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  • Annual Reviews
  • 2000-2004  (1,042)
  • 1980-1984
  • 2002  (1,042)
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  • 2000-2004  (1,042)
  • 1980-1984
Year
  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    INTRACELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISMS OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 407-429 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Recent discoveries have revolutionized our conceptions of enzyme-substrate specificity in signal transduction pathways. Protein kinases A and C are localized to discreet subcellular regions, and this localization changes in an isozyme-specific manner upon activation, a process referred to as translocation. The mechanisms for translocation involve interactions of soluble kinases with membrane-bound anchor proteins that recognize individual kinase isoenzymes and their state of activation. Recently, modulation of kinase-anchor protein interactions has been used to specifically regulate, positively or negatively, the activity of C kinase isozymes. Also described in this review is a role for the Rab family of small G proteins in regulating subcellular protein trafficking. The pathophysiological significance of disrupted subcellular protein transport in cell signaling and the potential therapeutic utility of targeted regulation of these events are in the process of being characterized.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155903
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A HUNDRED YEARS OF SODIUM PUMPING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 1-18 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: This article gives a history of the evidence (a) that animal cell membranes contain pumps that expel sodium ions in exchange for potassium ions; (b) that the pump derives energy from the hydrolysis of ATP; (c) that it is thermodynamically reversible-artificially steep transmembrane ion gradients make it run backward synthesizing ATP from ADP and orthophosphate; (d) that its mechanism is a ping-pong one, in which phosphorylation of the pump by ATP is associated with an efflux of three sodium ions, and hydrolysis of the phosphoenzyme is associated with an influx of two potassium ions; (e) that each half of the working cycle involves both the transfer of a phosphate group and a conformational change-the phosphate transfer being associated with the occlusion of ions bound at one surface and the conformational change releasing the occluded ions at the opposite surface.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.130716
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    BILE SALT TRANSPORTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 635-661 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Bile salts are the major organic solutes in bile and undergo extensive enterohepatic circulation. Hepatocellular bile salt uptake is mediated predominantly by the Na+-taurocholate cotransport proteins Ntcp (rodents) and NTCP (humans) and by the Na+-independent organic anion-transporting polypeptides Oatp1, Oatp2, and Oatp4 (rodents) and OATP-C (humans). After diffusion (bound by intracellular bile salt-binding proteins) to the canalicular membrane, monoanionic bile salts are secreted into bile canaliculi by the bile salt export pump Bsep (rodents) or BSEP (humans). Both belong to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily. Dianionic conjugated bile salts are secreted into bile by the multidrug-resistance-associated proteins Mrp2/MRP2. In bile ductules, a minor portion of protonated bile acids and monomeric bile salts are reabsorbed by non-ionic diffusion and the apical sodium-dependent bile salt transporter Asbt/ASBT, transported back into the periductular capillary plexus by Mrp3/MRP3 [and/or a truncated form of Asbt (tAsbt)], and subjected to cholehepatic shunting. The major portion of biliary bile salts is aggregated into mixed micelles and transported into the intestine, where they are reabsorbed by apical Oatp3, the apical sodium-dependent bile salt transporter (ASBT), cytosolic intestinal bile acid-binding protein (IBABP), and basolateral Mrp3/MRP3 and tAsbt. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of these enterohepatic bile salt transporters is closely related to the regulation of lipid and cholesterol homeostasis. Furthermore, defective expression and function of bile salt transporters have been recognized as important causes for various cholestatic liver diseases.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.082201.100300
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
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    G PROTEINS AND PHEROMONE SIGNALING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 129-152 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract All cells have the capacity to respond to chemical and sensory stimuli. Central to many such signaling pathways is the heterotrimeric G protein, which transmits a signal from cell surface receptors to intracellular effectors. Recent studies using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have produced important advances in our understanding of G protein activation and inactivation. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which G proteins transmit a signal from peptide pheromone receptors to the mating response in yeast and how mechanisms elucidated in yeast can provide insights to signaling events in more complex organisms.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081701.133448
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  • 5
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    G PROTEINS AND OLFACTORY SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 189-222 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The olfactory system sits at the interface of the environment and the nervous system and is responsible for correctly coding sensory information from thousands of odorous stimuli. Many theories existed regarding the signal transduction mechanism that mediates this difficult task. The discovery that odorant transduction utilizes a unique variation (a novel family of G protein-coupled receptors) based upon a very common theme (the G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase cascade) to accomplish its vital task emphasized the power and versatility of this motif. We now must understand the downstream consequences of this cascade that regulates multiple second messengers and perhaps even gene transcription in response to the initial interaction of ligand with G protein-coupled receptor.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.082701.102219
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  • 6
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    G PROTEINS AND PHOTOTRANSDUCTION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 153-187 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Phototransduction is the process by which a photon of light captured by a molecule of visual pigment generates an electrical response in a photoreceptor cell. Vertebrate rod phototransduction is one of the best-studied G protein signaling pathways. In this pathway the photoreceptor-specific G protein, transducin, mediates between the visual pigment, rhodopsin, and the effector enzyme, cGMP phosphodiesterase. This review focuses on two quantitative features of G protein signaling in phototransduction: signal amplification and response timing. We examine how the interplay between the mechanisms that contribute to amplification and those that govern termination of G protein activity determine the speed and the sensitivity of the cellular response to light.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.082701.102229
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  • 7
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    STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF DENDRITIC SPINES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 313-353 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Spines are neuronal protrusions, each of which receives input typically from one excitatory synapse. They contain neurotransmitter receptors, organelles, and signaling systems essential for synaptic function and plasticity. Numerous brain disorders are associated with abnormal dendritic spines. Spine formation, plasticity, and maintenance depend on synaptic activity and can be modulated by sensory experience. Studies of compartmentalization have shown that spines serve primarily as biochemical, rather than electrical, compartments. In particular, recent work has highlighted that spines are highly specialized compartments for rapid large-amplitude Ca2+ signals underlying the induction of synaptic plasticity.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.160008
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  • 8
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    MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF RENAL ANIONIC DRUG TRANSPORT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 563-594 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Multiple organic anion transporters in the proximal tubule of the kidney are involved in the secretion of drugs, toxic compounds, and their metabolites. Many of these compounds are potentially hazardous on accumulation, and it is therefore not surprising that the proximal tubule is also an important target for toxicity. In the past few years, considerable progress has been made in the cloning of these transporters and their functional characterization following heterologous expression. Members of the organic anion transporter (OAT), organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), multidrug resistance protein (MRP), sodium-phosphate transporter (NPT), and peptide transporter (PEPT) families have been identified in the kidney. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge on their localization, molecular and functional characteristics, and substrate and inhibitor specificity. A major challenge for the future will be to understand how these transporters work in concert to accomplish the renal secretion of specific anionic substrates.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155913
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
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    MECHANISMS OF IRON ACCUMULATION IN HEREDITARY HEMOCHROMATOSIS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 663-680 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a common inborn error of iron metabolism characterized by excess dietary iron absorption and iron deposition in several tissues. Clinical consequences include hepatic failure, hepatocellular carcinoma, diabetes, cardiac failure, impotence, and arthritis. Despite the discovery of the mutation underlying most cases of HH, considerable uncertainty exists in the mechanism by which the normal gene product, HFE, regulates iron homeostasis. Knockout of the HFE gene clearly confers the HH phenotype on mice. However, studies on HFE expressed in cultured cells have not yet clarified the mechanism by which HFE mutations lead to increased dietary iron absorption. Recent discoveries suggest other genes, including a second transferrin receptor and the circulating peptide hepcidin, participate in a shared pathway with HFE in regulation of iron absorption. This review summarizes our current understanding of the relationship between iron stores and absorption and presents models to explain the dysregulated iron homeostasis in HH.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155838
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  • 10
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    REGULATION OF ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE: Location, Location, Location (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 749-774 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is expressed in vascular endothelium, airway epithelium, and certain other cell types where it generates the key signaling molecule nitric oxide (NO). Diminished NO availability contributes to systemic and pulmonary hypertension, atherosclerosis, and airway dysfunction. Complex mechanisms underly the cell specificity of eNOS expression, and co- and post-translational processing leads to trafficking of the enzyme to plasma membrane caveolae. Within caveolae, eNOS is the downstream target member of a signaling complex in which it is functionally linked to both typical G protein-coupled receptors and less typical receptors such as estrogen receptor (ER) alpha and the high-density lipoprotein receptor SR-BI displaying novel actions. This compartmentalization facilitates dynamic protein-protein interactions and calcium- and phosphorylation-dependent signal transduction events that modify eNOS activity. Further understanding of these mechanisms will enable us to take preventive and therapeutic advantage of the powerful actions of NO in multiple cell types.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155952
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  • 11
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    EPITHELIAL SODIUM CHANNEL AND THE CONTROL OF SODIUM BALANCE: Interaction Between Genetic and Environmental Factors (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 877-897 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) expressed in aldosterone-responsive epithelial cells of the kidney and colon plays a critical role in the control of sodium balance, blood volume, and blood pressure. In lung, ENaC has a distinct role in controlling the ionic composition of the air-liquid interface and thus the rate of mucociliary transport. Loss-of-function mutations in ENaC cause a severe salt-wasting syndrome in human pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA-1). Gain-of-function mutations in ENaC beta and gamma subunits cause pseudoaldosteronism (Liddle's syndrome), a severe form of salt-sensitive hypertension. This review discusses genetically defined forms of a salt sensitivity and salt resistance in human monogenic diseases and in animal models mimicking PHA-1 or Liddle's syndrome. The complex interaction between genetic factors (ENaC mutations) and the risk factor (salt intake) can now be studied experimentally. The role of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in determining salt sensitivity or salt resistance in general populations is one of the main challenges of the post-genomic era.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.082101.143243
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  • 12
