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  • METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY  (622)
  • 2010-2014
  • 1980-1984  (622)
  • 1950-1954
  • 1981  (347)
  • 1980  (275)
Collection
Keywords
Years
  • 2010-2014
  • 1980-1984  (622)
  • 1950-1954
Year
  • 1
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    On the effect of temporal sampling on the observation of mean rainfall (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-02-14
    Description: Rainfall characteristics using data from dense recording raingage networks is reviewed. Data from such networks have quantified temporal and spatial rainfall distributions, and have supplied specialized information about local and orographic effects. The natural variability, temporally and spatially, for annual, seasonal, monthly, and individual events is treated. Especially important are the spatial variations of precipitation as a function of synoptic type, precipitation type, amount, and duration. Results from dense raingage networks in Illinois, and some data from other climatic regions is also treated.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 8 p
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  • 2
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    Prospects for measuring phytoplankton bloom extent and patchiness using remotely sensed color images: An example (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: A 10 channel scanning radiometer, built as a prototype for the coastal zone color scanner on the Nimbus 7 satellite, was flown on a high altitude aircraft during a Gymnodium breve bloom along the west coast of Florida. The remotely measured ocean color imagery shows what is probably the patchy structure of a G. breve bloom extending over a 60 km by 100 km area. This conclusion is based on visual inspection of bathymetry to infer bottom reflection trends and on a single growth truth measurement of B G. breve obtained the previous day. The image shows coherent blooms which extend scales up to 60 km in length.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 680-685
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  • 3
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    Application of a snowmelt-runoff model using LANDSAT data (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: The snowmelt-runoff model developed for two small central European watersheds simulate daily streamflow on the 228 sq km Dinwoody Creek basin in Wyoming, using snowcover extent for LANDSAT and conventionally measured temperature and precipitation. For the six-month snowmelt seasons of 1976 and 1974, the simulated seasonal runoff volumes were within 5 and 1%, respectively, of the measured runoff. Also the daily fluctuations of discharge were simulated to a high degree by the model. Thus far the limiting basin size for applying the model has not been reached, and improvements can be expected if the hydrometeorological data can be obtained from a station inside the basin. LANDSAT provides an efficient way to obtain the critical snowcover input parameter required by the model.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 745-760
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  • 4
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    Arctic Sea ice decay simulated for a CO2-induced temperature rise (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: A large scale numerical time-dependent model of sea ice that takes into account the heat fluxes in and out of the ice, the seasonal occurrence of snow, and ice motions was used in an experiment to determine the response of the Arctic Ocean ice pack to a warming of the atmosphere. The degree of warming specified is that expected for a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide with its associated greenhouse effect, a condition that could occur before the middle of the next century. The results of three 5-year simulations with a warmer atmosphere and varied boundary conditions were: (1) that in the face of a 5 K surface atmospheric temperature increase the ice pack disappeared completely in August and September but reformed in the central Arctic Ocean in mid fall; (2) that the simulations were moderately dependence on assumptions concerning cloud cover; and (3) that even when atmospheric temperature increases of 6-9 K were combined with an order-of-magnitude increase in the upward heat flux from the ocean, the ice still appeared in winter. It should be noted that a year-round ice-free Arctic Ocean has apparently not existed for a million years or more.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 687-700
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  • 5
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    The 1977 tundra fire at Kokolik River, Alaska (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: During the summer of 1977, fire totaled 44 sq km of tundra vegetation according to measurements using LANDSAT imagery. Based on the experience gained from analysis of this fire using ground observations, satellite imagery, and topographic maps, it appears that natural drainages form effective fire breaks on the subdued relief of the Arctic coastal plain and northern foothills. It is confirmed that the intensity of the fire is related to vegetation type and to the moisture content of the organic rich soils.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 660-670
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  • 6
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    The utilization of spaceborne microwave radiometers for monitoring snowpack properties (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: Snow accumulation and depletion at specific locations can be monitored from space by observing related variations in microwave brightness temperatures. Using vertically and horizontally polarized brightness temperatures from the Nimbus 6 electrically scanning microwave radiometer, a discriminant function can be used to separate snow from no snow areas and map snowcovered area on a continental basis. For dry snow conditions on the Canadian high plains, significant relationships between snow depth or water equivalent and microwave brightness temperature were developed which could permit remote determination of these snow properties after acquisition of a wider range of data. The presence of melt water in the snowpack causes a marked increase in brightness temperature which can be used to predict snowpack priming and timing of runoff. As the resolutions of satellite microwave sensors improve the application of these results to snow hydrology problems should increase.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 745-760
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  • 7
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    Seasonal and daily snowmelt runoff estimates utilizing satellite data (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: Methods using snowcovered area to update seasonal forecasts as snowmelt progresses are also being used in quasi-operational situations. The input of snowcovered area to snowmelt models for short term perdictions was attempted in two ways; namely, the modification of existing hydrologic models and/or the use of models that were specifically designed to use snowcovered area. A daily snowmelt runoff model was used with LANDSAT data to simulate discharge on remote basins in the Wind River Mountains of Wyoming. Daily predicted and actual flows compare closely, and, summarized over the entire snowmelt season (April 1 - September 30), the average difference is only three percent. The model and snowcovered area data are currently being tested on additional watersheds to determine the method's transferability.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci. Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 742
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  • 8
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    The 1977 tundra fire in the Kokolik River area of Alaska (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-04-26
    Description: Presumably caused by lightning, a large fire occurred due east of Point Lay several kilometers southwest of the Kokolik River, the farthest north a fire was ever fought by Bureau of Land Management personnel in Alaska. The progress and area extent of the fire were determined by analysis of LANDSAT MSS band 5 and 7 imagery. Low altitude observations from helicopter showed the fire burned a range of vegetation and relief types which included low polygonized and upland tussock tundras. The burned area appeared wetter on the surface than the unburned area, due to a lack of moisture absorbing organic matter and the possible release of moisture from the deeper thawed zone. Suggestions for future investigations of the effects of fire on tundra and permafrost terrains are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints 1978 - 1979, Vol. 2; p 671-675
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  • 9
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    The Joint Airport Weather Studies Project (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-02-14
    Description: A block diagram of the joint airport weather studies program is presented. Background leading to the development of the program is reviewed. Basic studies, aircraft performance, and detection and warning techniques used to develop fine scale structure of thunderstorm dynamics and kinematics in the vicinity of a major airport; effect of thunderstorm low level wind shear on aircraft performance; and development of real time testing of flow level wind shear detection and warning techniques and displays are described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: 5th Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 91-95
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  • 10
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    Prototype Regional Observation and Forecast System (PROFS) (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-02-14
    Description: The prototype regional observation and forecast system (PROFS) outputs are demonstrated, functional design specifications to be used to procure and implement operational systems are outlined. Advanced candidate technologies are evaluated as an integral part of the process that leads to these outputs. Evaluation insures that future weather service systems will contain the optimum mix of technologies to be most cost effective in reducing the annual losses and deaths that are directly attributed to severe weather.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: 5th Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 81-85
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  • 11
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    Progress on low altitude cloud icing research (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-02-14
    Description: The icing environment at altitudes below 10,000 feet were studied. The following questions are asked, are: (1) existing aircraft certification criteria applicable; (2) too stringent on icing for helos; (3) based on accurate data; (4) appropriate for low (10,000 ft) altitudes? The research plan is outlined: review historical icing data, obtain new measurements, collect modern icing data from other groups, and recommend LWC, OAT, and MVD criteria for helicopters. Estimated accuracies and known sources of error are included. It is concluded that the net effect of possible sources of error of both signs is uncertain.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: 5th Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 59-63
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  • 12
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    The program of the Techniques Development Laboratory in aviation weather forecasting (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Some operational and experimental products developed for aviation weather forecasting are briefly described. Experimental products include surface dew point, obstructions to vision, boundary layer model, computer-worded terminal forecasts, terminal alerting procedure, generalized equivalent Markov, and radar forecasts (0-2 hours).
