of test irradiances.
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    Concepts for fire protection of passenger rail transportation vehicles: Past, present, and futureThis paper was prepared under the auspices of the US Government and is therefore not subject to copyright. (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 71-87 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Recent advances in passenger rail transportation, fire test methods, and hazard analysis necessitate re-examination of requirements for fire safety. Several studies have indicated nearly random ability of current bench-scale tests to predicts actual fire behavior. Fire safety in any application, including transportation, requires a multi-faceted approach. The effects of vehicle design, material selection, detection and suppression systems, and emergency egress and their interaction, on the overall fire safety of the passenger trains must all be considered. The strengths and weakness of current methods for measuring the fire performance of rail transportation systems are evaluated. A systems approach to fire safety which address typical passenger train fire scenatios is analyzed. A rationale is presented for the direction in which most fire science-oriented organizations in the world are clearly headed - the use of fire hazard and fire risk assessment methods supported by measurement methods based on heat release rate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190205
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    Masthead (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190301
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    Masthead (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190401
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    Heat release and classification of fire retardant wood products (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 253-258 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A comparison is presented of cone calorimeter heat release data between fire retardant treated and untreated wood products. The test results show significant differences between these two groups. The parameters included in the comparison are time to ignition, rate of heat release (peak and average values) and total heat release. The wood-based products were also tested in different small-scale national standard fire tests and in the full-scale room fire test. Fire retardant wood products achieve an improved classification both in present national systems and in possible new systems based on the cone calorimeter and the room fire test.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190603
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    Specimen heat fluxes for bench-scale heat release rate testing (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 243-252 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: When a specimen is testd for its heat release rate (HRR) behaviour using a bench-scale such as ISO 5660 or equivalent, one very important test condition is not pre-standaridized and must be set: the heat flux to be imposed on the specimen by the heater. The heat flux cannot be ligitimately standardized, since the value appropriately to be used will differ according to purpose or application. The present paper sets forth the considerations which should govern the correct choice of heat flux. A discussion is given of minimum ignitiability level; statistical variability at low heat fluxes; the ranges of heat fluxes associated with small actual ignition sources; the heat fluxes associated with fires away from the ignition sources, all the way up to fully-involved room fires; the application of the product; and the needs associated with mathematical modeling of room fires. Correlational approaches are also illustrated and contrasted to physics-based ones. Finally, the empirical nature of the present situation is emphasized. Judged from first principles, it would appear that successful prediction of room fire results from bench-scale test data would require both the testing at a large number of different heat fluxes and the use of algorithms to permit time-dependent interpolation. Such algorithms have been proposed; however, some very successful predictions are noted with much simpler techniques.
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    Studies on magnesium hydroxide in polypropylene using simultaneous TG-DSC (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 283-285 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A simultaneous TG-DSC system (STA-625) has been used to investigate the suitability of using magnesium hydroxide (MH) as a flame retardant and smoke suppressant in polypropylene (PP) formulations. Several MH/PP formulations were examined at differing concentrations. The presence of MH in the system greatly alters the thermal degradation character of PP. This work forms the first in a series of application notes using various Theometric Scientific Thermal Analysis instruments.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190607
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    Numerical prediction of fire spread over vegetation in aribitrary 3D terrain (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 265-273 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Forest fires involve a wide range of unknown variables, e.g. wind flow over complex terrain, atmospheric stability, vegetation burning characteristics, location and fuel type, etc. The main objective of the present work is to incorporate the Rothermel simplified combustible model into a 3D unsteady flow solver appropriated for convective atmospheric flows over complex terrain. The released combustion energy is taken into account in the enthalpy equation. The unsteady byouant plume strongly influences the local wind speed direction and magnitude. A speical interactive coupling procedure was developed that links the calculated location of fire front and fire energy release to the momentum and energy transport for each time step. The general computer algorithm includes several other features such as the effect-drag of trees on the momentum transport and the consequent modifications in the k and ε turbulence model employed. The results include the prediction of fire development in flat terrain and in a valley and over hills covered by vegetation. A parametric study was conducted to detect the influence of wind speed, vegetation and fuel content on burning area, burning speed and wind speed direction.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190605