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    SIGNS OF THEIR TIMES: Deaf Communities and the Culture of Language (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 69-97 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Because of their deafness, deaf people have been marked as different and treated problematically by their hearing societies. Until 25 years ago, academic literature addressing deafness typically described deafness as pathology, focusing on cures or mitigation of the perceived handicap. In ethnographic accounts, interactions involving deaf people are sometimes presented as examples of how communities treat atypical members. Recently, studies of deafness have adopted more complex sociocultural perspectives, raising issues of community identity, formation and maintenance, and language ideology. Anthropological researchers have approached the study of d/Deaf communities from at least three useful angles. The first, focusing on the history of these communities, demonstrates that the current issues have roots in the past, including the central role of education in the creation and maintenance of communities. A second approach centers on emic perspectives, drawing on the voices of community members themselves and accounts of ethnographers. A third perspective studies linguistic issues and how particular linguistic issues involving deaf people articulate with those of their hearing societies. To use a cultural definition is not only to assert a new frame of reference, but to consciously reject an older one.... But the cultural definition continues to perplex many. If Deaf people are indeed a cultural group, why then don't they seem more like the Pennan of the island of Borneo, or the Huichol of Mexico? Carol Padden (1996a)
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.020402.101302
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  • 13
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    TOWARD AN ANTHROPOLOGY OF DEMOCRACY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 469-496 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Anthropologists, through their ethnographic method, relationships with people outside of formal and elite political institutions, and attention to alternative worldviews, bring to the study of democracy an examination of local meanings, circulating discourses, multiple contestations, and changing forms of power that is rare in the scholarly literature on democratic transitions, which has largely focused on political institutions and formal regime shifts. This review brings together the writings of ethnographers working in a wide variety of settings to generate lines of inquiry and analysis for developing an anthropology of democracy.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085453
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  • 14
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    RELIGION IN SOUTH ASIA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 173-187 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This article examines the study of religions of South Asia, in particular of India, from the angle of postcolonial criticism. It argues that the study of state formation provides a crucial perspective for the unraveling of the multiple transformations of religion in the colonial and postcolonial public sphere. The colonial state cannot be studied in isolation from the global framework of imperial interactions between metropole and colony, in which colonial and national modernity is produced. Such a study depends on a postcolonial critique of the very category of "religion" while acknowledging the centrality of that category in colonial and postcolonial politics. The transformation of the public sphere in South Asia shows the increasing importance of religious movements and of the political use of religious images in new communication technologies. One of the most important trends in the present era is the attempt to create a homogenous religious community, not only within the national territorial space, but also in a transnational space. Such attempts offer a violent confrontation with "the Other," however defined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085347
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  • 15
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    THE INTERSECTIONS OF IDENTITY AND POLITICS IN ARCHAEOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 279-301 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This paper traces the conjunction of two interrelated epistemic phenomena that have begun to shape the discipline since the early 1990s. The first entails theorizing social identity in past societies: specifically, how social lives are inscribed by the experiences of gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on. The other constitutes the rise of a politicized and ethical archaeology that now recognizes its active role in contemporary culture and is enunciated through the discourses of nationalism, sociopolitics, postcolonialism, diaspora, and globalism. Both trends have been tacitly shaped by anthropological and social theory, but they are fundamentally driven by the powerful voices of once marginalized groups and their newfound place in the circles of academic legitimacy. I argue that our disciplinary reticence to embrace the politics of identity, both in our investigations of the past and our imbrications in the present, has much to do with archaeology's lack of reflexivity, both personal and disciplinary, concurrent with its antitheoretical tendencies. The residual force of the latter should not be underestimated, specifically in regard to field practices and the tenacity of academic boundaries.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085457
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  • 16
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    LANGUAGE SOCIALIZATION: Reproduction and Continuity, Transformation and Change (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 339-361 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract While continuing to uphold the major aims set out in the first generation of language socialization studies, recent research examines the particularities of language socialization processes as they unfold in institutional contexts and in a wide variety of linguistically and culturally heterogeneous settings characterized by bilingualism, multilingualism, code-switching, language shift, syncretism, and other phenomena associated with contact between languages and cultures. Meanwhile new areas of analytic focus such as morality, narrative, and ideologies of language have proven highly productive. In the two decades since its earliest formulation, the language socialization paradigm has proven coherent and flexible enough not merely to endure, but to adapt, to rise to these new theoretical and methodological challenges, and to grow. The sources and directions of that growth are the focus of this review.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085352
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  • 17
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    THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF ONLINE COMMUNITIES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 449-467 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Information and communication technologies based on the Internet have enabled the emergence of new sorts of communities and communicative practices-phenomena worthy of the attention of anthropological researchers. Despite early assessments of the revolutionary nature of the Internet and the enormous transformations it would bring about, the changes have been less dramatic and more embedded in existing practices and power relations of everyday life. This review explores researchers' questions, approaches, and insights within anthropology and some relevant related fields, and it seeks to identify promising new directions for study. The general conclusion is that the technologies comprising the Internet, and all the text and media that exist within it, are in themselves cultural products. Anthropology is thus well suited to the further investigation of these new, and not so new, phenomena.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085436
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  • 18
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    ENERGETICS AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE GENUS HOMO (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 323-338 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The genus Homo as represented by Homo ergaster (= early African Homo erectus) is characterized by a pattern of features that is more similar to modern humans than to the earlier and contemporaneous australopithecines and paranthropines. These features include larger relative brain sizes, larger bodies, slower rates of growth and maturation, dedicated bipedal locomotion, and smaller teeth and jaws. These features are phenotypic expressions of a very different lifestyle for the earliest members of the genus Homo. This paper considers the energetic correlates of the emergence of the genus Homo and suggests that there were three major changes in maintenance energy requirements. First, there was an absolute increase in energy requirements due to greater body size. Second, there was a shift in the relative requirements of the different organs, with increased energy diverted to brain metabolism at the expense of gut tissue, possibly mediated by changes in the proportion of weight comprised of fat. And third, there was a slower rate of childhood growth, offset by higher growth costs during infancy and adolescence. These changes, as well as energetic requirements of reproduction and bipedal locomotion, are considered in a discussion of one of the major transitions in adaptation in human evolution, the appearance of our own genus.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085403
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  • 19
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    MIGRANT "ILLEGALITY" AND DEPORTABILITY IN EVERYDAY LIFE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 419-447 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This article strives to meet two challenges. As a review, it provides a critical discussion of the scholarship concerning undocumented migration, with a special emphasis on ethnographically informed works that foreground significant aspects of the everyday life of undocumented migrants. But another key concern here is to formulate more precisely the theoretical status of migrant "illegality" and deportability in order that further research related to undocumented migration may be conceptualized more rigorously. This review considers the study of migrant "illegality" as an epistemological, methodological, and political problem, in order to then formulate it as a theoretical problem. The article argues that it is insufficient to examine the "illegality" of undocumented migration only in terms of its consequences and that it is necessary also to produce historically informed accounts of the sociopolitical processes of "illegalization" themselves, which can be characterized as the legal production of migrant "illegality."
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085432
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    STREAMFLOW NECESSARY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MAINTENANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 181-206 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In the last decades, insights from the fields of ecology, geomorphology, and hydrology have been applied to the question of the streamflows necessary for environmental maintenance. For instance, determining the streamflow needed for spawning by salmon or trout requires ascertaining how much water, for how long, and at what time it will be needed? And what flows are necessary for the sustenance of streamside vegetation? Answers to these and similar questions have been sought to minimize environmental degradation in the development or relicensing of water projects, in restoring riverine ecosystems, and in balancing multiple uses for limited water resources. In this contribution, the varieties of environmental maintenance flows applied to rivers are described, as are their fundamental principles. These environmental maintenance flows include flows to maintain aesthetics and recreation, streambed sediment size and its mobility, the channel, its features and continuity, and the floodplain, its wetness regime, and riparian vegetation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.083001.161748
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    GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE OF THE UPPERMOST OCEANIC CRUST CREATED AT FAST- TO INTERMEDIATE-RATE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 347-384 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Geological investigations of major fault scarps ("tectonic windows") and DSDP/ODP Drill Holes provide direct views of the uppermost oceanic crust generated at fast- to intermediate-rate spreading centers. These areas reveal a consistent upper crustal structural geometry with basaltic lava flows defining a pattern of downward increasing ("inward") dip toward the spreading center at which they formed and dikes in the lavas and underlying sheeted dike complex showing a similar degree of "outward" dip. Widespread fracturing, faulting, and hydrothermal metamorphism accompanied magmatic construction. These geological relationships can be interpreted in terms of dramatic, asymmetrical, subaxial subsidence of upper crustal rock units that diminishes across the very narrow (few kilometers wide) zone of lava accumulation and dike intrusion at the ridge axis. This type of crustal structure is in accord with some existing models of spreading but augments these idealized views with more realistic geological complexity.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141132
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    PRELUDE TO THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 285-306 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Prelude began with the origin of Metazoa, perhaps between 720 and 660 million years ago (mya), and ended with the geologically abrupt appearance of crown bilaterian phyla that began between 530 and 520 mya. The origin and early evolution of phyla cannot be tracked by fossils during this interval, but molecular phylogenetics permits reconstruction of their branching topology, whereas molecular developmental evidence supports hypotheses for the evolution of the metzoan genome during the rise of complex bodyplans. A flexible architecture of genetic regulation was in place even before the appearance of crown sponges, permitting increases in gene expression events as bodyplan complexity rose. Neoproterozoic bilaterians were chiefly small-bodied but likely diverse, whereas in the earliest Cambrian, between 543 and approximately 530-520 mya, bodies that were complex by marine invertebrate standards evolved in association with body-size increases.
