ALBERT

Notes: Digital photogrammetry and softcopy workstations have added a new dimension to aerial triangulation, and some of the previously manual procedures are now available in automated form. Also, commercial software packages for automatic aerial triangulation came on to the market in the last decade. In this study, the results of automatic aerial triangulation using four triangulation software packages, Z/I Imaging's MATCH-AT (ISMAT) and ISAT, LH Systems’ MST and VirtuoZo AAT, are presented. For the comparison of the results of the tie point extraction and the bundle block adjustment for triangulation, a sub-block from the Uster block in Switzerland was selected and used. Differences between these software packages are discussed with respect to their functionality and performance in detail. The achieved standard deviation of image coordinates varies between 0·2 and 0·5 pixel for the systems tested. The more signalised control points and check points to be used, the better the σ0 estimate which could be expected. The average number of extracted tie points varied from system to system with respect to the matching method and the resolution of the images used in the programs. The digital aerial triangulation of the Uster sub-block was faster than analytical triangulation and the elapsed time for triangulation of one image using different systems varies between about 0·5 and 6 min. Nevertheless, results also show that automated aerial triangulation is still prone to error in all systems. Image matching produces many blunders, which can only be handled efficiently by using a sophisticated blunder detection procedure, as is available with robust estimation. This is not the case for all the systems tested, however. There still remains a lot to be done in terms of development (improvement of matching, for example, by integrating robust estimation for error detection at an early stage, implementation of on-line triangulation, better internal quality control procedures, more transparent and simple user interfaces and more useful information for the user with better software manuals). However, it was shown that automatic aerial triangulation provides higher redundancy and reliability of results and much more economical photogrammetric practice than ever before.

Notes: The Photogrammetric Society was formed in 1952. The Council of the Society considered that the twentieth anniversary was a good point at which to record the events which led to its formation and the significant occasions and decisions which have taken place since 1952. Consequently, Paul Lamboit was invited to compile this History. He has placed the birth and development of the Society within the national and international photogrammetric context and his record of the deliberations which took place between 1947 and 1952 will be of particular interest to historians of our subject.This account was first published in a limited edition in 1971. Sufficient interest has since been expressed to prompt a wider circulation through publication in the Photogrammetric Record.The author served the Society continuously in several official capacities from 1953 to 1969 and he was elected to Honorary Membership in 1969.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa Photogrammetric Society a été fondée en 1952. Excellente occasion pour faire le point qu'un vingtiéme anniversaire, a estimé le Conseil de la Société; pour rappeler les circonstances de sa naissance, les étapes de sa croissance et les décisions importantes prises depuis 1952. Ce qu'on invita Paul Lamboit à faire. Son exposé resitue la naissance et le développement de la Société dans le contexte national et international de la photogrammétrie; la relation qu'il fait des décisions prises entre 1947 et 1952 intéressera particulièrement ceux qui s'occupent d'histoire de la photogrammétrie.Ce rapport d'abord publié en édition limitée en 1971, a suscité un intérêt suffisant pour que l'on se presse en le publiant dans le Photogrammetric Record de le porter à la connaissance d'un plus large public.L'auteur a exercé différentes fonctions de 1953 à 1969 dans l'appareil de la Société. Il a étéélu membre honoraire en 1969.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusummenfussung1952 wurde die Britische Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie gegründet. Der Rat der Gesellschaft erwog, dass der zwanzigste Jahrestag eine günstige Gelegenheit sei, um die Ereignisse, die zur Gründung der Gesellschaft führten sowie die bedeutenden Veranstaltungen, die stattfanden und die Entscheidungen, die getroffen wurden, darzustellen. Aus diesem Grunde wurde Paul Lamboit eingeladen, diesen historischen Rückblick zu schreiben. Er hat dabei die Gründung und die Entwicklung der Gesellschaft in den nationalen und internationalen photogrammetrischen Zusammenhang gestellt nd sein Bericht über die zwischen 1947 und 1972 erfolgten Beratungen wird für an unserer Sache interessierte Historiker sehr aufschlussreich sein.Diese Zusammenstellung wurde erstmals in einer begrenzten Auflage im Jahre 1971 veröffentlicht. Genügend Interesse wurde inzwischen bekundet, um eine weitergehende Verteilung mit Hilfe des Photogrammetric Record zu veranlassen.Der Autor diente der Gesellschaft kontinuierlich in verschiedenen Ämtern von 1953 bis 1969, wo er aum Ehrenmitglied gewählt wurde.

Notes: Architecture at the Maya archaeological site of Uxmal in Yucatan, Mexico has been documented since the 17th century by historians, archaeologists, illustrators, photographers, and most recently photogrammetrists. This paper reviews the work of the major contributors to recording of architecture at Uxmal with a particular focus on the 19th century stereophotography of Alice and Augustus Le Plongeon who worked to record all the standing architecture at Uxmal, and the close range stereophotogrammetric projects that recorded the Adivino Pyramid during the late 20th century.

Notes: This article presents a complete mathematical model, which translates discrepancies between two orthophotographs created from different photographs, into precise corrections of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). These corrections are the differences from the real surface and, if applied over the existing DEM, can produce a more accurate one. The mathematical model is straightforward, and is not approximate, and therefore there is no need for iterations.Possible applications include checking of automatically created DEMs, refinement of existing DEMs using aerial photographs and update of orthophotographs based on the previous DEM and new imagery.