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    The role of flame flux in opposed-flow flame spread (1995)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 19 (1995), S. 275-281 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The flame spread process is driven by the net heat flux to the specimen surface, including the flux from the flame itself. This flame flux is important since it comprises a major part of the driving force causing flame fluxes were obtained. The values which are reported do not appear consistent and show more deviation among materials than would be anticipated. The most common fire test used for obtaining engineering data on flame spread (ASTM E 1321) also is not formulated in terms of flame flux as a driving force. This motivated an experimental programme, whereby six materials have been studied using the flame spread geometry of the ASTM E 1321 test, but with additional instrumentation for recording heat fluxes. The flame fluxes obtained experimentally in this study show much less variation among materials than the comparable data from the literature survey.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810190606
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    Mineral Fillers in Intumescent Fire Retardant Formulations  -  Criteria for the Choice of a Natural Clay Filler for the Ammonium Polyphosphate/Pentaerythritol/Polypropylene System (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 39-49 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Addition of natural clay materials in intumescent polypropylene-based formulations (additive: ammonium polyphosphate and pentaerythritol) leads either to a decrease or to an increase of their fire retardant performances versus the chemical or the physical characteristics of the clay materials. A study of the factors affecting these performances has been carried out using linear and principal components analysis. This analysis shows that the results of the evaluation tests (LOI and UL 94) are affected in different ways by the adduct of the different clay material and that an increase in the LOI is not necessarily related to an increase in the UL 94 classification. LOI values are improved by the presence of the montmorillonite and of illite clay minerals which may react with acidic phosphate to form active carbonization catelysts, in addition, the results of the LOI test are improved by the presence of quartz and other foreign minerals in the clay materials. This study discusses the part played by the different constitutive minerals in the formation of defects in the polymer chain during the mixing process. It is proposed that the presence of these defects leads to a change in fire retardant performance.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810200101
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    Letter to the Editor: Fire Resistance of Doors (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 111-111 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: No Abstract
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    A Comparative Study of the Fire Performance of Halogenated and Non-Halogenated Materials for Cable Applications. Part II Tests on Cable (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 17-37 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A total of 21 electrical cables were made, all with essentially identical construction but differing in the chemical composition of sheath and/or insulatiòn, which were all commercially available materials, both halogenated and non-halogenated. All cables were tested in two large-scale cable tray tests, ASTM D5424 (CSA FT-4 protocol), with a total length of 2.44 m and IEC 332-3, with a total length of 3.5 m. The cables were also tested in a number of small- and medium-scale tests for flame spread (IEC 695-2-2, IEC 332-1, UL 1581 Part VW1, BS 476 Part 12E, DIN 4102 Part 16), temperature increase (DIN 4102 Part 16) and smoke obscuration (IEC 1034-2, BS 476 Part 12E). Finally, all cables were tested in the cone calorimeter (ISO 5660), horizontally, at incident fluxes of 20, 40 and 70 kW m-2. All the cables passed the mild flammability tests, but distinctions could be made based on the afterflame time observed, where halogenated cables outperformed non-halogenated cables by a significant margin. It was also possible to distinguish between the halogenated and non-halogenated cables on the basis of the cable length charred in some tests. In terms of smoke obscuration, it was found that the rankings offered by the various tests were very different. While non-halogenated cables had improved smoke performance over traditional vinyl types, fluorinated cables performed very well. This confirms the importance of material selection by performance rather than by chemical composition. Almost all cables performed sufficiently well that they generated relatively limited amounts of smoke under realistic end-use fire test conditions. The peak heat release rate in the large-scale cable tray test (ASTM D5424) served as an excellent criterion for discriminating between the fire performance of the various cables (the traditional criterion being char length). The average rate of heat released also served to distinguish between different levels of cable fire performance. Moreover, cables passing the test tended to release less heat and smoke than those that failed. The trends observed in the cone calorimeter heat release test were similar to those in the large-scale test and show good correlation between cable tray char length and cone calorimeter heat release. It was observed that the halogenated cables tested performed better than the non-halogenated cables in terms of heat release rate by factors ranging from two to greater than five. The results indicate that cables with excellent fire performance can be constructed by using a variety of materials. It is thus important to specify fire performance and leave material choice to manufacturers.
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    The Accumulation of Flammable Gases in Cone Calorimeter Tests is Responsible for Flash Ignition of Wool and Cotton Samples (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 107-109 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In this paper a possible explanation is presented for the differences found between the fire behaviour of materials in small-scale cone calorimeter tests and the large-scale furniture calorimeter. The results obtained with cone calorimeter/FTIR equipment at 35 kW m-2 will show that the early flash ignitions of typical materials like cotton and wool are due to the liberation of flammable gases during the pyrolysis phase and the typical ignition situation on the cone calorimeter, that is, the presence of a sparking igniter above the sample. This fast flash ignition and the early heat release behaviour on the cone calorimeter may be in contradiction to the early fire growth in other fire tests where the ignition conditions are clearly different from pyrolysis circumstances, that is, ignition via a burning newspaper, match, gas flame, etc.