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    PLUTO AND CHARON: Formation, Seasons, Composition (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 307-345 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pluto and Charon, once thought to be a singular system in an odd orbit at the edge of the solar system, are now known as members of a vast population of icy bodies beyond Neptune. Models for the occurrence of the odd orbit and formation of these bodies in the context of the total population are reviewed. Pluto's orbital characteristics, coupled with the existence of volatiles on the surface, suggest that large-scale seasonal change should occur on the surface. Models of seasonal variability are discussed, past and current observations are examined for evidence of variability, and a straw-man model of seasonal changes is proposed. Finally, recent observations of the surface composition of Charon are discussed and compared with observations of other similarly sized icy bodies in the outer Solar System.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.090401.095213
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    MANTLE MIXING: The Generation, Preservation, and Destruction of Chemical Heterogeneity (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 493-525 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of the geochemical diversity of mid-oceanic ridge and ocean-island basalts have traditionally been attributed to the existence of large-scale mantle heterogeneity. In particular, the layered convection model has provided an important conceptual basis for discussing the chemical evolution of the Earth. In this model, a long-term boundary is assumed between a well-mixed and depleted upper mantle and a heterogeneous and more primitive lower mantle. The existence of high 3He/4He in ocean-island sources has been used to argue for the preservation of a primitive component in the deep mantle. Nevertheless, a primitive deep layer is difficult to reconcile with the abundant lithophile isotopic evidence for recycling of oceanic crust and the lack of preservation of primitive mantle. In addition, the widespread acceptance of geophysical evidence for whole mantle flow has made straightforward application of the layered convection model problematic. Model calculations show that whole mantle convection with present day heat flow and surface velocities is sufficiently vigorous to mix large-scale heterogeneity to an extent that is incompatible with the geochemical observations. Several concepts have been proposed in recent years to resolve the apparent conflicts between the various observational constraints and theoretical interpretations. The suggestions include the presence of deeper layering, preservation of highly viscous blobs, core mantle interaction, and strong temporal variations in mantle dynamics. Although these models generally appear to solve parts of the puzzle, at present no single model is able to account for all of the major observations. The reconciliation of conflicting evidence awaits improvements in observational and experimental techniques integrated with better model testing of hypotheses for the generation and destruction of mantle heterogeneity.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141236
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    FOSSIL PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF THE PHANEROZOIC GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 527-556 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Developments in plant physiology since the 1980s have led to the realization that fossil plants archive both the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 and its concentration, both critical integrators of carbon cycle processes through geologic time. These two carbon cycle signals can be read by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition (delta13C) of fossilized terrestrial organic matter and by determining the stomatal characters of well-preserved fossil leaves, respectively. We critically evaluate the use of fossil plants in this way at abrupt climatic boundaries associated with mass extinctions and during times of extreme global warmth. Particular emphasis is placed on evaluating the potential to extract a quantitative estimate of the delta13C of atmospheric CO2 because of the key role it plays in understanding the carbon cycle. We critically discuss the use of stomatal index and stomatal ratios for reconstructing atmospheric CO2 levels, especially the need for adequate replication, and present a newly derived CO2 record for the Mesozoic that supports levels calculated from geochemical modeling of the long-term carbon cycle. Several suggestions for future research using stable carbon isotope analyses of fossil terrestrial organic matter and stomatal measurements are highlighted.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141413
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    MOLECULAR CONTROL OF CORTICAL DENDRITE DEVELOPMENT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 127-149 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Dendritic morphology has a profound impact on neuronal information processing. The overall extent and orientation of dendrites determines the kinds of input a neuron receives. Fine dendritic appendages called spines act as subcellular compartments devoted to processing synaptic information, and the dendritic branching pattern determines the efficacy with which synaptic information is transmitted to the soma. The acquisition of a mature dendritic morphology depends on the coordinated action of a number of different extracellular factors. Here we discuss this evidence in the context of dendritic development in the cerebral cortex. Soon after migrating to the cortical plate, neurons extend an apical dendrite directed toward the pial surface. The oriented growth of the apical dendrite is regulated by Sema3A, which acts as a dendritic chemoattractant. Subsequent dendritic development involves signaling by neurotrophic factors and Notch, which regulate dendritic growth and branching. During postnatal development the formation and stabilization of dendritic spines are regulated in part by patterns of synaptic activity. These observations suggest that extracellular signals play an important role in regulating every aspect of dendritic development and thereby exert a critical influence on cortical connectivity.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142932
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    TRANSCRIPTIONAL CODES AND THE CONTROL OF NEURONAL IDENTITY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 251-281 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The topographic assembly of neural circuits is dependent upon the generation of specific neuronal subtypes, each subtype displaying unique properties that direct the formation of selective connections with appropriate target cells. Studies of motor neuron development in the spinal cord have begun to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in controlling motor projections. In this review, we first describe the actions of transcription factors within motor neuron progenitors, which initiate a cascade of transcriptional interactions that lead to motor neuron specification. We next highlight the contribution of the LIM homeodomain (LIM-HD) transcription factors in establishing motor neuron subtype identity. Importantly, it has recently been shown that the combinatorial expression of LIM-HD transcription factors, the LIM code, confers motor neuron subtypes with the ability to select specific axon pathways to reach their distinct muscle targets. Finally, the downstream targets of the LIM code are discussed, especially in the context of subtype-specific motor axon pathfinding.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142916
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    CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON VISUAL PROCESSING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 339-379 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The visual image formed on the retina represents an amalgam of visual scene properties, including the reflectances of surfaces, their relative positions, and the type of illumination. The challenge facing the visual system is to extract the "meaning" of the image by decomposing it into its environmental causes. For each local region of the image, that extraction of meaning is only possible if information from other regions is taken into account. Of particular importance is a set of image cues revealing surface occlusion and/or lighting conditions. These information-rich cues direct the perceptual interpretation of other more ambiguous image regions. This context-dependent transformation from image to perception has profound-but frequently under-appreciated-implications for neurophysiological studies of visual processing: To demonstrate that neuronal responses are correlated with perception of visual scene properties, rather than visual image features, neuronal sensitivity must be assessed in varied contexts that differentially influence perceptual interpretation. We review a number of recent studies that have used this context-based approach to explore the neuronal bases of visual scene perception.
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    THE ROLE OF NOTCH IN PROMOTING GLIAL AND NEURAL STEM CELL FATES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 471-490 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The Notch signaling pathway has long been known to influence cell fate in the developing nervous system. However, this pathway has generally been thought to inhibit the specification of certain cell types in favor of others, or to simply maintain a progenitor pool. Recently, this view has been challenged by numerous studies suggesting that Notch may play an instructive role in promoting glial development. This work has inspired a new look at the role of Notch signaling in specifying cell fate. It has also prompted further consideration of the emerging view that in some contexts glia may be multipotent progenitors. This review examines the role of Notch during gliogenesis in both fruit flies and vertebrates, as well as evidence in vertebrates that some glia may be stem cells.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.030702.130823
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    FUNCTIONAL MRI OF LANGUAGE: New Approaches to Understanding the Cortical Organization of Semantic Processing (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 151-188 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Until recently, our understanding of how language is organized in the brain depended on analysis of behavioral deficits in patients with fortuitously placed lesions. The availability of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) for in vivo analysis of the normal brain has revolutionized the study of language. This review discusses three lines of fMRI research into how the semantic system is organized in the adult brain. These are (a) the role of the left inferior frontal lobe in semantic processing and dissociations from other frontal lobe language functions, (b) the organization of categories of objects and concepts in the temporal lobe, and (c) the role of the right hemisphere in comprehending contextual and figurative meaning. Together, these lines of research broaden our understanding of how the brain stores, retrieves, and makes sense of semantic information, and they challenge some commonly held notions of functional modularity in the language system.
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    SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION MEDIATED BY THE T CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTOR: The Role of Adapter Proteins* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 20 (2002), S. 371-394 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Engagement of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) leads to a complex series of molecular changes at the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, and at the nucleus that lead ultimately to T cell effector function. Activation at the TCR of a set of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) is an early event in this process. This chapter reviews some of the critical substrates of these PTKs, the adapter proteins that, following phosphorylation on tyrosine residues, serve as binding sites for many of the critical effector enzymes and other adapter proteins required for T cell activation. The role of these adapters in binding various proteins, the interaction of adapters with plasma membrane microdomains, and the function of adapter proteins in control of the cytoskeleton are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.092601.111357
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    T CELL MEMORY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 20 (2002), S. 551-579 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Typical immune responses lead to prominent clonal expansion of antigen-specific T and B cells followed by differentiation into effector cells. Most effector cells die at the end of the immune response but some of these cells survive and form long-lived memory cells. The factors controlling the formation and survival of memory T cells are reviewed.
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    PROSPECTS FOR VACCINE PROTECTION AGAINST HIV-1 INFECTION AND AIDS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 20 (2002), S. 73-99 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The rapid and devastating spread of the AIDS epidemic in the developing world as well as the difficulties associated with delivering antiretroviral drugs in affected countries underscore the urgent need for the development of a safe and effective AIDS vaccine. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the cellular and humoral immune responses to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. We then describe vaccine strategies that have been explored and discuss the evidence suggesting that cellular immune responses elicited by novel vaccine modalities may attenuate clinical disease caused by HIV-1.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.081501.094854
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    E PROTEIN FUNCTION IN LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 20 (2002), S. 301-322 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Lymphocytes arise from hematopoietic stem cells through the coordinated action of transcription factors. The E proteins (E12, E47, HEB and E2-2) have emerged as key regulators of both B and T lymphocyte differentiation. This review summarizes the current data and examines the various functions of E proteins and their antagonists, Id2 and Id3, throughout lymphoid maturation. Beyond an established role in B and T lineage commitment, E proteins continue to be essential at subsequent stages of development. E protein activity regulates the expression of surrogate and antigen receptor genes, promotes Ig and TCR rearrangements, and coordinates cell survival and proliferation with developmental progression in response to TCR signaling. Finally, this review also discusses the role of E47 as a tumor suppressor.
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    CPG MOTIFS IN BACTERIAL DNA AND THEIR IMMUNE EFFECTS* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 20 (2002), S. 709-760 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Unmethylated CpG motifs are prevalent in bacterial but not vertebrate genomic DNAs. Oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) containing CpG motifs activate host defense mechanisms leading to innate and acquired immune responses. The recognition of CpG motifs requires Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9, which triggers alterations in cellular redox balance and the induction of cell signaling pathways including the mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NFkappaB. Cells that express TLR-9, which include plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) and B cells, produce Th1-like proinflammatory cytokines, interferons, and chemokines. Certain CpG motifs (CpG-A) are especially potent at activating NK cells and inducing IFN-alpha production by PDCs, while other motifs (CpG-B) are especially potent B cell activators. CpG-induced activation of innate immunity protects against lethal challenge with a wide variety of pathogens, and has therapeutic activity in murine models of cancer and allergy. CpG ODN also enhance the development of acquired immune responses for prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination.
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    PAVING THE PATH (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 1-25 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Fortuitous preparation and experiences led to the opportunity to use radioactive carbon dioxides to discern the path of carbon in photosynthesis. The search for the CO2 acceptor led to recognition of the growth stimulatory effect of methanol and its derivatives. With the techniques developed, radiochromatographic exploration led to discovery of major membrane lipids containing phosphorus, sulfur, and arsenic.
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    VASCULAR TISSUE DIFFERENTIATION AND PATTERN FORMATION IN PLANTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 183-202 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Vascular tissues, xylem and phloem, are differentiated from meristematic cells, procambium, and vascular cambium. Auxin and cytokinin have been considered essential for vascular tissue differentiation; this is supported by recent molecular and genetic analyses. Xylogenesis has long been used as a model for study of cell differentiation, and many genes involved in late stages of tracheary element formation have been characterized. A number of mutants affecting vascular differentiation and pattern formation have been isolated in Arabidopsis. Studies of some of these mutants have suggested that vascular tissue organization within the bundles and vascular pattern formation at the organ level are regulated by positional information.
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    SALT AND DROUGHT STRESS SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION IN PLANTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 247-273 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Salt and drought stress signal transduction consists of ionic and osmotic homeostasis signaling pathways, detoxification (i.e., damage control and repair) response pathways, and pathways for growth regulation. The ionic aspect of salt stress is signaled via the SOS pathway where a calcium-responsive SOS3-SOS2 protein kinase complex controls the expression and activity of ion transporters such as SOS1. Osmotic stress activates several protein kinases including mitogen-activated kinases, which may mediate osmotic homeostasis and/or detoxification responses. A number of phospholipid systems are activated by osmotic stress, generating a diverse array of messenger molecules, some of which may function upstream of the osmotic stress-activated protein kinases. Abscisic acid biosynthesis is regulated by osmotic stress at multiple steps. Both ABA-dependent and -independent osmotic stress signaling first modify constitutively expressed transcription factors, leading to the expression of early response transcriptional activators, which then activate downstream stress tolerance effector genes.
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    RUBISCO: Structure, Regulatory Interactions, and Possibilities for a Better Enzyme (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 449-475 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) catalyzes the first step in net photosynthetic CO2 assimilation and photorespiratory carbon oxidation. The enzyme is notoriously inefficient as a catalyst for the carboxylation of RuBP and is subject to competitive inhibition by O2, inactivation by loss of carbamylation, and dead-end inhibition by RuBP. These inadequacies make Rubisco rate limiting for photosynthesis and an obvious target for increasing agricultural productivity. Resolution of X-ray crystal structures and detailed analysis of divergent, mutant, and hybrid enzymes have increased our insight into the structure/function relationships of Rubisco. The interactions and associations relatively far from the Rubisco active site, including regulatory interactions with Rubisco activase, may present new approaches and strategies for understanding and ultimately improving this complex enzyme.