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 209-212
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  • 13
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    Doctor Fujita's microburst analysis at Chicago (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Doppler radar measurements of an intense wind shear occurance are discussed. The data suggest the presence of an incredibly strong low level jet outflow component of the microburst event, reaching 60 knots only 50 meters above the surface. Evidence also suggests that microbursts more typically occur in very weak thunderstorms that have hardly reached thunderstorm stage.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 201-202
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  • 14
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    The microburst: Common factor in recent aircraft accidents (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The phenomenology of one class of strong thunderstorm downdrafts, microbursts, is described. Several aircraft accidents are analyzed in which a microburst was involved and a concept for an early warning wind shear sensor is presented.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 186-200
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  • 15
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    Clear air turbulence forecasting techniques (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: A method to improve clear air turbulence (CAT) forecasting by more effectively using the currently operational rawinsonde (RW) system is discussed. The method is called the Diagnostic Richardson Number Tendency (DRT) technique. The technique does not attempt to use the RW as a direct detector of the turbulent motion or even of the CAT mechanism structure but rather senses the synoptic scale centers of action which provide the energy to the CAT mechanism at the mesoscale level. The DRT algorithm is deterministic rather than statistical in nature, using the hydrodynamic equations (equations of motion) relevant to the synoptic scale. However, interpretation, by necessity, is probabilistic. What is most important with respect to its operational implementation is that this method uses the same input data as currently used by the operational National Meteorological Center prognostic models.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 203-208
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  • 16
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    The 1979 clear air turbulence flight test program (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: A clear air turbulence (CAT) flight test to evaluate and test four different sensors in the detection and measuring of CAT and other meteorological targets that relate to turbulence is discussed. The primary types of CAT investigated were mountain wave CAT, jetstream CAT, CAT in cirrus clouds, and CAT in frontal wind shears, troughs, and ridges. The sensors included the CO2 pulsed Doppler lidar and three radiometers. One of the radiometers, at a frequency of 55.5 GHz, looked at atmospheric temperature structure. Another, at a frequency of 180.1 GHz, looked at atmospheric water vapor and investigated the feasibility of measuring at the microwave frequency the turbulence features seen in the infrared (IR) frequencies. An IR radiometer at 27 to 33 microns was the fourth sensor. This last device and the temperature structure radiometer worked well at all flight levels.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 171-179
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  • 17
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    Very short range forecasts of visibility and ceiling (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The development of methods for the short range forecasting of visibility and ceiling conditions is discussed. Short range forecasts of one hour or less (5 or 30 minutes), immediately after a series of local observations can be expected to be more accurate and reliable than any forecast of more than one hour. These forecasts can be accomplished by the operational implementation of fully automated aviation observation systems and the utilization of statistical techniques such as the Generalized Equivalent Markov model.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 180-185
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  • 18
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    Measuring weather for aviation safety in the 1980's (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Requirements for an improved aviation weather system are defined and specifically include the need for (1) weather observations at all airports with instrument approaches, (2) more accurate and timely radar detection of weather elements hazardous to aviation, and (3) better methods of timely distribution of both pilot reports and ground weather data. The development of the discrete address beacon system data link, Doppler weather radar network, and various information processing techniques are described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 162-167
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  • 19
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    Observing lightning from ground-based and airborne stations (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The operational designs and performance capabilities of ground-based and airborne lightning detection systems are reviewed. The airborne Stormscope system is described and compared with onboard radar and the lightning detection and ranging system (LDAR). Two examples of difference-in-time-of-arrival systems for detecting spherics from discharges in electrified clouds are described: (1) The LDAR system and (2) Taylor's lightning mapping system. Next, an interferometric system adapted to lightning location is discussed. Finally, systems that are based upon crossed-loop magnetic direction finding principles but which have been refined and improved to accurately locate lightning discharges to ground are reviewed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 130-139
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  • 20
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    Aeronautical concerns and National Aeronautics and Space Administration atmospheric electricity projects (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The phenomenology of lightning and lightning measurement techniques are briefly examined with a particular reference to aeronautics. Developments made in airborne and satellite detection methods are reported. NASA research efforts are outlined which cover topics including in-situ measurements, design factors and protection, remote optical and radio frequency measurements, and space vehicle design.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Proc.: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 140-160
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  • 21
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    Remote probing of wind and wind shears (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The ability of various types of remote probes to measure wind is discussed. Two important advantages over in-situ sensors are reported: (1) their ability to measure atmospheric parameters without disturbing the air flow; (2) their ability to scan through large volumes of the atmosphere with relative ease. Direct measurement sensors such as anemometers and wind vanes are categorized into two groups; active and passive. Acoustic radar, microwave radar, and lidar are included in the first group and the latter group is typified by the infrared radiometers.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 109-124
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  • 22
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    Winds and wind shear in-situ sensors (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The problem of development of instrumentation for providing wind speed and direction information directly or indirectly to a pilot in the cockpit is considered. The pilots need for horizontal wind information at various stages of flight (i.e., at liftoff, in approach and departure corridors, and even in flight outside the terminal area) are emphasized.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 82-108
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  • 23
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    Clear air turbulence: Historical comments (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The basic reference material for gust design criteria are cited. The status of clear air turbulence meteorology (forecasting and detection) is discussed. The directions of further research technology is indicated.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meterol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 71-81
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  • 24
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    Aircraft icing instrumentation: Unfilled needs (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: A list of icing instrumentation requirements are presented. Because of the Army's helicopter orientation, many of the suggestions are specific to rotary wing aircraft; however, some of the instrumentation are also suitable for general aviation aircraft.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 61-65
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  • 25
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    Icing instrumentation (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The types and usage categories of icing instrumentation are discussed. The state-of-the-art for the technology governing the use of icing instrumentation is reported with particular emphasis on ground based facilities for icing tests.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 49-60
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  • 26
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    Turbulence: From a pilot's viewpoint (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The measurement of atmospheric turbulence is discussed in terms of a pilots viewpoint. Two areas of measurement are considered: frequency and severity of turbulence. Suggestions are given for helping the pilot solve the turbulence problem.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 66-70
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  • 27