Notes: A scholarly account of the formative discussions, the founding and the first 20 years of the Photogrammetric Society was published in 1971 and republished in 1974. This present review concentrates on the latter years of the life of the Photogrammetric Society prior to its merger with the Remote Sensing Society in 2001.The authors joined the Photogrammetric Society in 1960 and were conspicuous in its affairs for many years. Although both occupied the Society's presidential chair, they also fulfilled several other roles in its efficient management. Atkinson's first contribution to the Photogrammetric Record was published in 1968 and Newton's in 1971.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn a publié en 1971 un compte-rendu détaillé des 20 premières années de la “Photogrammetric Society”, à commencer par les discussions qui présidèrent è sa fondation. Ce récit fut republié en 1974. On se focalise dans cet article sur les dernières années d'activité de la “Photogrammetric Society” qui aboutirent à sa fusion avec la “Remote Sensing Society” en 2001.Les deux auteurs adhérèrent à la “Photogrammetric Society” en 1960 et y furent d‘éminents animateurs pendant de nombreuses années. Tous deux occupèrent le poste de président de cette Association mais remplirent égulement plusieurs autres fonctions qui contribuèrent à une gestion efficace. La première intervention d'Atkinson dans le Photogrummetric Record remonte à 1968, et celle de Newton à 1971.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusummenfussungEine wissenschaftliche Abhandlung über die Diskussionen zur Gründung, die Gründung selbst und die ersten 20 Jahre der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft wurde in 1971 publiziert und in 1974 wiederholt. Dieser aktulle Rückblick konzentriert sich auf die darauffolgenden Jahre der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft bis hin zur Vereinigung mit der Gesellschaft für Fernerkundung in Jahre 2001.Die Autoren wurden 1960 Mitglieder in der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft und trugen viele Jahre massgeblich zu deren Aktivitäsidenten der Gesellschaft auch verschiedene andere Aufgaben im Management wahrgenommen. Der erste Beitrag von Atkinson im Photogrammetric Record erschien 1968, der erste von Newton in 1971.

Notes: The determination of the attitude, the position and the intrinsic geometric characteristics of the camera is recognised as the fundamental photogrammetric problem. It can be summarised as the determination of camera interior and exterior orientation parameters, as well as the determination of 3D coordinates of object points. The term “exterior orientation” of an image refers to its position and orientation related to an exterior (object space) coordinate system. Several methods can be applied to determine the parameters of the orientation of one, two or more photos. The orientation can be processed in steps (as relative and absolute orientation) but simultaneous methods (such as bundle adjustments) are now available in many software packages. Several methods have also been developed for the orientation of single images. They are based in general on geometric and topological characteristics of imaged objects.This paper presents a survey of classical and modern methods for the determination of the exterior parameters in photogrammetry, some of which are available as software packages (with practical examples) on the Internet. The methods presented are classified in three principal groups. In the first. a selection of approximate methods for applications that do not require great accuracy is presented. Such methods are also used to calculate values required for iterative processes. In the second group, standard point-bused methods derived from collinearity, coplanarity or coangularity conditions are briefly reviewed, followed by line-based approaches. The third group represents orientation methods based on constraints and on concepts of projective geometry, which are becoming of increasing interest for photogrammetrists. In the last section, the paper gives a summary of existing strategies for automatic exterior orientation in aerial photogrammetry.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa détermination de l'attitude, de la position et des caractéristiques intrinsèques de la chambre photographique constitue un problème fondamental en photogrammétrie. Il se résume à la détermination des paramètres de l'orientation de la chambre de prise de vue (paramètres des orientations externe et interne), ainsi qu'à la détermination des coordonnées 30 des points de l'objet. L'orientation externe se rapporte à la détermination de la position et de l'orientation d'une chambre par rapport à un système externe de coordonnées. Différentes méthodes peuvent être utilisées pour calculer les éléments dorientation externe d'une photo, d'un couple ou de plusieurs photos. Le calcul de l'orientation peut être réalisé par étapes (par exemple les orientations relative et absolue) mais les méthodes simultanées (la compensation par faisceaux par exemple) sont actuellement proposées dans la plupart des logiciels. Plusieurs méthodes ont aussi été développées pour l'orientation d'images isolées. Ells sont basées en général sur les caactéristiques géométriques et topologiques des objets photographiés.Dans cet article on présente un ensemble de méthodes classiques et modernes pour la détermination des paramètres de l'orientation externe, certaines d'entre elles étant téléchargeables sous la forme d'applications sur Internet. Les méthodes présentées sont classées en trois groupes principaux. Le premier groupe contient une sélection de méthodes approximatives utilisées d'habitude quand une grande précision n'est pas exigée, ou encore pour calculer des vuleurs approchées des paramètres extrinsèques requises pour les méthodes itératives rigoureuses. Dans le deuxième groupe, on rappelle brièvement les jondements des méthodes basées sur les conditions photogrammétriques fondamentales (la colinéarité, la coplanéité et la coangularité). Dans ce groupe, les méthodes basées sur l'extraction des points ou des lignes sont également abordées. Le troisième groupe traite des méthodes d'orientation basées sur les contraintes et les concepts de la géométrie projective, de plus en plus utilisées par les photogrammètres. Le dernier paragraphe se rapporte aux méthodes destinées à automatiser le calcul de l'orientation externe en photogrammétrie aérienne.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusummenfussungDie Bestimmung der Neigung, der Position und den geometrischen parametern der Kamera wird als das fundamentale Problem der Photogrammetrie angesehen. Es kann zusammenfassend sowohl als die Bestimmung der Parameter der inneren und äusseren Orientierung der Kamera angesehen werden, als auch als die Bestimmung von 3D Koordinaten von Objektpunkten. Der Ausdruck “äussere Orientierung” eines Bildes bezieht sich auf die Lage und Orientierung bezogen auf ein äusseres (Objektraum-) Koordinatensystem. Es können verschiedene Methoden angewandt werden, um die Parameter von einem, zwei oder mehreren Bildern zu bestimmen. Die orientierung kann in Schritten erfolgen, was als Relative und Absolute Orientierung bezeichnet wird, aber auch simultane Methoden, wie die Bündelausgleichung, sind in vielen Softwarepaketen implementiert. Es wurden auch Methoden für die Orientierung von Einzelbildern entwickelt, die geometrische und topologische Eigenschaften der abgebildeten Objekte nutzen. In diesem Beitrag wird Beitrag wird eine Studie klassischer und moderner Methoden der Photogrammetrie zur Bestimmung der Parameter der äßeren Orientierung vorgestellt, wovon einige in Softwarepaketen zur Verfügung stehen, die von praktischen Beispielen im Internet ergänzt werden. Die untersuchten Methoden werden in drei Hauptgruppen eingeteilt. In einer ersten Gruppe werden Näherungslösungen vorgestellt, die für Anwendungen mit geringen Genauigkeitsanforderungen geeignet sind. Diese Methoden werden ansonsten für die Näherngswertberechunggen für iterative Prozesse verwendet. IN der zweiten Gruppe werden zuerst die punktbasierten Standardmethoden vorgestellt, die von Bedingungen zur Kollinearität. Koplanarität und Kowinkligkeit abgeletet sind. Danach folgen linienbasierte Ansätze. Die dritte Gruppe umfasst Orientierungsmethoden, die auf Zwangsbedingungen und auf Konzepte der projektiven Geometrie aufbauen, die für Photogrammeter von zunehmendem Interesse sind, Im letzten Abschnitt wird eine Zusammenfassung existierender Strategien für eine automatische äussere orientierung in der Luftbildphotogrammetrie gegeben.