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    Influence of Ignition Sources on Heat Release Rate in the Furniture Calorimeter (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 61-67 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: When measuring the production rates of heat and smoke of upholstered furniture the ignition source must not influence the test results. In this paper variations in the strength, application time and geometry of the ignition burner used in the furniture calorimeter are studied. Results from replicate furniture calorimeter chair test show that the burning behaviour is almost independent of the burner intensity in the applied regime.Tests on six different furniture items were performed in the furniture calorimeter. The test objects were exposed to three intensity levels of ignition source. The sources were: a large propane burner giving 30 kW during 120 s and a smaller propane burner used at two levels of heat output, 1.7 and 5.8 kW during 90 s. The results showed that the burning behaviour of the furniture was very similar regardless of which burner was used. This was especially evident when the time regime between 50 and 400 kW was studied. The length of this period is a measurement on how quick untenable conditions are developing in a single, well-ventilated compartment.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810200201
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    Design of Light Steel-framed Walls for Fire Resistance (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 79-96 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Light steel-frame building systems are becoming more prevalent in commercial, industrial and residential construction in New Zealand. Tested fire resistance ratings are generally available for non-load-bearing systems, but not for load-bearing applications. This study investigates the performance of load-bearing light steel-frame systems exposed to fire. Methods are presented for calculating the reduction of steel strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures, and for predicting the deflections resulting from temperature gradients and P-Δ effects. Heat transfer modelling by computer is used to predict steel framing temperatures for systems exposed to the standard ISO 834 time-temperature curve and real fires. Three full-scale furnace tests were carried out to evaluate analytical predictions. A design procedure is proposed.
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    Load-bearing Capacity of Nailed Joints Exposed to Fire (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 133-143 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Nailed joints with wood members were exposed simultaneously to standard fire and constant load. Different loads were applied in the range of 0.1 to 0.6 of the estimated failure load at normal temperature. Measurements of the rate of charring and the temperature were used to determine the temperature profiles and further to estimate the reduction in the strength properties. The test results are compared with calculations based on the theory of K. W. Johansen. Three different relations between the reduction of embedding strength and the temperature were investigated. For one of these relations, the theory agrees well with the results obtained in the fire tests. The results of the calculations also show that there is a considerable reduction of the embedding strength during the first period of fire.
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    Is PVC in House Fires the Great Unknown Source of Dioxin? (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 161-166 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An estimate of the annual generation of polychlorodibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/F) in the United States as a result of PVC burning in house fires is made using building data and fire loss statistics and soot and ash samples obtained from laboratory experiments and building fires involving PVC. Using conservative estimates for construction, fire involvement and formation, dioxin generation from PVC in house fires is estimated to be in the range of 0.074 to 8.6g TEQ yr-1 as soot, 0.4 to 14g TEQ yr-1 as ash, and thus 0.47 to 23g TEQ yr-1 total. The maximum likelihood estimate is approximately 0.3g TEQ yr-1 as soot and 1g TEQyr-1 as ash. Any of these estimates constitutes a minuscule fraction of the 9300g annual air emissions or the 20000-50000g (TEQ) annual deposition from the air estimated by EPA.
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    Spontaneous Ignition of Oil-contaminated Cotton Fabric (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 167-172 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of different oil contaminants on the spontaneous ignition behavior of cotton fabric. A series of treated fabrics with different oil contamination percentages was investigated and compared. Measurements were designed and carried out to determine the average time-to-ignition and to study the thermal behavior of systems containing cellulose. The results showed that the time-to-ignition of the contaminated samples has notably decreased, particularly at relatively low temperatures (350-450°C). However, at higher temperatures such effects became insignificant. Differential Thermal Analysis measurements were used to explain the mechanism by which the oils affect the thermal behavior of the sample. The heat evolved due to the oxidation of the oil content is sufficient to increase the rate of cotton depolymerization at the expense of the dehydration mechanism. In other words, the heat evolved promotes the formation of volatiles which are not char precursors.