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    PHYTOCHROMES CONTROL PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS BY DIFFERENTIALLY REGULATED, INTERACTING SIGNALING PATHWAYS IN HIGHER PLANTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 329-355 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract In this review the kinetic properties of both phytochrome A and B measured by in vivo spectroscopy in Arabidopsis are described. Inactivation of phyA is mediated by destruction and that of phyB by fast dark reversion. Recent observations, describing a complex interaction network of various phytochromes and cryptochromes, are also discussed. The review describes recent analysis of light-dependent nuclear translocation of phytochromes and genetic and molecular dissection of phyA- and phyB-mediated signal transduction. After nuclear transport, both phyA- and phyB-mediated signal transduction probably include the formation of light-dependent transcriptional complexes. Although this hypothesis is quite attractive and probably true for some responses, it cannot account for the complex network of phyA-mediated signaling and the interaction with the circadian clock. In addition, the biological function of phytochromes localized in the cytosol remains to be elucidated.
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    ROOT GRAVITROPISM: An Experimental Tool to Investigate Basic Cellular and Molecular Processes Underlying Mechanosensing and Signal Transmission in Plants (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 421-447 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The ability of plant organs to use gravity as a guide for growth, named gravitropism, has been recognized for over two centuries. This growth response to the environment contributes significantly to the upward growth of shoots and the downward growth of roots commonly observed throughout the plant kingdom. Root gravitropism has received a great deal of attention because there is a physical separation between the primary site for gravity sensing, located in the root cap, and the site of differential growth response, located in the elongation zones (EZs). Hence, this system allows identification and characterization of different phases of gravitropism, including gravity perception, signal transduction, signal transmission, and curvature response. Recent studies support some aspects of an old model for gravity sensing, which postulates that root-cap columellar amyloplasts constitute the susceptors for gravity perception. Such studies have also allowed the identification of several molecules that appear to function as second messengers in gravity signal transduction and of potential signal transducers. Auxin has been implicated as a probable component of the signal that carries the gravitropic information between the gravity-sensing cap and the gravity-responding EZs. This has allowed the identification and characterization of important molecular processes underlying auxin transport and response in plants. New molecular models can be elaborated to explain how the gravity signal transduction pathway might regulate the polarity of auxin transport in roots. Further studies are required to test these models, as well as to study the molecular mechanisms underlying a poorly characterized phase of gravitropism that is independent of an auxin gradient.
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    CHLORORESPIRATION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 523-550 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Chlororespiration has been defined as a respiratory electron transport chain (ETC) in interaction with the photosynthetic ETC in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. The existence of chlororespiration has been disputed during the last decade, with the initial evidence mainly obtained with intact algal cells being possibly explained by redox interactions between chloroplasts and mitochondria. The discovery in higher-plant chloroplasts of a plastid-encoded NAD(P)H-dehydrogenase (Ndh) complex, homologous to the bacterial complex I, and of a nuclear-encoded plastid terminal oxidase (PTOX), homologous to the plant mitochondrial alternative oxidase, brought molecular support to the concept of chlororespiration. The functionality of these proteins in nonphotochemical reduction and oxidation of plastoquinones (PQs), respectively, has recently been demonstrated. In thylakoids of mature chloroplasts, chlororespiration appears to be a relatively minor pathway compared to linear photosynthetic electron flow from H2O to NADP+. However, chlororespiration might play a role in the regulation of photosynthesis by modulating the activity of cyclic electron flow around photosystem I (PS I). In nonphotosynthetic plastids, chlororespiratory electron carriers are more abundant and may play a significant bioenergetic role.
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    STRUCTURE, DYNAMICS, AND ENERGETICS OF THE PRIMARY PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF PHOTOSYSTEM II OF OXYGENIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 53 (2002), S. 551-580 
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    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Recent progress in two-dimensional and three-dimensional electron and X-ray crystallography of Photosystem II (PSII) core complexes has led to major advances in the structural definition of this integral membrane protein complex. Despite the overall structural and kinetic similarity of the PSII reaction centers to their purple nonsulfur photosynthetic bacterial homologues, the different cofactors and subtle differences in their spatial arrangement result in significant differences in the energetics and mechanism of primary charge separation. In this review we discuss some of the recent spectroscopic, structural, and mutagenic work on the primary and secondary electron transfer reactions in PSII, stressing what is experimentally novel, what new insights have appeared, and where questions of interpretation remain.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.53.100301.135238
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    A PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE MOUSE GENOME (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 3 (2002), S. 1-16 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: The chapter describes some personal reminiscences of various stages in the growth of knowledge of the mouse genome in the past 50 years. Initially mapping was done by crossing new mutants with linkage testing stocks, a slow and laborious method. In the 1950s major mutagenesis experiments led to spin-offs in terms of new mutants, new knowledge of phenomena including sex determination and X-chromosome inactivation, and further understanding of the t-complex. The 1970s saw the development of recombinant inbred (RI) strains and the use of biochemical variants for mapping. In addition the linkage groups were assigned to chromosomes. Techniques of embryo surgery were developed, leading to work with embryonic stem (ES) cells and hence to the identification of gene functioning by knockouts and transgenesis. Another major advance in the 1970s and 1980s was the beginning of comparative mapping, which is now so important. With the advent of DNA technology, progress in mapping increased considerably. Progress became even faster with the use of interspecific backcrosses and with the development of microsatellite markers. The completion of the mouse DNA sequence is now imminent, opening fascinating prospects for the analysis of gene function.
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    THE MECHANISMS OF POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 81-105 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract In flowering plants, pollen grains germinate to form pollen tubes that transport male gametes (sperm cells) to the egg cell in the embryo sac during sexual reproduction. Pollen tube biology is complex, presenting parallels with axon guidance and moving cell systems in animals. Pollen tube cells elongate on an active extracellular matrix in the style, ultimately guided by stylar and embryo sac signals. A well-documented recognition system occurs between pollen grains and the stigma in sporophytic self-incompatibility, where both receptor kinases in the stigma and their peptide ligands from pollen are now known. Complex mechanisms act to precisely target the sperm cells into the embryo sac. These events initiate double fertilization in which the two sperm cells from one pollen tube fuse to produce distinctly different products: one with the egg to produce the zygote and embryo and the other with the central cell to produce the endosperm.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.18.012502.083438
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    BREAK INS AND BREAK OUTS: Viral Interactions with the Cytoskeleton of Mammalian Cells (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 135-161 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The host cytoskeleton plays important roles in the entry, replication, and egress of viruses. An assortment of viruses hijack cellular motor proteins to move on microtubules toward the cell interior during the entry process; others reverse this transport during egress to move assembling virus particles toward the plasma membrane. Polymerization of actin filaments is sometimes used to propel viruses from cell to cell, while many viruses induce the destruction of select cytoskeletal filaments apparently to effect efficient egress. Indeed, the tactics used by any given virus to achieve its infectious life cycle are certain to involve multiple cytoskeletal interactions. Understanding these interactions, and their orchestration during viral infections, is providing unexpected insights into basic virology, viral pathogenesis, and the biology of the cytoskeleton.
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    TYPE III PROTEIN SECRETION IN YERSINIA SPECIES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 107-133 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The type III mechanism of protein secretion is a pathogenic strategy shared by a number of gram-negative pathogens of plants and animals that has evolved in order to inject virulence proteins into the cytosol of target eukaryotic cells. The pathogens of the Yersinia genus represent a model system where much progress has been made in understanding this secretion pathway. Herein, we review what has been recently learned in yersiniae about the various environmental signals that induce type III secretion, how the synthesis of secretion substrates is regulated, and how such a diverse group of proteins is recognized as a substrate for secretion.
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    RECEPTOR KINASE SIGNALING IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 163-192 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The Arabidopsis genome sequence has revealed that plants contain a much larger complement of receptor kinase genes than other organisms. Early analysis of these genes revealed involvement in a diverse array of developmental and defense functions that included gametophyte development, pollen-pistil interactions, shoot apical meristem equilibrium, hormone perception, and cell morphogenesis. Amino acid sequence motifs and binding studies indicate that the ectodomains are capable of binding, either directly or indirectly, various classes of molecules including proteins, carbohydrates, and steroids. Genetic and biochemical approaches have begun to identify other components of several signal transduction pathways. Some receptor-like kinases (RLKs) appear to function with coreceptors lacking kinase domains, and genome analysis suggests this might be true for many RLKs. The KAPP protein phosphatase functions as a negative regulator of at least two RLK systems, and in vitro studies suggest it could be a common component of more. Whether plant signaling systems display a modularity similar to animal systems remains to be determined. Future efforts will reveal unknown functions of other RLKs and elucidate the relationships among their signaling networks.
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    BACTERIAL TOXINS THAT MODIFY THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 315-344 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Bacterial pathogens utilize several strategies to modulate the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. Some bacterial toxins catalyze the covalent modification of actin or the Rho GTPases, which are involved in the control of the actin cytoskeleton. Other bacteria produce toxins that act as guanine nucleotide exchange factors or GTPase-activating proteins to modulate the nucleotide state of the Rho GTPases. This latter group of toxins provides a temporal modulation of the actin cytoskeleton. A third group of bacterial toxins act as adenylate cyclases, which directly elevate intracellular cAMP to supra-physiological levels. Each class of toxins gives the bacterial pathogen a selective advantage in modulating host cell resistance to infection.
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    GOLGI ARCHITECTURE AND INHERITANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 379-420 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Golgi inheritance proceeds via sequential biogenesis and partitioning phases. Although little is known about Golgi growth and replication (biogenesis), ultrastructural and fluorescence analyses have provided a detailed, though still controversial, perspective of Golgi partitioning during mitosis in mammalian cells. Partitioning requires the fragmentation of the juxtanuclear ribbon of interconnected Golgi stacks into a multitude of tubulovesicular clusters. This process is choreographed by a cohort of mitotic kinases and an inhibition of heterotypic and homotypic Golgi membrane-fusion events. Our model posits that accurate partitioning occurs early in mitosis by the equilibration of Golgi components on either side of the metaphase plate. Disseminated Golgi components then coalesce to regenerate Golgi stacks during telophase. Semi-intact cell and cell-free assays have accurately recreated these processes and allowed their molecular dissection. This review attempts to integrate recent findings to depict a more coherent, synthetic molecular picture of mitotic Golgi fragmentation and reassembly. Of particular importance is the emerging concept of a highly regulated and dynamic Golgi structural matrix or template that interfaces with cargo receptors, Golgi enzymes, Rab-GTPases, and SNAREs to tightly couple biosynthetic transport to Golgi architecture. This structural framework may be instructive for Golgi biogenesis and may encode sufficient information to ensure accurate Golgi inheritance, thereby helping to resolve some of the current discrepancies between different workers.
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    AUTOINHIBITORY DOMAINS: Modular Effectors of Cellular Regulation (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 421-462 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Autoinhibitory domains are regions of proteins that negatively regulate the function of other domains via intramolecular interactions. Autoinhibition is a potent regulatory mechanism that provides tight "on-site" repression. The discovery of autoinhibition generates valuable clues to how a protein is regulated within a biological context. Mechanisms that counteract the autoinhibition, including proteolysis, post-translational modifications, as well as addition of proteins or small molecules in trans, often represent central regulatory pathways. In this review, we document the diversity of instances in which autoinhibition acts in cell regulation. Seven well-characterized examples (e.g., sigma70, Ets-1, ERM, SNARE and WASP proteins, SREBP, Src) are covered in detail. Over thirty additional examples are listed. We present experimental approaches to characterize autoinhibitory domains and discuss the implications of this widespread phenomenon for biological regulation in both the normal and diseased states.