Notes: ‘Development’ and the globalization of consumption is leading to a breakdown of biological and cultural diversity, erosion of food security, an increase in violence and devastation for the global biosphere. We urgently need to shift away from economic globalization and homogenization towards localization and diversification.

Notes: The promises and pitfalls of agricultural biotechnology have long been debated. The public is often thwarted because consumers frequently perceive as risky, and therefore undesirable, those advances that they do not understand or of which they are unaware. A comparative study of the introduction of a biotechnology innovation in the United States (US) and in the European Union (EU) is a case in point. In the US, despite concerns of consumer protection and environmental groups that the use of genetically produced growth hormone in milk-producing cows will adversely impact the safety of the milk supply, scientific evidence and governmental findings appear to indicate that milk from treated cows is identical in quality, taste and nutritional value to milk from untreated cows. Experience to date in the US demonstrates some consumer resistance to milk from those cows that have received the growth hormone, which typically leads to a 10% increase in milk production. In fact, if there is no perceived differentiation between the two forms of milk, the issue offers little choice to consumers at large, and may result in economic benefit only to selected dairy farmers, as well as the producers of the genetically produced growth hormone. This situation in the US is an example of dysfunctional technology transfer, with perceived desirable benefits to a few, and perceived undesirable benefits to society-at-large. The information suggests that the US may have reacted hastily in approving the use of bovine growth hormone in milk-producing cows. The EU has taken a divergent approach by enacting moratoriums against its use. The differences identified in this study, contrasting responses to the bovine somatotrophin issue in the US and EU – driven in part by general consumer attitudes towards biotechnology – may provide insights into the issues and challenges that will be faced by both advocates and opponents of global proliferation of certain advances in biotechnology.

Notes: The purpose of this article is to describe how households in Novgorod the Great, Russia, deal with food provision in everyday life. The study focuses on changes experienced in food provision and consumption in Russian society, in order to illustrate how households respond to the transformation towards a market economy. The study reflects women's perspective on food provision. Students from Novgorod the Great visited 105 households and asked the women in the household to answer a questionnaire. Results from the study show that in order to cope with changes in society related to economic reforms, Russian households had changed both their food consumption and food production patterns. There was no big difference between urban and rural households. Nearly all of the households were self-sufficient in the provision of vegetables and potatoes. Many households had a ‘dacha’ (plot), where they produced most of what they needed. Among the changes experienced during recent years (i.e. during the end of the 1990s), a decade after perestroika was initiated, households mentioned the rise in food prices and the decrease of income. Households reported that they consumed less fruit and/or meat. Some households also mentioned that the quality of nourishment had decreased, thereby indicating lower general quality, lower nutrition value, or less healthy foodstuffs.

Notes: Localization: A Global Manifesto. Ed. by Colin Hines (2000). London. Published by Earthscan Publishing. ISBN 1-85383-612-5 (softcover). In Canada, the book is available from for Can$29.00. In the UK, the book is available at for £10.99 or earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk

Notes: . Microtubule dynamics in Paramecium caudatum were investigated with an anti-α-tubulin antibody and a microinjection technique to determine the function of microtubules on micronuclear behavior during conjugation. After meiosis, all four haploid micronuclei were connected by microtubular filaments to the paroral region and moved close to this region. This nuclear movement was micronucleus-specific, because some small macronuclear fragments transplanted from exconjugants never moved to the region. Only one of the four germ nuclei moved into the paroral cone and was covered by microtubule assembly (the so-called first assembly of microtubules, AM-I). This nucleus survived there, while the other three not in this region degenerated. The movement of germ nucleus was inhibited by the injection of the anti-α-tubulin antibody. The surviving germ nucleus divided once and produced a migratory pronucleus and a stationary pronucleus. Prior to the reciprocal exchange of the migratory nuclei, microtubules assembled around the migratory pronuclei again (the so-called second assembly of microtubules, AM-II). Then, the migratory pronucleus moved into the partner cell and fused with the stationary pronucleus. Thus, microtubules appear to be indispensable for nuclear behavior: they enable migration of postmeiotic nuclei to the paroral region and they permit the survival of the nucleus at the paroral cone.