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    Federal Aviation Administration and National Weather Service Aviation Research and Development (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: An overview is given of the developmental status of aviation weather services. Particular attention is given to justifying the need for better, more reliable service. The accomplishments of several automatic weather stations are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 45-48
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  • 28
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    Aviation meteorology research and development: A status report (1980)
    In:  CASI
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    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The dynamic and rapid growth of technology in the area of aviation meteorology research and development are described with emphasis on the measurement of hazardous weather phenomena. Aspects of both onboard instrumentation and ground based facilities are evaluated in terms of their effectiveness of in avoiding hazards due to atmospheric electricity and lightning. Methods of alleviating terminal are hazards such as fog, low visibility and ceilings are also described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 40-44
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  • 29
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    Survey of Workshops on Meteorological and Environmental Inputs to Aviation Systems (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Various aspects of aviation meteorology are discussed with respect to their relative effects on aircraft terminal operations. Existing data on turbulence and wind shear from aircraft and towers are summarized. The significance of obtaining more real time wind and temperature information is emphasized. The application and testing of various radiometer devices are also described. Airborne methods to indicate wind differences at flight altitude and at touchdown are reported.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Proc: Fourth Ann. Workshop on Meteorol. and Environ. Inputs to Aviation Systems; p 23-39
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  • 30
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    First Scientific Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Measurement Program, appendix J (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Three projects are suggested which could be done using the Doppler lidar. The first is a cooperative effort at BAO, the purpose of which is to check out instrumentation and contribute to boundary layer investigations at BAO. The second concerns unintended weather modification. Its purpose is to detect mechanisms by which regions of industry and urbanization modify weather. The cirrus cloud study proposes to characterize cirrus clouds by their lidar signal and to compare lidar and visually observed characteristics.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 5 p
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  • 31
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    Report of secondary flows, boundary layers, turbulence and wave team, report 1 (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: General criteria for a flight test option are that: (1) there be a good opportunity for comparison with other measurement techniques; (2) the flow to be measured is of considerable scientific or practical interest; and (3) the airborne laser Doppler system is well suited to measure the required quantities. The requirement for comparison, i.e., ground truth, is particularly important because this is the first year of operation for the system. It is necessary to demonstrate that the system does actually measure the winds and compare the results with other methods to provide a check on the system error analysis. The uniqueness of the laser Doppler system precludes any direct comparison, but point measurements from tower mounted wind sensors and two dimensional fields obtained from radars with substantially different sampling volumes are quite useful.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 8 p
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  • 32
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    Cooperative convective precipitation experiment (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The experiment strives to improve understanding of the physics of convective precipitation. Major emphasis is placed on obtaining a good description of the whole convective precipitation system. A framework is presented within which single, significant, tractable problems are investigated.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 25 p
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    Severe storms measurement system real time data processing and displays (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The objectives of the system are to provide the system operator with real time system performance check and to provide data recording of all SSMS data. Meteorologists are provided with real time indication of meteorological data measurements including aid for directing flight profiles in real time and aid for directing SSMS operations. A day-to-day feedback is provided to meteorologists, system operators, and flight crews for flight planning on subsequent flight tests days.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 15 p
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  • 34
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    First Scientific Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Measurement Program, appendix C (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The problem is to operate on two scalar fields to produce a vector field, to produce user products from the vector field, and to establish reliability of results. Data problems encountered include sparse measurements, irregular distribution, varying quality, imperfect orthogonality, aliasing due to sampling volume, and measurements not simultaneous. Desired algorithm characteristics, solution elements, and characteristics of the model are listed. The seven simulation elements, eight algorithm steps and the required user inputs are given.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 8 p
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  • 35
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    Report of convective phenomena team (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: A group meeting was assembled to focus on the planning of specific experiments, to establish some priorities, identify interested scientists who would like to participate, establish any special requirements, make recommendations on data processing, and to prepare flight plan outlines. Since the number of convective storms in the CCOPE (Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment) field experiment area are limited to only a few days during the operational time period the flight plans must be designed with a hierarchy of abort experiments so that the easily identified and lowest probability events should take priority until their quota is filled.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: First Sci. Working Group Meeting of Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas. Program; 10 p
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  • 36
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    The MSFC Doppler lidar system, appendix B (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The development of pulsed and continuous wave Doppler lidars for atmospheric measurement is discussed. A description of how the lidar systems operate is presented. The scanning mode is also described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 40-42
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  • 37
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    Possible applications of MSFC Doppler lidar system, appendix C (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: An interpretation of the Doppler lidar return is presented. Possible applications of the system to severe storm research are discussed. The present project schedule of the Doppler lidar system is outlined.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 43-46
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  • 38
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    Wind field measurement in the nonprecipitous regions surrounding storms by an airborne pulsed Doppler lidar system, appendix A (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Coherent Doppler lidar appears to hold great promise in contributing to the basic store of knowledge concerning flow field characteristics in the nonprecipitous regions surrounding severe storms. The Doppler lidar, through its ability to measure clear air returns, augments the conventional Doppler radar system, which is most useful in the precipitous regions of the storm. A brief description of the Doppler lidar severe storm measurement system is provided along with the technique to be used in performing the flow field measurements. The application of the lidar is addressed, and the planned measurement program is outlined.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 31-39
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  • 39
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    Application of the Doppler lidar system to agricultural burning and air-sea interactions (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The Doppler lidar system is potentially a very powerful measurement system. Three areas concerning the system are discussed: (1) error analysis of the system to verify the results; (2) application of the system to agricultural burning in California central valley; and (3) oceanographic possibilities of the system.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 25
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  • 40
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    Measurement of phenomena associated with water clouds using Doppler lidar (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Doppler lidar measurements of phenomena associated with water clouds (such as aerosols) are discussed. The purpose of the measurements and details of executing the experiment are described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 20-24
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  • 41
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    Potential uses of the airborne Doppler lidar wind velocity measurement system (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Four aspects of the Doppler lidar are discussed: (1) error analysis of the system; (2) design of the first field program; (3) potential areas of application; and (4) verification of Doppler lidar data by independent measurements.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 16-17