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    MEMBRANE TRAFFIC EXPLOITED BY PROTEIN TOXINS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 1-24 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract A large number of protein toxins having enzymatically active A- and B-moieties that bind to cell surface receptors must be endocytosed before the A-moiety is translocated into the cytosol where it exerts its cytotoxic action. The accumulated information about the most well-studied toxins has provided a detailed picture of how they exploit the membrane trafficking systems of cells, and studies of toxin trafficking have revealed the existance of new pathways. The complexity of different endocytic mechanisms, as well as the multiple routes between endosomes and the Golgi apparatus and retrogradely to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), are being unravelled by investigations of how toxins gain access to their targets. With increasing information about the internalization and intracellular trafficking of these opportunistic toxins, new avenues have been opened for their application in areas of medicine such as drug delivery and therapy.
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    GENE CO-OPTION IN PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 53-80 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Co-option occurs when natural selection finds new uses for existing traits, including genes, organs, and other body structures. Genes can be co-opted to generate developmental and physiological novelties by changing their patterns of regulation, by changing the functions of the proteins they encode, or both. This often involves gene duplication followed by specialization of the resulting paralogous genes into particular functions. A major role for gene co-option in the evolution of development has long been assumed, and many recent comparative developmental and genomic studies have lent support to this idea. Although there is relatively less known about the molecular basis of co-option events involving developmental pathways, much can be drawn from well-studied examples of the co-option of structural proteins. Here, we summarize several case studies of both structural gene and developmental genetic circuit co-option and discuss how co-option may underlie major episodes of adaptive change in multicellular organisms. We also examine the phenomenon of intraspecific variability in gene expression patterns, which we propose to be one form of material for the co-option process. We integrate this information with recent models of gene family evolution to provide a framework for understanding the origin of co-optive evolution and the mechanisms by which natural selection promotes evolutionary novelty by inventing new uses for the genetic toolkit.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.18.020402.140619
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    CHROMOSOME-MICROTUBULE INTERACTIONS DURING MITOSIS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 193-219 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Spindle microtubules interact with mitotic chromosomes, binding to their kinetochores to generate forces that are important for accurate chromosome segregation. Motor enzymes localized both at kinetochores and spindle poles help to form the biologically significant attachments between spindle fibers and their cargo, but microtubule-associated proteins without motor activity contribute to these junctions in important ways. This review examines the molecules necessary for chromosome-microtubule interaction in a range of well-studied organisms, using biological diversity to identify the factors that are essential for organized chromosome movement. We conclude that microtubule dynamics and the proteins that control them are likely to be more important for mitosis than the current enthusiasm for motor enzymes would suggest.
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    PROTEOLYSIS AND STEROL REGULATION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 345-378 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The mammalian cell continuously adjusts its sterol content by regulating levels of key sterol synthetic enzymes and levels of LDL receptors that mediate uptake of cholesterol-laden particles. Control is brought about by sterol-regulated transcription of relevant genes and by regulated degradation of the committed step enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR). Current work has revealed that proteolysis is at the heart of each of these mechanistically distinct axes. Transcriptional control is effected by regulated cleavage of the membrane-bound transcription factor sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP), and HMGR degradation is brought about by ubiquitin-mediated degradation. In each case, ongoing cell biological processes are being harnessed to bring about regulation. The secretory pathway plays a central role in allowing sterol-mediated control of transcription. The constitutively active endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control apparatus is employed to bring about regulated destruction of HMGR. This review describes the methods and results of various studies to understand the mechanisms and molecules involved in these distinct but interrelated aspects of sterol regulation and the intriguing similarities that appear to exist at the levels of protein sequence and cell biology.
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    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF EPITHELIAL MORPHOGENESIS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2002), S. 463-493 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Epithelial morphogenesis comprises the various processes by which epithelia contribute to organ formation and body shape. These complex and diverse events play a central role in animal development and regeneration. Recently, the characterization of some of the molecular mechanisms involved in epithelial morphogenesis has provided an abundance of new information on the role and regulation of the cytoskeleton, cell-cell adhesion, and cell-matrix adhesion in these processes. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving cell shape changes, cell intercalation, fusion of epithelia, ingression, egression, and cell migration. Our discussion is mostly focused on results from Drosophila and mammalian tissue culture but also draws on the insights gained from other organisms.
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    EUKARYOTIC RIBONUCLEASE P: A Plurality of Ribonucleoprotein Enzymes (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 165-189 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ribonuclease P (RNase P) is an essential endonuclease that acts early in the tRNA biogenesis pathway. This enzyme catalyzes cleavage of the leader sequence of precursor tRNAs (pre-tRNAs), generating the mature 5' end of tRNAs. RNase P activities have been identified in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya, as well as organelles. Most forms of RNase P are ribonucleoproteins, i.e., they consist of an essential RNA subunit and protein subunits, although the composition of the enzyme in mitochondria and chloroplasts is still under debate. The recent purification of the eukaryotic nuclear RNase P has demonstrated a significantly larger protein content compared to the bacterial enzyme. Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that the eukaryotic RNase P has evolved into at least two related nuclear enzymes with distinct functions, RNase P and RNase MRP. Here we review current information on RNase P, with emphasis on the composition, structure, and functions of the eukaryotic nuclear holoenzyme, and its relationship with RNase MRP.
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    MY CAREER IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. xiii 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Norman Davidson's training as a physical chemist led him to make key early contributions to the chemistry of DNA. He described the details of DNA denaturation and renaturation, concepts that still form the basis for understanding hybridization. He also applied the single-molecule resolution of the electron microscope to describing the chemistry of circular DNA, mapping specific genes, and characterizing heteroduplexes. The latter became a dominant tool for the study of nucleic acids and contributed to our knowledge of transcription, polyadenylation, and retroviral structure. The advent of cDNA cloning and restriction enzymes enabled Davidson to describe the diversity of Drosophila actin genes and to isolate the gene encoding cAMP phosphodiesterase. Davidson then turned his attention to neuroscience and participated in cDNA cloning, oocyte expression, and structure-function studies of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, voltage-gated sodium channels, a GABA transporter, a G protein-gated potassium channel, and calcium channels. His interests also extended to synaptic plasticity, and he helped to define the role of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and of trkB receptors. His final experiments concerned the role of protein kinase A in long-term potentiation. (The abstract was written posthumously by a colleague.)
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    THE BACTERIAL RECA PROTEIN AND THE RECOMBINATIONAL DNA REPAIR OF STALLED REPLICATION FORKS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 71-100 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The primary function of bacterial recombination systems is the nonmutagenic repair of stalled or collapsed replication forks. The RecA protein plays a central role in these repair pathways, and its biochemistry must be considered in this context. RecA protein promotes DNA strand exchange, a reaction that contributes to fork regression and DNA end invasion steps. RecA protein activities, especially formation and disassembly of its filaments, affect many additional steps. So far, Escherichia coli RecA appears to be unique among its nearly ubiquitous family of homologous proteins in that it possesses a motorlike activity that can couple the branch movement in DNA strand exchange to ATP hydrolysis. RecA is also a multifunctional protein, serving in different biochemical roles for recombinational processes, SOS induction, and mutagenic lesion bypass. New biochemical and structural information highlights both the similarities and distinctions between RecA and its homologs. Increasingly, those differences can be rationalized in terms of biological function.
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    EUKARYOTIC DNA POLYMERASES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 133-163 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Any living cell is faced with the fundamental task of keeping the genome intact in order to develop in an organized manner, to function in a complex environment, to divide at the right time, and to die when it is appropriate. To achieve this goal, an efficient machinery is required to maintain the genetic information encoded in DNA during cell division, DNA repair, DNA recombination, and the bypassing of damage in DNA. DNA polymerases (pols) alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon are the key enzymes required to maintain the integrity of the genome under all these circumstances. In the last few years the number of known pols, including terminal transferase and telomerase, has increased to at least 19. A particular pol might have more than one functional task in a cell and a particular DNA synthetic event may require more than one pol, which suggests that nature has provided various safety mechanisms. This multi-functional feature is especially valid for the variety of novel pols identified in the last three years. These are the lesion-replicating enzymes pol zeta, pol eta, pol itoa, pol kappa, and Rev1, and a group of pols called pol theta, pol lamba, pol mu, pol sigma, and pol phi that fulfill a variety of other tasks.
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    ATP-DEPENDENT NUCLEOSOME REMODELING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 247-273 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract It has been a long-standing challenge to decipher the principles that enable cells to both organize their genomes into compact chromatin and ensure that the genetic information remains accessible to regulatory factors and enzymes within the confines of the nucleus. The discovery of nucleosome remodeling activities that utilize the energy of ATP to render nucleosomal DNA accessible has been a great leap forward. In vitro, these enzymes weaken the tight wrapping of DNA around the histone octamers, thereby facilitating the sliding of histone octamers to neighboring DNA segments, their displacement to unlinked DNA, and the accumulation of patches of accessible DNA on the surface of nucleosomes. It is presumed that the collective action of these enzymes endows chromatin with dynamic properties that govern all nuclear functions dealing with chromatin as a substrate. The diverse set of ATPases that qualify as the molecular motors of the nucleosome remodeling process have a common history and are part of a superfamily. The physiological context of their remodeling action builds on the association with a wide range of other proteins to form distinct complexes for nucleosome remodeling. This review summarizes the recent progress in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the nucleosome remodeling reaction, the targeting of remodeling machines to selected sites in chromatin, and their integration into complex regulatory schemes.
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    THE LA PROTEIN (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 375-403 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells, the La protein associates with the 3' termini of many newly synthesized small RNAs. RNAs bound by the La protein include all nascent transcripts made by RNA polymerase III as well as certain small RNAs synthesized by other RNA polymerases. Recent genetic and biochemical analyses have revealed that binding by the La protein protects the 3' ends of these RNAs from exonucleases. This La-mediated stabilization is required for the normal pathway of pre-tRNA maturation, facilitates assembly of small RNAs into functional RNA-protein complexes, and contributes to nuclear retention of certain small RNAs. Studies of mutant La proteins have given some insights into how the La protein specifically recognizes its RNA targets. However, many questions remain regarding the molecular mechanisms by which La protein binding influences multiple steps in small RNA biogenesis. This review focuses on the roles of the La protein in small RNA biogenesis and also discusses data that implicate the La protein in the translation of specific mRNAs.
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    MAMMALIAN ABC TRANSPORTERS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 537-592 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of large proteins in membranes and are able to transport a variety of compounds through membranes against steep concentration gradients at the cost of ATP hydrolysis. The available outline of the human genome contains 48 ABC genes; 16 of these have a known function and 14 are associated with a defined human disease. Major physiological functions of ABC transporters include the transport of lipids, bile salts, toxic compounds, and peptides for antigen presentation or other purposes. We review the functions of mammalian ABC transporters, emphasizing biochemical mechanisms and genetic defects. Our overview illustrates the importance of ABC transporters in human physiology, toxicology, pharmacology, and disease. We focus on three topics: (a) ABC transporters transporting drugs (xenotoxins) and drug conjugates. (b) Mammalian secretory epithelia using ABC transporters to excrete a large number of substances, sometimes against a steep concentration gradient. Several inborn errors in liver metabolism are due to mutations in one of the genes for these pumps; these are discussed. (c) A rapidly increasing number of ABC transporters are found to play a role in lipid transport. Defects in each of these transporters are involved in human inborn or acquired diseases.