Notes: . This work reports the characterization of an arginine kinase in the unicellular parasitic flagellate Trypanosoma brucei, the etiological agent of human sleeping sickness and Nagana in livestock. The arginine kinase activity, detected in the soluble fraction obtained from procyclic forms, had a specific activity similar to that observed in Trypanosoma cruzi, about 0.2 μmol min−1mg−1. Western blot analysis of T. brucei extracts revealed two bands of 40 and 45 kDa. The putative gene sequence of this enzyme had an open reading frame for a 356-amino acid polypeptide, one less than the equivalent enzyme of T. cruzi. The deduced amino acid sequence has an 82% identity with the arginine kinase of T. cruzi, and highest amino acid identities of both trypanosomatids sequences, about 70%, were with arginine kinases from the phylum Arthropoda. In addition, the amino acid sequence possesses the five arginine residues critical for interaction with ATP as well as two glutamic acids and one cysteine required for arginine binding. The finding in trypanosomatids of a new phosphagen biosynthetic pathway, which is not present in mammalian host tissues, suggests this enzyme as a possible target for chemotherapy.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: The Identification of Soils for Forest Management. By Fiona Kennedy.

Notes: Abstract. A no-tillage (NT) system was developed in semiarid Morocco to improve the soil fertility and stabilize yield through conservation of water. Results in two long-term trials (4 and 11 years) were able to show the effects of a no-tillage system in increasing total soil organic matter and total nitrogen. Over time, the quality of the NT soil surface was improved compared with that under conventional tillage (CT) with disc harrows. This effect was the result of an increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) and a slight decline in pH. However, over time, nitrogen decreased in both tillage practices, especially in the 0–25 mm layer (from 0.59 to 0.57 t ha−1 and from 0.44 to 0.42 t ha−1 under NT and CT, respectively). After 4 years of NT an extra 5.62 t ha−1 of SOC was sequestered in the 0–25 mm layer, and after 11 years the SOC increased further to 7.21 t ha−1.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: Agriculture, Hydrology and Water Quality. By P.M. Haygarth and S.C. Jarvis (Editors).

Notes: Abstract. For an efficient abatement of diffuse N pollution from arable land, it is important to have practical and reliable tools that can quantify the effect of different management practices on leaching, and also analyse the effect of alternative management scenarios aimed at reducing leaching. We present here an application of soilndb, a management-oriented model for quantifying nitrate leaching from arable land. Simulations with soilndb were compared with measurements of pipe-drain discharge of nitrate taken in a 14-year field experiment on a sandy loam soil in south-west Sweden. Following adjustment of parameters connected to litter and faeces decomposition and mineralization, the model gave satisfactory predictions of nitrate leaching for all 10 treatments. The temporal pattern was generally well captured by the model, as was confirmed by high model efficiency values (average = 0.59). This application also supports the model's ability to simulate the long-term influence of different crops and catch crops as well as different manure strategies on leaching. However, further studies should be done to evaluate the model under additional agro-environmental conditions (e.g. soils, climates, and crops).

Notes: Abstract. The Phosphorus Indicators Tool provides a catchment-scale estimation of diffuse phosphorus (P) loss from agricultural land to surface waters using the most appropriate indicators of P loss. The Tool provides a framework that may be applied across the UK to estimate P loss, which is sensitive not only to land use and management but also to environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography. The model complexity incorporated in the P Indicators Tool has been adapted to the level of detail in the available data and the need to reflect the impact of changes in agriculture. Currently, the Tool runs on an annual timestep and at a 1 km2 grid scale.We demonstrate that the P Indicators Tool works in principle and that its modular structure provides a means of accounting for P loss from one layer to the next, and ultimately to receiving waters. Trial runs of the Tool suggest that modelled P delivery to water approximates measured water quality records. The transparency of the structure of the P Indicators Tool means that identification of poorly performing coefficients is possible, and further refinements of the Tool can be made to ensure it is better calibrated and subsequently validated against empirical data, as it becomes available.

Notes: Abstract. We present a semi-quantitative visual and tactile method for assessing soil physical fertility in terms of soil structure, root growth and soil surface condition. A block of topsoil is dug out with a spade. Horizontal layers (usually 2–4) are then identified as they appear. A brief one-page description of the soil is produced. Using a key, structural and rooting scores are assigned to each soil layer from the appearance of the soil and from its response to tactile assessment. These scores are then combined across depths, with weighting appropriate for the depth of each layer. A separate score was made of soil surface condition. Thus, overall soil physical fertility is assessed as three scores for topsoil structure, rooting and surface condition. The usefulness and sensitivity of the procedure were tested in two ley-arable organic rotation experiments on sandy loams in northeast Scotland.