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  • 42
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    Potential scientific research which will benefit from an airborne Doppler lidar measurement system (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: Areas of research which can be significantly aided by the Doppler lidar airborne system are described. The need for systematic development of the airborne Doppler lidar is discussed. The technology development associated with the systematic development of the system will have direct application to satellite systems for which the lidar also promises to be an effective instrument for atmospheric research.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 13-15
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  • 43
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    Potential applications of the Doppler lidar measurements (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The potential application of the Doppler lidar measurements to the determination of material (e.g., water vapor) and energy budgets, momentum transports, etc., in the environment at all stages and in the development of convective clouds are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 18-19
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  • 44
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    Airborne Doppler lidar wind measuring system: Application to atmospheric problems (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-01-16
    Description: The ability to map velocities over a large area on one side of the aircraft flight path offers a number of opportunities to elucidate scientific questions related to atmospheric dynamics. Several types of experiments which are possible are described.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center Exploratory Meeting on Airborne Doppler Lidar Wind Velocity Meas.; p 11-12
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  • 45
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    Statistical Analysis of daily mean temperatures (1980)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-02-14
    Description: Data of daily mean temperatures recorded at the Kennedy Center during the period of 1957-1977 were analyzed to forecast daily mean temperatures and their thirty-day moving averages for a period of ten to fifteen days in a given month. Since it is found that the standard deviation is linear in the mean, a logarithmic transformation of the data is used for finding an integrated moving average process IMA by the Box-Jenkins aproach. The first differences of the transformed data seem to fit a moving average model with parameter value 2, MA(2). The consideration of seasonality factor makes the fit worse.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: The 1981 NASA(ASEE Summer Fac. Fellowship Program; 13 p
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  • 46
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    Some experiments on the effect of remote sounding temperatures upon weather forecasting (1981)
    In:  CASI
    Details
    Publication Date: 2006-03-27
    Description: A time-continuous statistical method is presented for the four dimensional assimilation of remote sounding temperatures based on radiance measurements from polar orbiting satellites. This method is applied to DST 6 data from the NOAA 4 and Nimbus 6 satellites. The state of the atmosphere throughout the test period was determined using a varying amount of satellite data from the NOAA 4 satellite only, from Nimbus 6 only, and from both satellites together. The methods tested included different variations of the statistical method, as well as more traditional methods. It is concluded that satellite derived temperature data can have a modest, but statistically significant positive impact on numerical weather prediction in the two to three day range, and that this impact is highly sensitive to the quantity of data available and to the assimilation method used.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Goddard Lab. for Atmospheric Sci., Collected Reprints, 1978 - 1979, Vol. 1; p 175-199
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  • 47
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    Theoretical studies: Radiation, clouds, transport (1980)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-19
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA, Washington Upper Atmosphere Res. Program; p 161-162
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  • 48
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    Comparison of a barotropic blocking theory with observation (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Hart (1979) showed that the truncated spectral equations obtained by Charney and Devore (1979) could be derived merely by assuming that the cross-stream scale of the topography was large compared to the downstream scale. Since actual topography does not have the large y scales postulated by Hart, his model was modified in the current investigation to obtain equations with arbitrary zonal variations of topography by projecting all variable functions onto the first topographic cross-stream mode. The topographic heights and streamfunctions are expanded as Fourier series in the cross-stream coordinate and the series are truncated after the first term. This accomplishes Hart's results but permits more realistic y variations in the topography. The present investigation is the first in a two-part series. The second part will deal with a two-layer baroclinic channel flow, again with arbitrary zonal variations of topography.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences; 38; Apr. 198
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  • 49
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    Combined eye-atmosphere visibility model (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Existing models of the optical characteristics of the eye are combined with a recent model of optical characteristics of the atmosphere given by its modulation transfer function. This combination results in the combined eye-atmosphere performance given by the product of their modulation transfer functions. An application for the calculation of visibility thresholds in the case of a two-halves field is given.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Applied Optics; 20; May 1
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  • 50
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    Computations of transmittance and radiance in infrared water vapor sounding channels (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The wing-scaling approximation/k-distribution method, previously developed for computing solar heating rates (Chou and Arking, 1981) was applied to the computation of the transmittance and outgoing radiance in infrared water vapor sounding channels. Functions necessary for the transmittance and radiance computations were computed from molecular line parameters using line-by-line methods. The method was applied to the three HIRS/2 water vapor sounding channels on the TIROS-N satellite, and its accuracy was tested using 11 widely separated atmospheres which ranged from hot-wet tropical atmospheres to cold-dry subarctic atmospheres. Compared to line-by-line calculations, maximum errors were shown to be less than 0.017 in transmittance and 0.4 K in brightness temperature for all cases. The rms errors are less than 0.009 in transmittance and 0.2 K in brightness temperature, the brightness temperature rms error being much smaller than the instrument noise.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Monthly Weather Review; 109; Mar. 198
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  • 51
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    An objective method for forecasting tropical cyclone intensity using Nimbus-5 electrically scanning microwave radiometer measurements (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: An empirical analysis program, based on finding an optimal representation of the data, is applied to 120 observations of 29 1973 and 1974 North Pacific tropical cyclones. It is found that the algorithms developed from the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR-5) base alone outperformed the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) operational forecast for the 48 and 72 hour maximum wind speed. It is also found that the ESMR-5 data base, when combined with the non-satellite base, produced algorithms that improved the 24 and 48 hour maximum wind-speed forecast by as much as 10% and the 72 hour maximum wind forecast by approximately 16% as compared to the forecast obtained from the algorithms developed from the non-satellite data base alone.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Journal of Applied Meteorology; 20; Feb. 198
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  • 52
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    Climate sensitivity from fluctuation dissipation - Some simple model tests (1980)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Leith has suggested that climatic response to change in external forcing parameters of the climate system may be estimated via the fluctuation-dissipation theorem (FDT). The method, which uses the natural fluctuations of the atmosphere to probe its dynamics, is tested here using a twenty-variable truncation model of the barotropic vorticity equation. Dissipative terms are added to the equations, so that the model is pushed away from the region where it is expected to satisfy the FDT. It is found that, even though the FDT is no longer satisfied in every detail, the FDT continues to provide an excellent estimate of the climatic sensitivity of the model.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences; 37; Aug. 198
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  • 53
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    Improvements to satellite retrieval systems. The operational perspective (1980)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Operational weather satellites are built as a series of nearly identical instruments which are flown for 5 to 7 years. Minor improvements are made during the life of the series. However, major improvements and changes in design are made with the initiation of a new series of instruments. Similarly, procedures used to process the data are characterized by frequent changes early in the life of a satellite series as user experience is gained with the new instrument. Later the changes become less frequent, both because the processing system becomes well tuned to that particular set of instruments and because, at the end of a series, resources are devoted to generating the processing system for the next set of instruments. Past and present systems are considered with emphasis on the vertical temperature profile radiometer and a procedure for deriving clear radiances in partly cloudy areas.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center VAS Demonstration Sounding Workshop; p 11-18