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    MECHANISMS OF FAST PROTEIN FOLDING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 783-815 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract An explosion of in vitro experimental data on the folding of proteins has revealed many examples of folding in the millisecond or faster timescale, often occurring in the absence of stable intermediate states. We review experimental methods for measuring fast protein folding kinetics, and then discuss various analytical models used to interpret these data. Finally, we classify general mechanisms that have been proposed to explain fast protein folding into two catagories, heterogeneous and homogeneous, reflecting the nature of the transition state. One heterogeneous mechanism, the diffusion-collision mechanism, can be used to interpret experimental data for a number of proteins.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135346
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    LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTORS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 405-434 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family is an evolutionarily ancient gene family of structurally closely related cell-surface receptors. Members of the family are involved in the cellular uptake of extracellular ligands and regulate diverse biological processes including lipid and vitamin metabolism and cell-surface protease activity. Some members of the family also participate in cellular signaling and regulate the development and functional maintenance of the nervous system. Here we review the roles of this family of multifunctional receptors in the nervous system and focus on recent advances toward the understanding of the mechanisms by which lipoprotein receptors and their ligands transmit and modulate signals in the brain.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135342
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    NEURONAL CA2+/CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE II: The Role of Structure and Autoregulation in Cellular Function (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 473-510 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Highly enriched in brain tissue and present throughout the body, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is central to the coordination and execution of Ca2+ signal transduction. The substrates phosphorylated by CaMKII are implicated in homeostatic regulation of the cell, as well as in activity-dependent changes in neuronal function that appear to underlie complex cognitive and behavioral responses, including learning and memory. The architecture of CaMKII holoenzymes is unique in nature. The kinase functional domains (12 per holoenzyme) are attached by stalklike appendages to a gear-shaped core, grouped into two clusters of six. Each subunit contains a catalytic, an autoregulatory, and an association domain. Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) binding disinhibits the autoregulatory domain, allowing autophosphorylation and complex changes in the enzyme's sensitivity to Ca2+/CaM, including the generation of Ca2+/CaM-independent activity, CaM trapping, and CaM capping. These processes confer a type of molecular memory to the autoregulation and activity of CaMKII. Its function is intimately shaped by its multimeric structure, autoregulation, isozymic type, and subcellular localization; these features and processes are discussed as they relate to known and potential cellular functions of this multifunctional protein kinase.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135410
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    FORMATION OF UNUSUAL SUGARS: Mechanistic Studies and Biosynthetic Applications (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 701-754 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Carbohydrates are highly abundant biomolecules found extensively in nature. Besides playing important roles in energy storage and supply, they often serve as essential biosynthetic precursors or structural elements needed to sustain all forms of life. A number of unusual sugars that have certain hydroxyl groups replaced by a hydrogen, an amino group, or an alkyl side chain play crucial roles in determining the biological activity of the parent natural products in bacterial lipopolysaccharides or secondary metabolite antibiotics. Recent investigation of the biosynthesis of these monosaccharides has led to the identification of the gene clusters whose protein products facilitate the unusual sugar formation from the ubiquitous NDP-glucose precursors. This review summarizes the mechanistic studies of a few enzymes crucial to the biosynthesis of C-2, C-3, C-4, and C-6 deoxysugars, the characterization and mutagenesis of nucleotidyl transferases that can recognize and couple structural analogs of their natural substrates and the identification of glycosyltransferases with promiscuous substrate specificity. Information gleaned from these studies has allowed pathway engineering, resulting in the creation of new macrolides with unnatural deoxysugar moieties for biological activity screening. This represents a significant progress toward our goal of searching for more potent agents against infectious diseases and malignant tumors.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135339
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    REGULATION OF DIAPAUSE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 93-122 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Environmental and hormonal regulators of diapause have been reasonably well defined, but our understanding of the molecular regulation of diapause remains in its infancy. Though many genes are shut down during diapause, others are specifically expressed at this time. Classes of diapause-upregulated genes can be distinguished based on their expression patterns: Some are upregulated throughout diapause, and others are expressed only in early diapause, late diapause, or intermittently throughout diapause. The termination of diapause is accompanied by a rapid decline in expression of the diapause-upregulated genes and, conversely, an elevation in expression of many genes that were downregulated during diapause. A comparison of insect diapause with other forms of dormancy in plants and animals suggests that upregulation of a subset of heat shock protein genes may be one feature common to different types of dormancies.
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    SEQUESTRATION OF DEFENSIVE SUBSTANCES FROM PLANTS BY LEPIDOPTERA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 57-92 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract A number of aposematic butterfly and diurnal moth species sequester unpalatable or toxic substances from their host plants rather than manufacturing their own defensive substances. Despite a great diversity in their life histories, there are some general features in the selective utilization of plant secondary metabolites to achieve effective protection from predators. This review illustrates the biochemical, physiological, and ecological characteristics of phytochemical-based defense systems that can shed light on the evolution of the widely developed sequestering lifestyles among the Lepidoptera.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145121
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    BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE SMOKYBROWN COCKROACH (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 33-55 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Serville), has become an increasingly important peridomestic pest throughout much of the southeastern United States, Japan, and southeast Asia. We provide a brief description of the species and clarify its worldwide distribution. Aspects of smokybrown cockroach behavior, biology, ecology, and physiology are discussed in the context of this species' successful exploitation of the urban environment. We describe smokybrown cockroach management based upon a model that relates house and landscape characteristics to cockroach population size. Finally, we illustrate the effectiveness of a model-based IPM system that increases control while reducing use of insecticides.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145106
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    ARTHROPODS ON ISLANDS: Colonization, Speciation, and Conservation (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 595-632 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Islands have traditionally been considered to be any relatively small body of land completely surrounded by water. However, their primary biological characteristic, an extended period of isolation from a source of colonists, is common also to many situations on continents. Accordingly, theories and predictions developed for true islands have been applied to a huge array of systems, from rock pools, to single tree species in forests, to oceanic islands. Here, we examine the literature on islands in the broadest sense (i.e., whether surrounded by water or any other uninhabitable matrix) as it pertains to terrestrial arthropods. We categorize islands according to the features they share. The primary distinction between different island systems is "darwinian" islands (formed de novo) and "fragment" islands. In the former, the islands have never been in contact with the source of colonists and have abundant "empty" ecological niche space. On these islands, species numbers will initially increase through immigration, the rate depending on the degree of isolation. If isolation persists, over time species formation will result in "neo-endemics." When isolation is extreme, the ecological space will gradually be filled through speciation (rather than immigration) and adaptive radiation of neo-endemics. Fragment islands are fundamentally different. In these islands, the ecological space will initially be filled as a consequence of connection to the source of colonists prior to insularization. Species numbers will decrease following fragmentation through the process of relaxation. If these islands become more isolated, species will eventually arise through relictualization with the formation of "paleo-endemics." Given sufficient time, this process can result in generic level endemism on ancient fragment islands, a phenomenon well illustrated in Madagascar and New Zealand. Recognizing the distinction between the different kinds of islands is fundamental for understanding emerging patterns on each, in particular speciation, biodiversity (e.g., neo-endemics versus paleo-endemics), and conservation (e.g., naivete in interactions with alien species).
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145244
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    CONTROL AND BIOCHEMICAL NATURE OF THE ECDYSTEROIDOGENIC PATHWAY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 883-916 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Molting is elicited by a critical titer of ecdysteroids that includes the principal molting hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), and ecdysone (E), which is the precursor of 20E but also has morphogenetic roles of its own. The prothoracic glands are the predominate source of ecdysteroids, and the rate of synthesis of these polyhydroxylated sterols is critical for molting and metamorphosis. This review concerns three aspects of ecdysteroidogenesis: (a) how the brain neuropeptide prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) initiates a transductory cascade in cells of the prothoracic gland, which results in an increased rate of ecdysteroid biosynthesis (upregulation); (b) how the concentrations of 20E in the hemolymph feed back on the prothoracic gland to decrease rates of ecdysteroidogenesis (downregulation); and (c) how the prothoracic gland cells convert cholesterol to the precursor of E and then 20E, a series of reactions only now being understood because of the use of a combination of classical biochemistry and molecular genetics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145302
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    BACTERIAL SYMBIONTS OF THE TRIATOMINAE AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN CONTROL OF CHAGAS DISEASE TRANSMISSION1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 123-141 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Chagas disease is caused by the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted by insects in the family Reduviidae, subfamily Triatominae, commonly known as kissing bugs. Because these insects feed throughout their entire developmental cycle on vertebrate blood, they harbor populations of symbiotic bacteria in their intestinal track that produce nutrients that are lacking in the insects' limited diet. It is possible to cultivate these bacteria, genetically modify them, and place them back into their insect host, thus generating a paratransgenic insect. This procedure has allowed the expression of antitrypanosomal gene products in the insect gut, thereby resulting in insects that are incapable of transmitting Chagas disease. A method has been developed that would allow introduction and spread of genetically modified symbionts into natural populations of kissing bugs, thus leading potentially to a transgenic intervention tool for use as a part of an integrated vector control approach.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145144
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    BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE JAPANESE BEETLE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 175-205 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, an introduced scarab, has become the most widespread and destructive insect pest of turf, landscapes, and nursery crops in the eastern United States. It also damages many fruit, garden, and field crops. This review emphasizes recent research on the beetle's biology and management. Adults feed on leaves, flowers, or fruits of more than 300 plant species. Adaptations mediating their host finding, dietary range, mating, and oviposition are discussed. We also address abiotic and biotic factors affecting population dynamics of the root-feeding larvae. Japanese beetle grubs are widely controlled with preventive soil insecticides, but options for remedial control of adults and larvae presently are limited. Advances in understanding host plant resistance, entomopathogens, and other biorational approaches may provide more options for integrated management. Despite ongoing regulatory efforts, the Japanese beetle remains a threat as an invasive species.