Notes: Abstract. Eleven precipitated phosphates were evaluated as sources of phosphorus (P) for plant growth by comparing their effectiveness with that of monocalcium phosphate, a source of water soluble P that is generally considered to be fully plant available. The precipitated phosphates comprised struvites recovered from waste water discharges (mainly magnesium ammonium phosphate), laboratory synthesised struvites, a synthetic iron phosphate and a recovered calcium phosphate. Precipitating phosphates in these forms could be a way for removing P from waste water before it is discharged to rivers, so reducing the risk of eutrophication. Application to agricultural land would be one potential use for such phosphates. Evaluation was by pot experiments with a sandy loam soil and with a sandy clay loam soil using perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) as the test crop. The soils differed in pH (6.6 and 7.1) and in Olsen P (28 and 11 mg L−1). Measured variables were grass dry matter (DM) yield and grass P concentration which were used to calculate offtake of P in the harvested grass. DM yields of ryegrass and P offtakes given by the synthetic and recovered struvites were not significantly different statistically either between themselves or to MCP applied at the same rate. On this basis these struvites could be used to recycle P to similar soils and the effect of the P on crop yield should be similar to that of MCP

Notes: Abstract. The main inputs, outputs and transfers of potassium (K) in soils and swards under typical south west England conditions were determined during 1999/00 and 2000/01 to establish soil and field gate K budgets under different fertilizer nitrogen (N) (0 and 280 kg ha−1 yr−1) and drainage (undrained and drained) treatments. Plots receiving fertilizer N also received farmyard manure (FYM). Potassium soil budgets ranged, on average for the two years, from −5 (+N, drained) to +9 (no N and undrained) kg K ha−1 yr−1 and field gate budgets from +23 (+N, drained) to +89 (+N, undrained). The main inputs and outputs to the soil K budgets were fertilizer application (65%) and plant uptake (93%). Animals had a minor effect on K export but a major impact on K recycling. Nitrogen fertilizer application and drainage increased K uptake by the grass and, with it, the efficiency of K used. It also depleted easily available soil K, which could be associated with smaller K losses by leaching.

Notes: Abstract. Crops on sandy soils (〈5% clay) are exposed to K deficiency due to the small release and high leaching losses of K. Reliable tools are needed to improve the K management in cropping systems with limited K input, such as organic farming where import of nutrients are restricted according to the EC regulations. We investigated K balances and exchangeable K (Kexch) changes in an organic crop rotation experiment. Potassium leaching decreased from 42 kg ha−1 in 1998/99 to 21 kg ha−1 in 2000/01 as an average of a crop rotation (spring barley, grass-clover, winter wheat and pea/barley) with manure application and without catch crops. In the same period, spring Kexch decreased from 5.0 to 3.0 mg K 100 g soil−1 (0–20 cm). The retention of the straw K left in the field after harvest increased with decreasing levels of Kexch. The cereal crops did not respond to K application but in the pea/barley mixture the pea yield increased by 46%. The concordance between measured K balances and changes in Kexch was weak. Exchangeable K is suitable as a tool for K management on a rotational basis, and a Kexch above 3 mg 100 g soil−1 in the autumn should be avoided to minimize K leaching.

Notes: Abstract. Diagnosis of soil salinity and its spatial variability is required to establish control measures in irrigated agriculture. This article shows the usefulness of electromagnetic (EM) and soil sampling techniques to map salinity. We analysed the salinity of a 1-ha plot of surface-irrigated olive plantation in Aragon, NE Spain, by measuring the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) of soil samples taken at 22 points, and by reading the Geonics EM38 sensor at 141 points in the horizontal (EMH) and vertical (EMV) dipole positions. EMH and EMV values had asymmetrical bimodal distributions, with most readings in the non-saline range and a sharp transition to relatively high readings. Most salinity profiles were uniform (i.e. EMH=EMV), except in areas with high salinity and concurrent shallow water tables, where the profiles were inverted as shown by EMH 〉 EMV, and by ECe being greater in shallow than in deeper layers. The regressions of ECe on EM readings predicted ECe with R2 〉 84% for the 0–100 to 0–150 cm soil depths. We then produced salinity contour maps from the 141 ECe values estimated from the electromagnetic readings and the 22 measured values of ECe. Owing to the high soil sampling density, the maps were similar (i.e. mean surface-weighted ECe values between 3.9 dS m−1 and 4.2 dS m−1), although the electromagnetically estimated ECe improved the mapping of details. Whereas soil sampling is preferred for analysing the vertical distribution of soil salinity, the electromagnetic sensor is ideal for mapping the lateral variability of soil salinity.

Notes: Abstract. The effects of soil management on soil losses from olive plantations in southern Spain were evaluated using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), a review of published experiments, and preliminary results of an on-going field trial. Experimental data were used to parameterize the RUSLE for olive orchards under various soil management regimes. The predictions agreed qualitatively with the data available, and the model provided a simple way to assess the effects of soil management on erosion. Our results showed that no-tillage caused the greatest soil loss, while cover crops showed the least. Tillage and planting following contours proved only partially effective and did not reduce soil erosion as much as protective crops. One scenario studied suggests that, on slight to moderate slopes, land transformed from row crops to olive orchards may remain below the maximum tolerable soil erosion limit, if a cover crop is included between the trees. A scenario for marginal olive orchards located on steep slopes suggests that effective erosion control could only be achieved with a cover crop system that would have the side-effect of reducing the yield of rain-fed olives. Quantifying the effects of soil management on soil erosion in olive orchards is uncertain because very few experimental results are available. Further research that monitors soil loss in carefully selected long-term experiments at different scales and follows the changes in key soil parameters is urgently required to develop effective erosion control policies.

Notes: Abstract. Rainfall simulation experiments on a laboratory soil flume were conducted to test the hypothesis that the incorporation of slurry into the soil would reduce bacterial transport in overland flow. Presumptive faecal coliform (PFCs) concentrations were higher in the runoff from the surface applied treatment than from the incorporated treatments. The transport of PFCs and organic sediment were strongly correlated, with values of r ranging from 0.72 to 0.91.