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  • 54
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    Accuracies of three computationally efficient algorithms for computing atmospheric transmittances (1980)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-17
    Description: Three algorithms for calculating polychromatic atmospheric transmittance functions have been tested using a set of eleven distinct temperature profiles in order to compare transmittance accuracies achievable by the three methods. The comparison of rms errors demonstrates that the iterative method of McMillin and Fleming (1976) is the most accurate of the efficient algorithms currently available for gases with constant mixing ratios; its accuracy approaches that of the spectroscopic parameters and the computational approximations used in the ground-truth line-by-line calculations. The method of Arking et al. (1974), while less accurate, has the advantage of being perfectly general and easily adapted to cases where spectral bandwidths are varied
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Applied Optics; 19; July 15
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  • 55
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    The outlook for precipitation measurements from space (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The outlook for providing precipitation measurements of useful accuracy and or precision from space is discussed. Visible and infrared techniques, microwave radiometers, spaceborne radar, and altimeters are discussed. Key obstacles are identified.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 56
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    Adaptively pointing spaceborne radar for precipitation measurements (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: An auxiliary concept of adaptive pointing applicable to meteorological radar is discussed. This control technique would resolve the conflicts among speed of scan or scan width, resolution, and dwell time per resolution element. At T1(orbital position) a passive infrared radiometer imager scans a swath ahead of the spacecraft; an appropriate algorithm indicates which clouds are probably producing precipitation. These locations are then used by the on-board antenna controller to program the antenna scan so that the radar samples clouds A and B at times T2 and T3 respectively.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 57
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    Bistatic radar meteorological satellite (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A technique is discussed that employs a radar transmitter with a moderate size antenna placed in a geosynchronous orbit with either a 0 degree or a low inclination orbit. The reflected signals from the precipitation are then received either on a single beam from a satellite having a beamwidth of about 6 degrees or preferably with a beam that scans the U.S. in a raster pattern with about 0.9 degrees beamwidth. While it would seem that a bistatic system with the transmitter at synchronous altitude and the receivers near the surface would not be a very efficient way of designing a radar system, it is somewhat surprising that the required power and antenna sizes are not that great. Two factors make the meteorological application somewhat more attractive than the bistatic detection of point targets. First, the bistatic reflections of radar signals from precipitation are to a large extent omnidirectional, and while raindrops are spheriods rather than spheres, the relationship of the reflectivity of the rain to rainfall rate can be easily derived. The second reason is that the rain echo signal level is independent of range from a receive only radar, and if the bistatic system works at all, it will work at long ranges.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 15 p
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  • 58
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    Use of the optimal polarization concept in electromagnetic imaging of hydrometeor distributions (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A brief survey is given of some fundamental physical concepts of optimal polarization characteristics of a transmission path or scatterer ensemble of hydrometeors. It is argued that, based on this optimization concepts, definite advances in remote atmospheric sensing are to be expected. Basic properties of Kennaugh's optimal polarization theory are identified.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 15 p
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  • 59
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    Use of combined radar and radiometer systems in space for precipitation measurement: Some ideas (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A brief survey is given of some fundamental physical concepts of optimal polarization characteristics of a transmission path or scatter ensemble of hydrometers. It is argued that, based on this optimization concept, definite advances in remote atmospheric sensing are to be expected. Basic properties of Kennaugh's optimal polarization theory are identified.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 25 p
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  • 60
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    Rain rate measurement capabilities using a Seasat type radar altimeter (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The combined use of a space-based radar and a radiometer for measurement of precipitation is discussed. Phenomena to exploit or overcome is surveyed. Basic measurement problems are discussed. Several active systems are proposed, including three ocean systems and two land-sea systems. Recommendations for future research are given.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 13 p
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  • 61
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    Satellite borne dual millimetric wave length radar (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The failure of attempts to accurately measure precipitation by using a single quality that is used to deduce the desired precipitation parameter through a derived relationship is discussed. A number of dual measurement techniques for the accurate determination of instantaneous rainfall rates from space are proposed. It is concluded that dual measurement techniques show high promise for measuring precipitation parameters with greater accuracy than that which was possible in the past.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 7 p
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  • 62
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    Potential of dual-measurement techniques for accurate determination of instantaneous rainfall rate from space (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The incorporation in the 13.5 GHz SEASAT type radar altimeter of a mode to measure rain rate is investigated. Specifically, an algorithm is developed relating the echo power at the various range bins to the rain rate, taking into consideration Mie scattering and path attenuation. The dependence of the algorithm on rain drop size distribution, and non-uniform rain structure are examined and associated uncertainties defined. A technique for obtaining drop size distribution through the measurements of power at the top of the raincell and power difference through the cell is also investigated together with an associated error analysis. A description of the minor hardware modifications to the basic SEASAT design is given for implementing the rain measurements.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 5 p
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  • 63
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    Spaceborne precipitation radar (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The performances and characteristics of a satelliteborne radar operating in the millimeter wavelength region of the spectrum with emphasis placed on the 35 and 94 GH3 frequency bands are discussed. It is concluded that millimetric wavelengths provide an acceptable solution for the design of satelliteborne active microwave equipment.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 16 p
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  • 64
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    Remote sensing of stored precipitation, i.e., soil moisture and snow (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The characteristics and performance of spaceborne precipitation radar systems are discussed. The development of a model is discussed. Examples of simulation results are given. It was found that the accuracy of rain rate estimates is improved by using higher resolution radar.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 65
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    The DMSP imager (SSMI): Unfinished plans (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The basic theory relating microwave emissivity to soil and snow moisture is presented along with data from field and aircraft measurements to support the theory. Data from the ESMR on Nimbus-5 and the S-194 L Band radiometer on Skylab were compared with Antecedent Precipitation indices (APT) to show the sensitivity of spaceborne observations to soil moisture. Similarly, data from the ESMR and SMMR on the Nimbus spacecraft were compared with surface measurements of snow depth with good results.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 7 p
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  • 66
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    The utilization of satellite passive microwave sensors to monitor synoptic scale rainfall (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A microwave imaging sensor, built for flight on the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program spacecraft, is discussed. Major elements of the sensor development program are summarized as background for planning a data archival program useful for climate research.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 13 p