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    STRATEGIES AND STATISTICS OF SAMPLING FOR RARE INDIVIDUALS1* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 143-174 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Diverse subdisciplines within entomology recognize the detection of rare individuals as the precursor to effective management of these individuals. Unfortunately, detection methods have often developed on a case-by-case basis, and advances in one subdiscipline have not carried over to similarly related fields. The biology of a particular organism will certainly affect sampling methods, but the underlying principles governing the power of a sampling strategy to detect rare individuals will apply across taxa. Our review of the sampling literature demonstrates the common problem of detecting rare individuals, reviews the fundamentals of probability theory as a foundation for any monitoring program, and discusses the inferences that can be drawn from samples, especially when resources limit sampling efforts. Particular emphasis is placed on binomial-, beta-binomial-, and hypergeometric-based sampling strategies as they pertain to quarantine inspections for exotic pests, veterinary/medical entomology, and insecticide resistance monitoring.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145147
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    IRON METABOLISM IN INSECTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 535-559 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Like other organisms, insects must balance two properties of ionic iron, that of an essential nutrient and a potent toxin. Iron must be acquired to provide catalysis for oxidative metabolism, but it must be controlled to avoid destructive oxidative reactions. Insects have evolved distinctive forms of the serum iron transport protein, transferrin, and the storage protein, ferritin. These proteins may serve different functions in insects than they do in other organisms. A form of translational control of protein synthesis by iron in insects is similar to that of vertebrates. The Drosophila melanogaster genome contains many genes that may encode other proteins involved in iron metabolism.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145237
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    SHORT, LONG, AND BEYOND: Molecular and Embryological Approaches to Insect Segmentation (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 669-699 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Over the past dozen years, studies comparing the expression of orthologues of the Drosophila segmentation genes among various insects have served to broaden our view of the ways in which insects make segments. The molecular data suggest that, although the overall genetic mechanisms of segmentation during embryogenesis have been conserved, the details of this process vary both within and between various insect orders. Here we summarize comparative gene expression data relevant to segmentation with an emphasis on understanding the extent of molecular patterning prior to gastrulation. These results are discussed in embryological context with an eye toward understanding the evolution of segmentation within insects.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145251
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    HOST PLANT QUALITY AND FECUNDITY IN HERBIVOROUS INSECTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 47 (2002), S. 817-844 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Host plant quality is a key determinant of the fecundity of herbivorous insects. Components of host plant quality (such as carbon, nitrogen, and defensive metabolites) directly affect potential and achieved herbivore fecundity. The responses of insect herbivores to changes in host plant quality vary within and between feeding guilds. Host plant quality also affects insect reproductive strategies: Egg size and quality, the allocation of resources to eggs, and the choice of oviposition sites may all be influenced by plant quality, as may egg or embryo resorption on poor-quality hosts. Many insect herbivores change the quality of their host plants, affecting both inter- and intraspecific interactions. Higher-trophic level interactions, such as the performance of predators and parasitoids, may also be affected by host plant quality. We conclude that host plant quality affects the fecundity of herbivorous insects at both the individual and the population scale.
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    HUMAN AND MURINE PHENOTYPES ASSOCIATED WITH DEFECTS IN CATION-CHLORIDE COTRANSPORT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 803-843 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The diuretic-sensitive cotransport of cations with chloride is mediated by the cation-chloride cotransporters, a large gene family encompassing a total of seven Na-Cl, Na-K-2Cl, and K-Cl cotransporters, in addition to two related transporters of unknown function. The cation-chloride cotransporters perform a wide variety of physiological roles and differ dramatically in patterns of tissue expression and cellular localization. The renal-specific Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC) and Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC2) are involved in Gitelman and Bartter syndrome, respectively, autosomal recessive forms of metabolic alkalosis. The associated phenotypes due to loss-of-function mutations in NCC and NKCC2 are consistent, in part, with their functional roles in the distal convoluted tubule and thick ascending limb, respectively. Other cation-chloride cotransporters are positional candidates for Mendelian human disorders, and the K-Cl cotransporter KCC3, in particular, may be involved in degenerative peripheral neuropathies linked to chromosome 15q14. The characterization of mice with both spontaneous and targeted mutations of several cation-chloride cotransporters has also yielded significant insight into the physiological and pathophysiological roles of several members of the gene family. These studies implicate the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter NKCC1 in hearing, salivation, pain perception, spermatogenesis, and the control of extracellular fluid volume. Targeted deletion of the neuronal-specific K-Cl cotransporter KCC2 generates mice with a profound seizure disorder and confirms the central role of this transporter in modulating neuronal excitability. Finally, the comparison of human and murine phenotypes associated with loss-of-function mutations in cation-chloride cotransporters indicates important differences in physiology of the two species and provides an important opportunity for detailed physiological and morphological analysis of the tissues involved.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155847
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    AROMATASE-A BRIEF OVERVIEW (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 93-127 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract There is growing awareness that androgens and estrogens have general metabolic roles that are not directly involved in reproductive processes. These include actions on vascular function, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as bone mineralization and epiphyseal closure in both sexes. In postmenopausal women, as in men, estrogen is no longer solely an endocrine factor but instead is produced in a number of extragonadal sites and acts locally at these sites in a paracrine and intracrine fashion. These sites include breast, bone, vasculature, and brain. Within these sites, aromatase action can generate high levels of estradiol locally without significantly affecting circulating levels. Circulating C19 steroid precursors are essential substrates for extragonadal estrogen synthesis. The levels of these androgenic precursors decline markedly with advancing age in women, possible from the mid-to-late reproductive years. This may be a fundamental reason why women are at increased risk for bone mineral loss and fracture, and possibly decline of cognitive function, compared with men. Aromatase expression in these various sites is under the control of tissue-specific promotors regulated by different cohorts of transcription factors. Thus in principle, it should be possible to develop selective aromatase modulators (SAMs) that block aromatase expression, for example, in breast, but allow unimpaired estrogen synthesis in other tissues such as bone.
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    HYPOXIA-INDUCED ANAPYREXIA: Implications and Putative Mediators (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 263-288 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Hypoxia elicits an array of compensatory responses in animals ranging from protozoa to mammals. Central among these responses is anapyrexia, the regulated decrease of body temperature. The importance of anapyrexia lies in the fact that it reduces oxygen consumption, increases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, and blunts the energetically costly responses to hypoxia. The mechanisms of anapyrexia are of intense interest to physiologists. Several substances, among them lactate, adenosine, opioids, and nitric oxide, have been suggested as putative mediators of anapyrexia, and most appear to act in the central nervous system. Moreover, there is evidence that the drop in body temperature in response to hypoxia, unlike the ventilatory response to hypoxia, does not depend on the activation of peripheral chemoreceptors. The current knowledge of the mechanisms of hypoxia-induced anapyrexia are reviewed.
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    MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF ACTIVE Ca2+ REABSORPTION IN THE DISTAL NEPHRON (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 529-549 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The identification of the epithelial Ca2+ channel (ECaC) complements the group of Ca2+ transport proteins including calbindin-D28K, Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase, which are co-expressed in 1,25(OH)2D3- responsive nephron segments. ECaC constitutes the rate-limiting apical entry step in the process of active transcellular Ca2+ transport and belongs to a superfamily of Ca2+ channels that includes the vanilloid receptor and transient receptor potential channels. This new Ca2+ channel consists of six transmembrane-spanning domains, including a pore-forming hydrophobic stretch between domain 5 and 6. The C- and N-terminal tails contain several conserved regulatory sites, implying that the channel function is modulated by regulatory proteins. The distinctive functional properties of ECaC include a constitutively activated Ca2+ permeability, a high selectivity for Ca2+, hyperpolarization-stimulated and Ca2+-dependent feedback regulation of channel activity, and 1,25(OH)2D3-induced gene activation. This review covers the distinctive properties of this new highly Ca2+-selective channel and highlights the implications for active transcellular Ca2+ reabsorption in health and disease.
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    CHLORIDE CHANNELS AND HEPATOCELLULAR FUNCTION: Prospects for Molecular Identification (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 64 (2002), S. 609-633 
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    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Hepatocytes possess chloride channels at the plasma membrane and in multiple intracellular compartments. These channels are required for cell volume regulation and acidification of intracellular organelles. Evidence also supports a role of chloride channels in modulation of apoptosis and cell growth. Swelling- and Ca2+-activated chloride channels have been identified in hepatocyte plasma membranes, and chloride channels have been observed in the membranes of lysosomes, endosomes, Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and the nucleus. This review summarizes the functions of these channels and discusses the specific channel molecules they may represent. Chloride channel molecules shown to be expressed in hepatocytes include members of the ClC channel family (ClC-2, ClC-3, ClC-5, and ClC-7), members of the newly identified CLIC family of intracellular chloride channels (CLIC-1 and CLIC-4), the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel, and a newly identified intracellular channel, MCLC (Mid-1 related chloride channel). Current understanding does not include a molecular identification of most of the observed channel functions, but details of the molecular properties of these channel molecules should allow future identification and further understanding of chloride channel function in hepatocytes.