Notes: Abstract. Land evaluation is the prediction of land performance over time under specific uses, to guide strategic land use decisions. Modern land evaluation has a 30 year history, yet the results have often been disappointing. Land users and planners have been reported to ignore land evaluations, perhaps reflecting poor quality, low relevance, or poor communication. To test the success of a large land evaluation exercise undertaken as part of micro-catchment project in Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, we queried agricultural extensionists, considered as the primary land evaluation clients. We used a questionnaire with both structured and open questions, to determine their experiences with, and attitudes to, the current land evaluation method. The soil resource inventory and associated land evaluation had some usefulness, but were not in general used for their intended purpose, namely farm planning. This was mainly because they did not contain crucial information necessary to such planning in the actual context of the farmer taking decisions. The primary deficiencies were identified as:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1no estimate of environmental degradation risk;2no financial analysis;3no social analysis of decision-makers' attitudes and preferences;4no risk assessment for weather, yields, profits and market; and5insufficiently-specific alternative land uses.These deficiencies could have been avoided with a demand-driven approach, evaluating and reporting according to the true needs and opportunities of the decision-makers.

Notes: Abstract. The residual value of mineral N fertilizer applied in the spring was investigated in a field experiment where four cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley and spring oats) had been grown at reduced (0.7N), normal (1N) or high (1.3N) N fertilizer rates for 20 to 28 years. The effect of previous N fertilizer dressing was tested in two succeeding years by replacing the original N rate with five test N rates ranging from 0 to 240 kg N ha−1 for winter cereals and 0 to 200 kg N ha−1 for spring cereals. In the first test year, winter wheat grown on plots previously supplied with the high rate of mineral fertilizer (202 kg N ha−1 yr−1) yielded more grain and straw and had a higher total N uptake than wheat on plots previously supplied with the normal (174 kg N ha−1 yr−1) or reduced (124 kg N ha−1 yr−1) rate. The grain yield response and N uptake was not significantly affected by the N supply in the test year. The winter wheat grown in the second test year was unaffected by the previous N supply. Grain and straw yield response and total N uptake for spring barley, winter barley and oats, were almost identical irrespective of the previous N rate.After 20 to 28 years there were no significant differences in soil C and N (0 to 20 cm) between soil receiving three rates of N fertilizer. Soil from differently fertilized oat plots showed no significant differences in N mineralizing capacity. Nitrate leaching losses from the soils at the three N rates were estimated and the N balances for the 20 to 28 years experimental period calculated. The data indicated a reduction in overall loss of 189 to 466 kg N ha−1 at the normal and high N rates compared with the reduced N rate. We conclude that the N supplying capacity and soil organic matter content of this fertile sandy loam soil under continuous cereal cropping with straw removal was not significantly affected by differences in N fertilizer residues.

Notes: Abstract. This paper compares nitrate leaching losses from organic farms, which depended on legumes for their nitrogen inputs (66 site years) with those from conventional farms using fertilizers under similar cropping and climatic conditions (188 site years). The conventional farms were within Nitrate Sensitive Areas in England, but sites following special practices associated with that scheme were excluded. Nitrate losses during the organic ley phase (including the winter of ploughing out) were similar (45 kg N ha–1) to those from conventional long-term grass receiving fertilizer N inputs of less than 200 kg N ha–1 (44 kg N ha–1) and from the grass phase of conventional ley-arable rotations (50 kg N ha–1). Losses from conventional grass receiving higher N inputs were greater than from organic or less intensive grass. Nitrate losses following arable crops averaged 47 and 58 kg N ha–1 for the organic and conventional systems respectively, with part of the difference being due to the greater proportion of non-cereal break crops in the latter. Thus under similar cropping, losses from organic systems are similar to or slightly smaller than those from conventional farms following best practice.

Notes: Abstract. In the Sahel, promising technologies for agricultural intensification include millet stover mulching and ridging. A four year on-farm experiment was set-up in order to assess the effect of various combinations of these two technologies on crop development and yield in a millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) - cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) intercropping system. Treatments included bare surface, ridging, a surface applied banded millet stover mulch (2 t ha–1) and a banded millet stover mulch (2 t ha–1) buried in ridges. The latter three treatments were implemented exclusively in the cowpea rows, with an annual rotation between the millet and cowpea rows. On bare and ridged plots, millet yields fell below 100 kg grain ha–1 after the first year. This was ascribed mainly to soil acidification and loss of soil organic matter rather than to soil physical constraints or water availability despite extensive surface crusting and high soil penetration resistance and bulk density. Compared to the bare plots, ridging increased cowpea hay production by 330% over the four years which was attributed to lower soil penetration resistance and bulk density but also to a reduction of 0.15 cmol+ kg–1 exchangeable acidity in the ridges. Except during the severe drought year of 1997, millet grain yield in the banded mulch treatment remained fairly stable over time at 526 ± 9 kg ha–1. However, a detailed analysis revealed yield compensation mechanisms between various yield components depending on the timing of occurrence of the abiotic stresses. Cowpea productivity was always higher in buried banded mulch plots than in surface applied banded mulch plots but the former treatment appeared unable to sustain millet yields. This decline was attributed to a greater nutrient uptake by cowpea and more rapid acidification in the buried mulch treatment compared to the banded mulch treatment.