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  • 67
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    Detection of rainfall rates utilizing spaceborne microwave radiometers (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: To demonstrate the success of utilizing passive microwave sensors in monitoring synoptic scale rainfall, two studies are described in which electrically scanning microwave radiometers (ESMR-5 and 6) on board Nimbus 5 and 6 were employed using a Langrangian frame of reference. The first study suggests a method of utilizing ESMR-5 measurements to quantize rainfall over water within tropical and extratropical storms and to use these measurements to monitor and possibly predict storm intensity. The second study suggests a method of monitoring the coverage and movement of synoptic rain over land by employing ESMR-6.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 7 p
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  • 68
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    Using underwater ambient noise levels to measure rainfall rate: A review (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The use of satellite passive microwave radiometry in the determination of precipitation frequencies and areas is discussed. Precipitation detection over the ocean and land and the accuracy of results are addressed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 33 p
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  • 69
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    On the measurement of precipitation frequencies by passive microwave radiometery (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Over most of the microwave spectrum, raindrops both absorb and scatter radiation producing large changes in brightness temperatures relative to clear or cloudy conditions. Since the structure of rain varies substantially for different rain rates and climatological backgrounds, the raindrop size distribution, the rain layer thickness and the ice clouds above the rain layer are all important inputs to the model computations. The subsequent modeling involves applying the Mie theory to derive the absorption and scattering effects and the radiative transfer calculation is based upon a variational iterative approach which takes account of the multiple scattering effect of the rain layer. Results over both ocean and land backgrounds are demonstrated. It is also demonstrated that by using discrimination tests of the radiometric data, the rain/no rain decision can be made and the rainfall rate can be retrieved from a statistical inversion technique.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 3 p
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  • 70
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    Combining visible and infrared techniques with LAMMR for daily rainfall estimates (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A brief description of other methods of rainfall measurement at the sea surface is given. The general underwater ambient noise background of the ocean is described. The physics of noise generation by bubbles and splashes is reviewed. Monitoring underwater ambient noise levels to measure rainfall rate requires that the spectral shapes of the noise from wind and rain be different or at least distinguishable. This would allow the rain noise to be separated from the wind noise and then hopefully it can be correlated with rainfall rate. Different spectral shapes are observed experimentally.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 71
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    A survey of passive microwave and hybrid remote sensing of precipitation (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: It is noted that for practical realization of new information on precipitation during this decade, satellite observing systems must be coupled into surface-based observations and computer models of weather systems as they develop. Methods to combine the satellite/surface-based/model capabilities are discussed and several precipitation estimation pilot studies are proposed and outlined.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 3 p
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  • 72
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    The Bristol method of satellite-improved rainfall monitoring (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Remote sensing estimates of area average precipitation are useful to agricultural and climatological applications. Estimates obtained by active or passive microwaves, infrared and visible sensors may be augmented and improved using indirect measures of precipitation, such as the change in near surface soil moisture content caused by a particular event. Measurements of soil moisture using infrared radiances do not provide precipitation information in real time since the sky must clear. However, the resultant estimate of precipitation is a time integrated value which provides a significant savings in data handling and can overcome virtually all of the sampling problems associated with the monitoring of precipitation through storms of long duration.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 11 p
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  • 73
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    Visible and infrared techniques for flash flood, hydrological, and agricultural applications (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A common requirement of these agriculture, climatology and hydrology fields is the accurate and timely estimation of precipitation. Yet, it is often difficult to obtain such estimates by conventional means. The advent of satellite remote sensing however has opened the possibility of making rain estimates over time and space scale never before available. A computer automated technique that estimates a summertime convective rainfall from the thermal infrared imagery of geosynchronous satellites is reviewed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 10 p
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  • 74
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    The estimation of convective precipitation from GOES imagery with the Griffith/Woodley technique (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Improved rainfall monitoring using satellite and conventional data are described. A method was developed to: (1) provide rainfall evaluations more uniform, accurate and complete than can be derived from satellite or conventional data alone; (2) serve current operational environmental program in countries with special needs for improved rainfall data; (3) invoke either polar orbiting and/or geostationary imagery as the satellite inputs; (4) utilize global telecommunication system (GTS) SYNOP messages as the basic conventional data inputs; (5) be applicable to any and all types of weather situations in the operational areas; (6) be undemanding in hardware and software so as to be an option available for use even by nations or agencies with very limited financial resources.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 6 p
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  • 75
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    Inference of precipitation through thermal infrared measurements of soil moisture (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The physics of microwave radiative transfer is well understood so that causal models can be assembled which relate the observed brightness temperatures to assumed distributions of hydrometeors (both liquid and ice), non-precipitating clouds, water vapor oxygen, and surface conditions. Present models assume a Marshall Palmer size distribution of liquid hydrometers from the surface to the freezing level (near the 0 C isotherm) and a variable thickness of frozen hydrometeors above that with various reasonable distribution of the other relevant constituents. The validity of such models is discussed. All uncertainties in the rain rate retrieval algorithms can be expressed in terms of specific model uncertainties which can be addressed through appropriate measurements. Those factors which must be known to achieve umambiguous results can be identified so that rainfall measuring algorithms can be developed and improved. The emissivity of the underlying surface significantly affects the contrast that may be measured between areas covered by rain and those which are dry. Sensing strategies for measuring rain over the ocean and rain over land are reviewed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 6 p
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  • 76
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    A combined visible and IR technique for the estimation of rainfall amounts from GOES data (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The use of visible and infrared techniques for estimating precipitation for flash flood, hydrological, and agricultural applications is discussed. Satellite derived rainfall estimates supplement other data or are the only data available. The Scofield/Oliver convective rainfall technique is used for analyzing a half hour period of heavy rainfall during a Chicago flash flood event. The results of a real time hydrological application of the Scofield/Oliver technique for the Hurricane Allen event are also presented. Visible and IR techniques for agricultural applications are also discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 4 p
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  • 77
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    A life history method for estimating convective rainfall (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The remote sensing of rain amounts is of great interest for a great variety of operational applications, including hydrology, hydroelectricity and agriculture is discussed. The microwave radiometer represents the most obvious technique, however, poor spatial and temporal resolution, together with the problems associated with the estimation of effective rain layer height make visible and IR techniques more promising at the present time. Based on bivariate frequency distribution of brightness versus temperature, brightness enhancing or infrared technique alone may be inadequate to deduce details of convective activity. It is implied that better estimates of rainfall will come from visible and IR observations combined than from either used alone. The technique identifies clouds with high probability of rain as those which have large optical and presumably physical thickness as measured by the visible albedo in comparison with their height, determined by the intensity of the IR emission.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 3 p