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    CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN INFANT FEEDING RESEARCH (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 257-278 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review examines current research in the subfields of anthropology and related disciplines on the biocultural process of breastfeeding and broader questions of infant and young-child feeding. The themes of sexuality, reproduction, embodiment, and subjective experience are then linked to the problems women who breastfeed face in bottle-feeding cultures. Anthropologists have contributed to policy-relevant debates concerning women's work and scheduling in relation to infant care and exclusive breastfeeding. The extensive ethnographic work on children's transition to consuming household foods demonstrates the need to integrate research on breastfeeding with research on complementary feeding. Current debates around HIV and chemical residues in breastmilk call for a critical examination of the effects of globalization and corporate control on infant feeding practices. The literature shows how the narrow specialty of infant feeding has broad implications for the discipline.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085428
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    YOUTH AND CULTURAL PRACTICE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 525-552 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The study of youth played a central role in anthropology in the first half of the twentieth century, giving rise to a still-thriving cross-cultural approach to adolescence as a life stage. Yet the emphasis on adolescence as a staging ground for integration into the adult community often obscures young people's own cultural agency or frames it solely in relation to adult concerns. By contrast, sociology has long considered youth cultures as central objects of study, whether as deviant subcultures or as class-based sites of resistance. More recently, a third approach-an anthropology of youth-has begun to take shape, sparked by the stimuli of modernity and globalization and the ambivalent engagement of youth in local contexts. This broad and interdisciplinary approach revisits questions first raised in earlier sociological and anthropological frameworks, while introducing new issues that arise under current economic, political, and cultural conditions. The anthropology of youth is characterized by its attention to the agency of young people, its concern to document not just highly visible youth cultures but the entirety of youth cultural practice, and its interest in how identities emerge in new cultural formations that creatively combine elements of global capitalism, transnationalism, and local culture.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085443
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    AN INCONSTANT PROFESSION: The Anthropological Life in Interesting Times (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 1-19 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: I give an overall view of anthropology and of my career within it over the past fifty years, relating them to changes in the world in general during that time. All lessons are implicit, all morals unstated, all conclusions undrawn.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085449
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    THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF FOOD AND EATING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 99-119 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The study of food and eating has a long history in anthropology, beginning in the nineteenth century with Garrick Mallery and William Robertson Smith. This review notes landmark studies prior to the 1980s, sketching the history of the subfield. We concentrate primarily, however, on works published after 1984. We contend that the study of food and eating is important both for its own sake since food is utterly essential to human existence (and often insufficiently available) and because the subfield has proved valuable for debating and advancing anthropological theory and research methods. Food studies have illuminated broad societal processes such as political-economic value-creation, symbolic value-creation, and the social construction of memory. Such studies have also proved an important arena for debating the relative merits of cultural and historical materialism vs. structuralist or symbolic explanations for human behavior, and for refining our understanding of variation in informants' responses to ethnographic questions. Seven subsections examine classic food ethnographies: single commodities and substances; food and social change; food insecurity; eating and ritual; eating and identities; and instructional materials. The richest, most extensive anthropological work among these subtopics has focused on food insecurity, eating and ritual, and eating and identities. For topics whose anthropological coverage has not been extensive (e.g., book-length studies of single commodities, or works on the industrialization of food systems), useful publications from sister disciplines-primarily sociology and history-are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.032702.131011
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    THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF RECONCILIATION IN PRIMATES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 21-44 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Sociality is favored by natural selection because it enhances group members' access to valued resources or reduces their vulnerability to predators, but group living also generates conflict among group members. To enjoy the benefits of sociality, group living animals must somehow overcome the costs of conflict. Nonhuman primates have developed an effective mechanism for resolving conflicts: They participate in peaceful postconflict (PC) reunions with former opponents. These peaceful PC interactions are collectively labeled reconciliation. There is a broad consensus that peaceful contacts among former opponents relieve stressful effects of conflict and permit former opponents to interact peacefully. Primates may reconcile to obtain short-term objectives, such as access to desirable resources. Alternatively, reconciliation may preserve valuable relationships damaged by conflict. Some researchers view these explanations as complementary, but they generate different predictions about the patterning of reconciliation that can be partially tested with available data. There are good reasons to question the validity of the relationship-repair model, but it remains firmly entrenched in the reconciliation literature, perhaps because it fits our own folk model of how and why we resolve conflicts ourselves. It is possible that the function of reconciliation varies within the primate order, much as other aspects of cognitive abilities do.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.032902.101743
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    VARIATION IN HUMAN BODY SIZE AND SHAPE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 211-232 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Evolutionary trends in human body form provide important context for interpreting variation among modern populations. Average body mass in living humans is smaller than it was during most of the Pleistocene, possibly owing to technological improvements during the past 50,000 years that no longer favored large body size. Sexual dimorphism in body size reached modern levels at least 150,000 years ago and probably earlier. Geographic variation in both body size and shape in earlier humans paralleled latitudinal clines observed today. Climatic adaptation is the most likely primary cause for these gradients, overlain in more recent populations by nutritional effects on growth. Thus, to distinguish growth disturbances, it is necessary to partition out the (presumably genetic) long-term differences in body form between populations that have resulted from climatic selection. An example is given from a study of Inupiat children, using a new index of body shape to assess relative body mass.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085407
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    LABORING IN THE FACTORIES AND IN THE FIELDS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 395-417 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Since 1980, studies of the wage labor process have been centered mostly on three topics: the new international division of labor, control over the labor process, and "flexibilization" of production. Anthropologists have contributed rich studies about modes of control and about how these modes are linked to social relations within the work place and workers' communities of origin. They have explained how and why market segmentation can be a powerful tool of control some of the time, whereas at other times it can enhance tensions. Anthropologists have also contributed by transforming stylized models into models centered on actors with social and class identities and with ambivalent expectations and aspirations. However, they have neglected to integrate their findings with those from the literature on labor migrations and job search. They also have neglected to consistently examine contracts and hiring practices, two major tools of labor control. Although anthropologists have been attentive to paradigms about global restructuring of industries, they have often disregarded an intermediate level of analysis: the relationship of producers and industries to relevant actors in their respective regional labor markets, and how producers and industries structure local labor markets. A spatial portrayal of labor markets will facilitate comparative studies about the impact of industrial restructuring and correct possible biases.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.031902.161108
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    AFRICAN PRESENCE IN FORMER SOVIET SPACES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002), S. 497-524 
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    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review traces accounts of African presence in the former USSR that are available in or have been cited primarily in English; many sources on this topic published in the USSR were strategically intended for Western consumption. This review tracks repetitions of tropes that link certain kinds of "blackness" to "Africa": It observes that treating blacks in the USSR as "displaced" confirmed Soviet humanitarianism, and produced and managed anti-Western/anticapitalist forms of Soviet nationalism and federalism. We scrutinize the ways accounts of African presence use evidence of "race remnants" that implicitly position black bodies as subjects of racial dissolution and/or cultural assimilation. This leads us to question the possibility of narrating African presence in contexts ruled by logics that wed spatial displacement/placement to racial impurity/purity. More broadly, the review addresses the utility of ideals of displaced racial communities within African diasporic criticism.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085420
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    MODELING COMPLEX, NONLINEAR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 35-64 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review selected geological processes to which numerical modeling has been applied, with the aim of describing some of the general approaches and applications of the modeling. All of these examples involve multiphase fluid flow, in some cases coupled with heat transport and phase changes. First, we describe modeling approaches to a human-made geological system-a potential underground radioactive waste repository. Next, we describe recent advances in modeling two-phase flow through random heterogeneous porous media. We review recent modeling studies of fluid processes in magmatic systems, especially focusing on melting and crystallization induced by magma chambers. Finally, several research directions are suggested, including improving our understanding of the linkage between small-scale and field-scale processes, coupling across regimes (e.g., surface water and ground water), and further developments in the modeling of stochastic geological processes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.082801.150140
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    SCALING OF SOIL MOISTURE: A Hydrologic Perspective (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 149-180 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Soil moisture is spatially and temporally highly variable, and it influences a range of environmental processes in a nonlinear manner. This leads to scale effects that need to be understood for improved prediction of moisture dependent processes. We provide some introductory material on soil moisture, and then review results from the literature relevant to a variety of scaling techniques applicable to soil moisture. This review concentrates on spatial scaling with brief reference to results on temporal scaling. Scaling techniques are divided into behavioral techniques and process-based techniques. We discuss the statistical distribution of soil moisture, spatial correlation of soil moisture at scales from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers and related interpolation and regularization techniques, and the use of auxiliary variables such as terrain indices. Issues related to spatially distributed deterministic modeling of soil moisture are also briefly reviewed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140434
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    MODERN IMAGING USING SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 259-284 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Imaging using seismic reflection data has undergone tremendous advances over the past few years. The advances have been fostered in part by the availability of faster computers that have made more reliable algorithms for migration imaging feasible. The conventional approach to migration imaging, ray-based Kirchhoff migration, has been improved by the use of multiple-valued traveltime tables, ray amplitudes, and ray phases that can be calculated from various ray-tracing implementations. Wave-equation imaging, based on implementations of solutions of the wave equation, one-way wave equation, and approximations to the Lippmann-Schwinger equation, has become tractable. Wave-equation methods take account of wave phenomena such as focusing, defocusing, and diffraction that are important in many geological environments where imaging is used for petroleum exploration. There have also been applications of various types of migration imaging in basic studies of Earth structure. Such studies have been made to investigate deep Earth structure and large-scale lithospheric structure using waveforms from teleseisms as sources.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140909
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    VOLCANOES, FLUIDS, AND LIFE AT MID-OCEAN RIDGE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 385-491 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The recent recognition of a potentially vast, unexplored hot microbial biosphere associated with active volcanism along the global mid-ocean ridge network has fundamentally shifted concepts of how planets and life coevolve. Many processes intrinsic to the dynamics of the spreading center volcanic system provide partial or complete nutritional fluxes that support diverse microbial communities that thrive under extreme conditions on and beneath the seafloor. Mantle melting, volcanism, and fluid-rock reactions transport volatiles from the asthenosphere to the hydrosphere. Volcanic heat and exothermic reactions drive circulation of nutrient-rich fluids from which chemosynthetic organisms gain metabolic energy. In turn, many of these organisms symbiotically support macrofaunal communities that populate the vents. Long-term seafloor observatories will allow exploration of linkages between volcanism and this newly discovered biosphere. Such approaches may provide essential new information about our own planet while providing critically needed insights into how we can explore other planets for life.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141331
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    THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT AND ITS IMPACT ON PSYCHIATRY* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 1-50 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract There has been substantial evidence for more than three decades that the major psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism, and alcoholism have a strong genetic basis. During the past 15 years considerable effort has been expended in trying to establish the genetic loci associated with susceptibility to these and other mental disorders using principally linkage analysis. Despite this, only a handful of specific genes have been identified, and it is now generally recognized that further advances along these lines will require the analysis of literally hundreds of affected individuals and their families. Fortunately, the emergence in the past three years of a number of new approaches and more effective tools has given new hope to those engaged in the search for the underlying genetic and environmental factors involved in causing these illnesses, which collectively are among the most serious in all societies. Chief among these new tools is the availability of the entire human genome sequence and the prospect that within the next several years the entire complement of human genes will be known and the functions of most of their protein products elucidated. In the meantime the search for susceptibility loci is being facilitated by the availability of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and by the beginning of haplotype mapping, which tracks the distribution of clusters of SNPs that segregate as a group. Together with high throughput DNA sequencing, microarrays for whole genome scanning, advances in proteomics, and the development of more sophisticated computer programs for analyzing sequence and association data, these advances hold promise of greatly accelerating the search for the genetic basis of most mental illnesses while, at the same time, providing molecular targets for the development of new and more effective therapies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142853
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    BEYOND PHRENOLOGY: What Can Neuroimaging Tell Us About Distributed Circuitry? (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 221-250 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Unsupervised models of how the brain identifies and categorizes the causes of its sensory input can be divided into two classes: those that minimize the mutual information (i.e., redundancy) among evoked responses and those that minimize the prediction error. Although these models have the same goal, the way that goal is attained, and the functional architectures required, are fundamentally different. This review describes the differences, in the functional anatomy of sensory cortical hierarchies, implied by the two models. We then consider how neuroimaging can be used to disambiguate between them. The key distinction reduces to whether backward connections are employed by the brain to generate a prediction of sensory inputs. To ascertain whether backward influences are evident empirically requires a characterization of functional integration among brain systems. This review summarizes the approaches to measuring functional integration in terms of effective connectivity and proceeds to address the question posed by the theoretical considerations. In short, it will be shown that the conjoint manipulation of bottom-up and top-down inputs to an area can be used to test for interactions between them, in elaborating cortical responses. The conclusion, from these sorts of neuroimaging studies, points to the prevalence of top-down influences and the plausibility of generative models of sensory brain function.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142846
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    LARGE-SCALE SOURCES OF NEURAL STEM CELLS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 381-407 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Large-scale sources of neural stem cells are crucial for both basic research and novel approaches toward treating neurological disorders. Three sources that produce neural cells closely resembling their normal counterparts are now available: oncogene immortalized stem cells, neurospheres, and embryonic stem cell (ES)-derived neural cells. Cells including multiple subtypes of CNS and PNS neurons, as well as oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and astrocytes, are modeled by these large-scale sources. Although most cell lines were originally from rodents, their human counterparts are being discovered and characterized.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142904
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    MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS: Deeper Understanding of Its Pathogenesis Reveals New Targets for Therapy* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 491-505 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Recent technological breakthroughs allowing for large-scale analysis of gene transcripts and large-scale monitoring of the immune response with protein chips are revealing new participants in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Some of these participants may be useful targets for therapy.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142913
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    INTENTIONAL MAPS IN POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 25 (2002), S. 189-220 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The posterior parietal cortex (PPC), historically believed to be a sensory structure, is now viewed as an area important for sensory-motor integration. Among its functions is the forming of intentions, that is, high-level cognitive plans for movement. There is a map of intentions within the PPC, with different subregions dedicated to the planning of eye movements, reaching movements, and grasping movements. These areas appear to be specialized for the multisensory integration and coordinate transformations required to convert sensory input to motor output. In several subregions of the PPC, these operations are facilitated by the use of a common distributed space representation that is independent of both sensory input and motor output. Attention and learning effects are also evident in the PPC. However, these effects may be general to cortex and operate in the PPC in the context of sensory-motor transformations.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142922
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