Notes: Abstract. Nutrient balance calculations have been advocated as indicators of the risk of nitrate loss from agricultural land. To explore this concept, a spatially distributed UK agricultural nitrogen balance was derived using annually updated statistics. The mean UK N surplus for 1995 was 115 kg N ha–1, made up of 51 kg ha–1for arable land, 140 kg ha–1 for agricultural grassland (excluding rough grazing) and an additional 14 kg N ha–1for agricultural land from pig and poultry units. Nitrogen surpluses were greater in lowland grassland (mainly in western, wetter areas) than in arable areas. However nitrate concentrations in rivers were generally greater in arable areas. The relationship between N balance and nitrate leaching was very different for grassland and arable systems, and was also sensitive to climate, level of inputs and management practices. Nitrogen surplus was therefore weakly or even negatively correlated with river nitrate concentrations or loads. A positive correlation was found only where the comparison was restricted to grassland-dominated catchments. Nitrogen surplus calculations identified areas of very high livestock densities, which would be associated with increased risk of pollution. However their use in isolation as indicators of N leaching, or of progress towards mitigation, could be misleading especially if comparing areas differing in land use, climate or soil type.

Notes: Abstract. Dynamic simulation models are increasingly used in environmental and agricultural science. Here we present a method that allows models to be used to determine optimum timing of sampling for field trials. The model is used to decide when to concentrate sampling effort before the field trial begins. The model chosen to design sampling strategy should include an appropriately sensitive description of all processes that influence measurements significantly. The simulation is run, using predicted weather data, to generate the full time series before the trial begins. Every point in the simulation is considered initially to be a potential sampling point. The potential error due to not including a measurement at each point is calculated using the ‘dot-to-dot’ method of b10Smith et al. (2002) by omitting simulated values consecutively. The calculated potential error provides a measure of the priority that should be given to sampling at each point. Where the error introduced by omitting the simulated value exceeds an acceptable error, the value at the last discernible time step should be measured so that all statistically significant changes in the system can be observed. The output from the calculation is a plan of sampling times needed to capture all statistically significant events that are likely to occur over the course of the trial.

Notes: Abstract. In grazed dairy pasture systems, a major source of NO3– leached and N2O emitted is the N returned in the urine from the grazing animal. The objective of this study was to use lysimeters to measure directly the effectiveness of a nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide (DCD), in decreasing NO3– leaching and N2O emissions from urine patches in a grazed dairy pasture under irrigation. The soil was a free-draining Lismore stony silt loam (Udic Haplustept loamy skeletal) and the pasture was a mixture of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens). The use of DCD decreased NO3–-N leaching by 76% for the urine N applied in the autumn, and by 42% for urine N applied in the spring, giving an annual average reduction of 59%. This would reduce the NO3–-N leaching loss in a grazed paddock from 118 to 46 kg N ha–1 yr–1. The NO3–-N concentration in the drainage water would be reduced accordingly from 19.7 to 7.7 mg N L–1, with the latter being below the drinking water guideline of 11.3 mg N L–1. Total N2O emissions following two urine applications were reduced from 46 kg N2O-N ha–1 without DCD to 8.5 kg N2O-N with DCD, representing an 82% reduction. In addition to the environmental benefits, the use of DCD also increased herbage production by more than 30%, from 11 to 15 t ha–1 yr–1. The use of DCD therefore has the potential to make dairy farming more environmentally sustainable by reducing NO3– leaching and N2O emissions.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:Peter Lawrence and Colin Thirtle (eds.), Africa and Asia in Comparative Economic Perspective

Notes: Announcements in this article:International Association for Research in Income and Wealth: Twenty-Eighth General Conference, 2004, Cork, Ireland, 22–28 AugustTravel Grant for the IARIW 28th General Conference in Cork, Ireland 22–28 August, 2004Notice of Availability of Back StockInformation for Contributors

Notes: Abstract. A field experiment was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of a combined treatment, involving addition of Aspergillus niger-treated sugar beet (SB) residue in the presence of rock phosphate and mycorrhizal inoculation of seedlings with Pisolithus tinctorius. The aim was to improve the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of a degraded semiarid Mediterranean soil. Short-term effects of such improvements on the establishment of Cistus albidus L. seedlings were evaluated. Eight months after planting, macronutrients (NPK), total carbohydrates, water-soluble C, water-soluble carbohydrates, microbial biomass C and enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, urease, protease, acid phosphatase and β-glucosidase) measured in the rhizosphere soil of C. albidus were increased greatly by addition of fermented SB residue. Soil structural stability improved only with the fermented SB addition (about 79% higher in the amended soils than in the non-amended soils). The mycorrhizal inoculation was the most effective treatment in improving the growth of C. albidus plants, but only slightly improved soil quality. Growth of inoculated plants was about 33% greater than plants grown in the amended soil and about 131% greater than control plants. The combined benefit of mycorrhizal inoculation of seedlings and addition of fermented SB residue to soil on plant growth was similar to that of the treatments applied individually.

Notes: Abstract. Organic agriculture (OA) aims to identify a production regime that causes less environmental problems than conventional agriculture (CA). We examined whether the two systems differ in their susceptibility to soil erosion by water. To account for the large heterogeneity within the rotations practised on different farms, we chose a statistical evaluation which modelled erosion using the USLE method from the cropping statistics for 2056 districts in Bavaria (70 547 km2; 29.8% arable). Physical conditions of erosion were determined in a rectangular grid yielding 13 125 grid-cells of c. 5 km2 each. For validation, erosion was measured in 10 sub-watersheds on two neighbouring OA and CA farms over 8 years (287 erosive events). On average, about 15% less erosion on arable land was predicted for OA than for CA due to the larger area of leys, although OA occupies areas that are susceptible to erosion more often than CA. The same conclusions could be drawn from the validation data. These data also demonstrated that erosion could be reduced considerably below 1 t ha−1 yr−1 with best management practices under both farming systems. In contrast, at the countrywide scale, cropping did not change adequately with site conditions favouring erosion. The need for erosion control seems not to influence crop rotation decisions on erosion-prone sites.