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    Thermogravimetric Studies of the Pyrolytic Behaviour in Air of Selected Tropical Timbers (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 173-181 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A number of common tropical timbers have been subjected to thermal analytical investigation as part of a wider research programme under air atmospheric conditions. Thermal parameters obtained were correlated with oven-dry densities of the timbers. Two well-defined pyrolysis stages have been observed which occur over the temperature ranges 201-426°C and 397-557°C. The kinetics of the thermal degradation of the timbers were obtained using Broido's analytical procedure. These results were interpreted on the basis of the known mechanism of pyrolysis and the calculated kinetic parameters were discussed within the context of other published values for cellulose.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810200501
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    Effect of Ammonium Hydrogen Carbonate and Sodium Bromide on the Flammability of Hardboard (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 297-299 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The fire retardancy properties of hardboard treated with ammonium hydrogen carbonate (AHC) and sodium bromide were investigated by measuring their ignition time and flame temperature. An increase in ignition time and lowered flame temperature were observed with increased flame retardant (FR) concentration. AHC was found to be less effective as a fire retardant for this material. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Meeting Report: Wood & Fire Safety, 3rd International Scientific Conference, The High Tatras, Slovakia, 6-9 May 1996 (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 305-305 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: No Abstract
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    Note: Autoignition Temperature of Selected Polymers at Elevated Oxygen Pressure and Their Heat of Combustion (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 301-303 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Autoignition temperature and heat of combustion are two important parameters in determining the oxygen compatibility of materials. This study investigates the autoignition temperature of 32 polymers at an elevated oxygen pressure of 10.3 MPa and reports their heat of combustion. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Masthead (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810200601
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    UK Research into Protection from Flame and Intense Heat for Military PersonnelPresented at the 21st International Fire Safety Conference, San Francisco, January 1996, and reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Brittanic Majesty's Stationary Office. (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 293-295 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The philosophy behind research into personal protection from flame and intense heat for UK military personnel is addressed. The threat is examined as are methods of measurement and assessment. Finally an overview of the novel techniques which are being pursued at the Science and Technology Division is given. © British Crown Copyright 1996/MOD.
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    An integral model for the transient pyrolysis of solid materials (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 7-16 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The modelling of the spread of fire and its extinguishment still represents a significant challenge. As part of a combined experimental and computational study of fires we have developed a general Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model of fire spread and extinguishment. The primary objective was to produce a flexible computational tool which can be used by engineers and scientists for design or research purposes. The present paper deals with the description and validation of a solid pyrolysis model which has been applied, as a sub-model, in this general computer fire code. The pyrolysis model has been formulated using the heat-balance integral method. The model can be applied to slabs of char forming solids, such as wood, as well as non-charring thermoplastic materials, such as PMMA. Results are compared with analytical solutions, numerical simulations and experimental data. In all cases the integral model performs well. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Testing of mattress composites in the cone calorimeter (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 17-22 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An investigation of cone calorimeter test procedures was performed using two types of mattress composites with various specimen preparations and equipment configurations. The objective was to discover suitable procedures for testing mattress composites. Concurrent with this work a much larger and more sophisticated project known as CBUF was underway in Europe. One of CBUF's secondary objectives was to provide an appropriate test protocol for testing upholstered furniture composites, including mattresses. Most of the CBUF protocol was available at the time of this study and a modified form of the specimen preparation technique was used in this investigation. Preliminary tests found unacceptable test performance with some configurations. Subsequent testing examined variations of the established test protocols and other test procedures. The data sample was small, but observations of the data indicate trends that might be attributable to the use of the different procedures. Significantly it was determined that the edge frame used to hold specimens in place during the test does affect the test results. A modified CBUF protocol proved to be the best procedure, but it requires extensive experience with the CBUF specimen preparation method in order to be able to produce satisfactory specimens. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    A Review of Research and an Experimental Study on the Pulsation of Buoyant Diffusion Flames and Pool Fires (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 261-271 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This paper reviews the past research, experimental techniques and scaling relationships used in the studies of oscillatory buoyant diffusion flames and reports an experimental investigation conducted to determine the pulsating characteristics of such flames. The experimental data were obtained by using three techniques, namely, pressure fluctuation measurements, thermal imaging and high-speed video photography. Present findings are compared with data sets reported in the literature and correlations for pulsation frequency suggested by previous studies are independently verified. Analysis of the experimental data on frequency of pulsations in different burners shows that for a fixed-diameter flame the pulsation frequency is almost independent of fuel flow rate. The equation f=1.68D-0.5 gives the best approximation for the relationship between pulsating frequency and diameter over a wide range of data. An alternative way of expressing the relationship between the key variables is St=0.52*(1/Fr)0.505. This proves to be a better way of expressing the relationship since it can include the effect of the fuel flow rate. Slight modifications to this expression allows prediction of flame oscillations under elevated/reduced gravity and isothermal buoyant plumes. This relationship and the observations of the present study confirm the hydrodynamic nature of flame puffing: interplay of buoyancy and fluid motion. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Quantitative Models for Prediction of Toxic Component Concentrations in Smoke Gases from FTIR Spectra (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 273-291 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In this paper an overview is given of several methods for quantitative analysis of FTIR spectra. Each method has its particular advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, depending on the gas component to be analysed in smoke gas spectra, an optimal choice of method has to be made. This choice depends on several different aspects:• Is the spectral band of interest free of interfering components?• Does the absorption-concentration relation show strong deviations from Beer's law?• Are significant baseline corrections necessary?• Does the applied model need to warn for the presence of unexpected components?• Is it sufficient to use only a few wavenumbers or is a full-spectrum method necessary?It will not be easy to make the appropriate choice. However, in some cases, statistics can help, in others, a good rule of thumb is to keep the choice as simple as possible. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    News (1996)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 20 (1996), S. 306-306 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810200608
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  • 93
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    Effect of Melting Behaviour on Upward Flame Spread of Thermoplastics (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 1-6 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The effect of melting behaviour on upward flame spread of thermoplastic materials when subjected to small ignition sources and considered to suffer no external flux was studied using large-scale tests. For moderate fire conditions the cone calorimeter was utilized, with the sample set in a vertical orientation to study the melting behaviour of the specimens. Under these conditions the results indicate that the melting behaviour significantly affects upward flame spread behaviour. A pool of the melt which formed at the base of the vertically oriented sample tested creates a pool fire which then controls the fire growth and flame spread. In contrast, it was found that some thermoplastic materials which have higher glass transition temperatures or undergo a special pyrolysis process such as depolymerization, intumescing or charring do not experience significant melting behaviour when exposed to the same thermal insult. As a result, they behave very differently in terms of upward flame spread. The study also indicates that the melting behaviour of thermoplastic materials is an important characteristic in fires which should be taken into account in the development of modelling, in particular for upward flame spread models. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Note: Use of the cone calorimeter for testing non-planar products (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 51-51 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: No Abstract
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    Mathematical models to analyse the effect of physical properties of cigarettes on the propensity of the cigarette to ignite cellulosic fabrics (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 33-39 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A series of 37 cigarettes were analysed to develop a model, based on cigarette physical properties, to predict the ignition propensity of the cigarettes towards cellulosic fabrics. The properties used were: cigarette circumference (in mm), tobacco packing density (in g cm-2), paper permeability (in CORESTA units) and the presence or absence of citrate additives in the paper (used independent of concentration, although typical additions range from 0.5 to 0.8 wt%). Two empirical models were developed, one for low and medium paper permeabilities, and one for very high paper permeabilities (above 50 CORESTA units). The latter exceed the paper permeability of most commercial cigarettes, and have medium to high ignition propensities. Thus, they are probably only of interest from the point of view of a mathematical curiosity. The former model, however, addresses cigarettes in the range where commercial cigarettes are potentially viable. The resulting ignition propensities exhibited cover the entire feasible range, from 0% to 100%. Both models predicted the ignition propensities of the tested cigarettes quite well, within an error range which did not exceed 30% for any cigarette. Physical rationales are presented for the effects of the variables used. However, the rationale for the discontinuity in ignition propensity found for the cigarettes with extremely high paper permeability is less clear. One explanation is that there is probably excess oxygen present so that a fuel/oxygen mixture is obtained with a ratio which is less than the lower flammability limits and is too lean to support combustion. However, further analysis of this issue is warranted. The empirical model for low and medium paper permeability cigarettes is potentially useful for developing cigarettes with lower ignition propensity, since it is a practical way of combining the individual properties that most heavily affect cigarette ignition propensity. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Sandwich panel performance in full-scale and bench-scale fire tests (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 53-65 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Fire hazard assessments must be primarily driven by life safety variables. Concern is often highly focused on toxicity issues, since fire deaths, in the majority of cases, are found (in whole or in part) to be due to toxic gas inhalation. Procedures have recently been published by ISO, wherein the toxicity assessment of fire products is focused primarily on bench-scale testing for toxic potency (the ‘per-gram toxicity’). Yet hazards of products with regards to fire toxicity may be determined much more by their differences in burning rates than by any differences in toxic potency. Burning rates are not assessed in the pertinent standards (ISO 13344 and ISO TR 9122). For most product categories, techniques for predicting full-scale burning rates from bench-scale data are not yet in hand. Thus, today the best means of comparing actual, full-scale toxic fire hazards is the full-scale fire test, equipped with additional gas measuring instrumentation. Such an approach is not among the recommended methods of the international standards, yet it is the only one with innate validity. In the present work, a series of sandwich panel products were tested in a full-scale room configuration. Bench-scale comparison was made to the ISO 5660 Cone Calorimeter and the DIN 53436 tube furnace. The toxic gases were quantified in all cases by chemical analysis. The product which showed the best performance in the full-scale tests (rock wool insulated sandwich panel) did not achieve a good fire toxicity performance due to minimization of toxic potency. Instead, the successful performance was attributed wholly to reduction of burning rate. Bench-scale measurements of toxic potency were shown to lack relevance to reality in such cases where even the full-scale toxic potency is not a determining factor. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    The influence of novel zinc hydroxystannate-coated fillers on the fire properties of flexible PVC (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 179-185 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Zinc hydroxystannate (ZHS), at levels of 2-5 phr, and the hydrated fillers, magnesium hydroxide (MH) and alumina trihydrate (ATH), at levels of 20-50 phr, are effective flame retardants and smoke suppressants for flexible PVC. Novel ZHS-coated hydrated fillers are found to exhibit markedly improved fire-retardant properties, particularly with regard to increasing LOI values, reducing heat release rates and suppressing smoke generation, when compared with conventional uncoated forms. The ZHS coating appears to change the filler particle morphology and there is evidence that the coating is largely retained on the filler surface after melt processing into the PVC. The improved dispersion of the active tin compound in the polymer matrix leads to enhanced fire retardancy and this, in turn, allows significant reductions to be made in overall filler loading, with no loss in flame-retardant or smoke-suppressant performance. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    The cone calorimeter used for predictions of the full-scale burning behaviour of upholstered furniture (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 95-105 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In the EC-sponsored CBUF (Combustion Behaviour of Upholstered Furniture) study three different models were developed for using Cone Calorimeter results to predict full-scale furniture burning. Model I is a correlation-based approach and has the most comprehensive coverage of styles and furniture types. Model II is based on area-convolution. It has been developed, so far, for several of the common upholstered furniture styles. Model III is based on an extension of a thermal flame spread model and is here developed only for mattresses. Models II and III offer the prediction of the burning item's time history, while Model I computes the peak HRR, the time to peak, and several other primary characteristics. The predictability of all three models is good. At present, the models presented do not consider furniture with plastic frames, and only a limited predictability is offered for office-type furnitures items which contain a hard-plastic shell. The models offer a very significant improvement over the existing state of the art. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Correlation of closed-cup flash points with normal boiling points for silicone and general organic compounds (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 277-282 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A correlation has been developed between closed-cup flash points and normal boiling points for silicone compounds. In addition, a more general correlation has been developed between these two properties for the general organic compounds, including silicone compounds. The closed-cup flash points can be predicted using empirical equations. The standard errors of estimate are 11.06 and 11.66°C for silicone compounds and general organic compounds (including silicone compounds), respectively. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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    Flame retardant and mechanical properties of a copolymer PP/PE containing brominated compounds/antimony trioxide blends and magnesium hydroxide or talc (1997)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 21 (1997), S. 245-252 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The incorporation of two brominated compounds/antimony trioxide blends into a PP-PE copolymer were studied. Both brominated trimethylphenyl indane (FR 1808) and poly(pentabromobenzyl acrylate) (FR 1025) confer good flame retardancy at 40% loading. A comparison was made with the incorporation of magnesium hydroxide at higher loadings (up to 64%) in the same copolymer. The mineral filler improves both fire resistance and stiffness of the copolymer, nevertheless the high loading causes a dramatic decrease in impact resistance. Moreover, the necessary surface treatment of the filler significantly lowers the maximal tensile strength. In order to maximize both fire resistance and mechanical properties, we combined each brominated flame-retardant system (20% in weight) with magnesium hydroxide or talc (20% in weight). Talc is used as reference. These composites show interesting fire-retardant properties in comparison with the copolymers containing only 40% of the brominated flame-retardant systems. In addition, the mechanical properties are on the whole improved. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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