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  • 78
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    Ground truth for oceanic rainfall (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Communications systems operating at frequencies in excess of 10 GHz are degraded significantly by rainfall. To provide the information needed for design of these millimeter wave systems, rain attentuation models were developed and data bases of propagation related information were accumulated. These data bases were developed based on the signal level measurements of geostationary satellite beacons at selected frequencies. Groundbased radar reflection measurements were able to develop data bases for system design. The rain attenuation models allow accurate correlation between the rain rate and the attenuation.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 7 p
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  • 79
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    A survey of radar rain measurement techniques (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Oceanic rainfall was extrapolated in the past from land and island measurements. It was uncertain how representative the land measurements were in local and remote oceanic areas. Now several independent oceanic rainfall analyses are available. These analyses are based upon different techniques, yet they produce similar values. It is suggested that island and coastal measurements are suitable to calibrate satellite oceanic rainfall measurements.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 16 p
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  • 80
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    Microwave radiometry sampling problems demonstrated with Nimbus 5 rain rates versus GATE data (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The performance of rain estimation techniques is analyzed. The results from the Griffith/Woodley satellite rain estimation technique are tested. Results, although preliminary, allow objective determination of the feasibility of the use of satellite rain estimates at various scales of interest.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 10 p
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  • 81
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    A standard verification for rainfall estimation from remote platforms (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Measurements of reflectivity at horizontal (Zh) and vertical (Zy) polarizations provide adequate information necessary to infer the two parameters of an exponential raindrop size distribution (No, Do) where the distribution is given by N(D) = Noexp(-3.67 D/Do). This distribution enables computation of water content or still air rainfall rates. The physical basis of the radar technique is outlined and illustrated theoretically, and experimental results, comparing radar derived rainfall rates with raingage and disdrometer measurements, are reviewed. The technique is useful for many meteorological and hydrological purposes, including ground truth measurements of rainfall rate over the ocean for comparison with satellite related observations.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 4 p
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  • 82
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    Raingage network sampling statistics (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Sampling problems raise large difficulties for the precipitation measurements from space. In the tropics rainfall processes are organized in scales which are hardly resolved by the microwave radiometers on board of satellites. Even in the cloud clusters, which mark significant, large extended signals in the visible and infrared images, the precipitation areas cover only a small region. Our analysis of the cloud clusters over the W Pacific Ocean revealed that more than 50% of the area of a typical Western Pacific cluster are without rain. The radar observations during GATE generally confirmed those results. The rainfall was calculated from Nimbus V microwave data at 19.35 GHz and the results were compared with the GATE radar rainfall. The results are improved if the rain areas within the field of view are determined by additional observations and lead to a correction of the microwave brightness temperature.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 17 p
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  • 83
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    Some statistical problems inherent in measuring precipitation (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A formula permitting calculation of the mean-square error of the mean value of a random variable due to periodic sampling is derived and applied to estimating the sampling error for satellite observation of the mean rainfall during the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE). The effects of both spatial resolution and frequency of observation on the sampling error are summarized in graphs. It is found that four observations per day are sufficient to determine the monthly mean rainfall over an area of 2.5 deg square (280km x 280km) to within a standard deviation of 5 percent of its mean value; two samples per day would yield an error with a standard deviation slightly less than 10 percent of the mean. A satellite instrument with less frequent sampling may produce significantly greater error in the estimate of monthly mean rainfall.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 8 p
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  • 84
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    Global weather requirements for precipitation measurements (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Results of a radar study of summertime convection in the high plains of Kansas are presented which demonstrate the importance of the small scale structure of precipitation to the overall production of precipitation in a storm. The smaller scale structure must be modeled to develop valid relationships between satellite observables and precipitation amount. The Kansas results suggest that just the observation of the number and spacings of the active regions of convection (thunderstorms) is sufficient to provide an estimate of water flux with an uncertainty of less than a factor of two.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 6 p
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  • 85
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    Sampling problems: The small scale structure of precipitation (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The quantitative measurement of precipitation characteristics for any area on the surface of the Earth is not an easy task. Precipitation is rather variable in both space and time, and the distribution of surface rainfall data given location typically is substantially skewed. There are a number of precipitation process at work in the atmosphere, and few of them are well understood. The formal theory on sampling and estimating precipitation appears considerably deficient. Little systematic attention is given to nonsampling errors that always arise in utilizing any measurement system. Although the precipitation measurement problem is an old one, it continues to be one that is in need of systematic and careful attention. A brief history of the presently competing measurement technologies should aid us in understanding the problem inherent in this measurement task.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 86
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    Severe storms requirements for precipitation information (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Moisture can play an important if not dominant role in supplying energy to tropical and extra-tropical weather systems. In the tropics where the air is almost saturated only the slightest amount of uplift is required to initiate the release of vast amounts of latent heat to fuel systems as diverse as convective cloud clusters and hurricanes. The role of latent heating on extra-tropical systems is much more subtle. While the primary energy source for synoptic-scale systems is often the release of gravitational potential energy through the sinking of cold air and the rising of warm, it seems that the latent heat that is eventually realized through slow uplift of large masses of air can significantly modify the evolution of the system. An analysis of the energetics of the storm of March 25 to 27, 1978 over the eastern USA to understand the implications of the heat released due to the vast cloudy area associated with warm frontal overrunning was performed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 4 p
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  • 87
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    Hydrologic forecasting requirements for precipitation data from space measurements (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The needs for precipitation information in severe storms research and in the operational detection and forecasting of such phenomena are described. The discussion will include thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, and regional and mesoscale numerical models used to analyze and forecast these and other regional scale phenomena.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 8 p
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  • 88
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    Precipitation data for climate diagnostics (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A spatial resolution from satellite-derived data of 250 km by 250 km with a time of from 2 to 4 weeks is discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: NASA. Goddard Space Flight Center Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 89
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    Precipitation measurement requirements for general circulation climate model development and applications (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Global scale diagnostics, regional diagnostics, and satellite IR data are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 5 p
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  • 90
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    A brief review of the present status of global precipitation estimates (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The global distribution of precipitation, both the normal distribution (i.e., the precipitation averaged over a number of years) and time-series of the precipitation are reviewed. Only the most recent studies are explicitly covered.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 4 p
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  • 91
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    Microwave radiometry and hybrid precipitation measurements (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: It was necessary to identify the most promising measurement techniques and strategies and to understand those candidate systems in detail. The emphasis was on passive microwave remote-sensing techniques. A brief background in passive microwave and hybrid techniques for measuring precipitation, key problem areas and strategies for dealing with those problems, a precipitation measurement system, and specific recommendations are presented.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 11 p
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  • 92
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    Spaceborne radar (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The spaceborne radar panel considered how radar could be used to measure precipitation from satellites. The emphasis was on how radar could be used with radiometry (at microwave, visible (VIS), and infrared (IR) wavelengths) to reduce the uncertainties of measuring precipitation with radiometry alone. In addition, the fundamental electromagnetic interactions involved in the measurements were discussed to determine the key work areas for research and development to produce effective instruments. Various approaches to implementing radar systems on satellites were considered for both shared and dedicated instruments. Finally, a research and development strategy was proposed for establishing the parametric relations and retrieval algorithms required for extracting precipitation information from the radar and associated radiometric data.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 9 p
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  • 93
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    Visible and infrared techniques (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Time-dependent indexing schemes and time-dependent life-history techniques are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 10 p
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  • 94
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    Ground-truth measurement systems (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Ground-truth measurements of precipitation and related weather events are an essential component of any satellite system designed for monitoring rainfall from space. Such measurements are required for testing, evaluation, and operations; they provide detailed information on the actual weather events, which can then be compared with satellite observations intended to provide both quantitative and qualitative information about them. Also, very comprehensive ground-truth observations should lead to a better understanding of precipitation fields and their relationships to satellite data. This process serves two very important functions: (a) aiding in the development and interpretation of schemes of analyzing satellite data, and (b) providing a continuing method for verifying satellite measurements.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 5 p
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  • 95
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    Sampling problems (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Precipitation estimates from satellites are subject to a number of uncertainties involving design characteristics, satellite positioning, natural variability of precipitation, and the noncontinuous acquisition of data. The sources and sizes of these uncertainties are in need of proper evaluation and estimation. The present sampling and estima-theory seems to be adequate for some measurement problems (e.g., determining precipitation at a point), while others require further theoretical work (e.g., determining the time history of precipitation over large areas).
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 5 p
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  • 96
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    Summary of requirements and recommendations (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: Global climate, agricultural uses for precipitation information, hydrological uses for precipitation information, severe thunderstorms and local weather, and global weather are discussed.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Precipitation Meas. from Space:; 12 p
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  • 97
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    Dynamical predictability of monthly means (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The concept of predictability which is conditioned by synoptic-scale disturbance instabilities is extended to that of time averages, which are determined by low-frequency planetary wave predictability, in an attempt to determine the theoretical upper limit of dynamical predictability of monthly means for prescribed, nonfluctuating external forcings. Sixty-day integrations of a global general circulation model with nine different initial conditions but identical boundary conditions of sea surface temperatures, snow, sea ice and soil moisture are carried out, where the rms vector wind error between the observed initial conditions is greater than 15 m/sec. It is found that while the variances among the first 30-day means, predicted from mostly different initial conditions, are significantly different from the variances due to random perturbations in the initial conditions, variances for days 31-60 are not so distinguishable. These results suggest that the evolution of long waves remains predictable for between one month and 45 days.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences; 38; Dec. 198
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  • 98
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    Weather and climate needs for lidar observations from space and concepts for their realization (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: The spectrum of weather and climate needs for lidar observations from space is discussed. This paper focuses mainly on the requirements for winds, temperature, moisture, and pressure. Special emphasis is given to the need for wind observations, and it is shown that winds are required to depict realistically all atmospheric scales in the tropics and the smaller scales at higher latitudes, where both temperature and wind profiles are necessary. The need for means to estimate air-sea exchanges of sensible and latent heat also is noted. Lidar can aid here by measurement of the slope of the boundary layer. Recent theoretical feasibility studies concerning the profiling of temperature, pressure, and humidity by differential absorption lidar (DIAL) from space and expected accuracies are reviewed. Initial ground-based trials provide support for these approaches and also indicate their direct applicability to path-average temperature measurements near the surface. An alternative approach to Doppler lidar wind measurements also is presented. The concept involves the measurement of the displacement of the aerosol backscatter pattern, at constant height, between two successive scans of the same area, one ahead of the spacecraft and the other behind it, a few minutes later. Finally, an integrated space lidar system capable of measuring temperature, pressure, humidity, and winds which combines the DIAL methods with the aerosol pattern displacement concept is described briefly.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: American Meteorological Society; vol. 62
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  • 99
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    Atmospheric neutral points outside of the principal plane (1981)
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    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: It is noted that the positions in the sky where the skylight is unpolarized, that is, the neutral points, are in most cases located in the vertical plane through the sun (the principal plane). Points have been observed outside the principal plane (Soret, 1888) when the plane intersected a lake or sea. Here, the neutral points were located at an azimuth of about 15 deg from the sun and near the almucantar through the sun. In order to investigate the effects of water surface and aerosols in the neutral point positions, the positions are computed for models of the earth-atmosphere system that simulate the observational conditions. The computed and measured positions are found to agree well. While previous observations provided only qualitative information on the degree of polarization, it is noted that the computations provide details concerning the polarization parameters.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Beitraege zur Physik der Atmosphaere; 54; May 1981
    Format: text
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    Retrieval of thermodynamic variables with deep convective clouds Experiments in three dimensions (1981)
    In:  Other Sources
    Details
    Publication Date: 2011-08-18
    Description: A three-dimensional numerical cloud model has been used to test a method for retrieving temperature and pressure deviation fields from detailed wind and water fields in deep convective clouds. A comparison of the retrieved fields with the output from the numerical model was used to test the validity of the theoretical treatment and accuracy of the programming. The local time derivatives of each of the velocity components are known to be potential problem sources in using Doppler radar data, and a test was done with this derivative estimated over a 4 min time span rather than 30 s, resulting in excellent agreement with the original solution for this data set. When the local derivative was eliminated, the solution was judged useful for general temperature patterns. Errors due to the inability to measure cloudwater mixing ratio and inaccuracies in rainwater mixing ratio were found to be significant, but not so severe as in the turbulence and steady-state sensitivity tests.
    Keywords: METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
    Type: Monthly Weather Review; 109; Mar. 198
    Format: text
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