Notes: Abstract. The effects of various fallow management systems and cropping intensities on water infiltration were measured on an Alfisol at Ibadan in southwestern Nigeria. The objective was to determine the influence of the land use systems (a combination of crop–fallow sequences and intercropping types) on soil hydraulic properties obtained by disc permeameter and double-ring infiltration measurements. The experiment was established in 1989 as a split-plot design with four replications. The main plots were natural fallow, planted Pueraria phaseoloides and planted Leucaena leucocephala. The subplots were 1 year of maize/cassava intercrop followed by 3-year fallow (25% cropping intensity), or 2-year fallow (33% cropping intensity), or 1-year fallow (50% cropping intensity), or no fallow period (100% cropping intensity). Water infiltration rates and sorptivities were measured under saturated and unsaturated flow. Irrespective of land use, infiltration rates at the soil surface (121–324 cm h−1) were greater than those measured at 30 cm depth (55–144 cm h−1). This indicated that fewer large pores were present below 30 cm depth compared with 0–30 cm depth. Despite some temporal variation, sorptivities with the highest mean value of 93.5 cm h−½ increased as the cropping intensity decreased, suggesting a more continuous macropore system under less intensive land use systems. This was most likely due to continuous biopores created by perennial vegetation under long fallow systems. Intercropped maize and cassava yields also increased as cropping intensity decreased. The weak relationship between crop yields and hydraulic conductivity/infiltration rates suggests that the rates were not limiting.

Notes: Abstract. Hierarchical crop growth models can contribute significantly to land quality research because the yield gap between the estimated optimum and the actual crop production has been identified as a major land quality indicator. This study describes a three-level, hierarchical crop production model, simulating radiation-thermal, water-limited and natural production potentials of annual crops. Input requirements have been kept low to ensure its applicability to developing regions, which often have access only to limited data. The simplicity of this model also has disadvantages: inconsistencies have been reported when applying this model in semiarid regions, which are characterized by very irregular rainfall patterns. Revision of the water balance, which simulates the availability of water, was required. The modified model was validated using the experimental yields of maize and sunflower in Guquka, a semiarid region of South Africa. Yields were estimated very well, possible improvements to crop production were identified and implications for land-use planning highlighted. Yield gap analysis revealed that radiation, sunshine and temperature are favourable for crop production, but the heavy dependence on rainfall makes the region very vulnerable to drought, with devastating impact on yields. The generally low chemical soil fertility further reduces crop performance.

Notes: Abstract. A potential technique for reducing overwinter leaching from high N containing crop residues is to immobilize the N released during decomposition by co-incorporating materials of a wider C : N ratio. This article describes the use of laboratory incubation experiments to investigate the effects of a wide range of such amendment materials on the mineralization of N from sugar beet and brassica leaf residues in a sandy loam and a silt loam. These materials were of varying quality, with C : N ratio ranging from 15 : 1 to 520 : 1, and cellulose content from 0 to 34%. Amendments were added at a fixed rate of 3.5 mg C g−1 of dry soil, equivalent to around 10 t ha−1 C (to 20 cm depth). The soils were then incubated at 15°C, and net mineral N derived from the leaves was measured at regular intervals over 168 days. Net mineralization of residue N was greatest with molasses (C : N ratio of 18 : 1), whereas paper waste (C : N ratio of 520 : 1) reduced N mineralized by up to 90% compared with a soil-only control. As the concentration of cellulose and lignin in the amendment materials increased, so the amounts of N mineralized decreased, with 62 and 54% of variance in N mineralized explained by cellulose and lignin content, respectively. Reduced levels of mineral N were associated with higher levels of biomass-N. The levels of N2O-N lost from sugar beet residues on day 14 were significantly reduced from 66 to 5 g ha−1 where compactor (cardboard) waste had been mixed into sandy loam, but this effect was not observed in the silt loam. These techniques could lead to greater efficiency of N use in rotations through reduction in N losses, and provide alternative routes for disposal of wastes when the EC Landfill Directive is implemented.

Notes: Abstract. The Olsen method is an indicator of plant-available phosphorus (P). The effect of time and temperature on residual phosphate in soils was measured using the Olsen method in a pot experiment. Four soils were investigated: two from Pakistan and one each from England (calcareous) and Colombia (acidic). Two levels of residual phosphate were developed in each soil after addition of phosphate by incubation at either 10 °C or 45 °C. The amount of phosphate added was based on the P maximum of each soil, calculated using the Langmuir equation. Ryegrass was used as the test crop. The pooled data for the four soils incubated at 10 °C showed good correlation between Olsen P and dry matter yield or P uptake (r2= 0.85 and 0.77, respectively), whereas at 45 °C, each soil had its own relationship and pooled data did not show correlation of Olsen P with dry matter yield or P uptake. When the data at both temperatures were pooled, Olsen P was a good indicator of yield and uptake for the English soil. For the Pakistani soils, Olsen P after 45 °C treatment was an underestimate relative to the 10 °C data and for the Colombian soil it was an overestimate. The reasons for these differences need to be explored further before high temperature incubation can be used to simulate long-term changes in the field.

Notes: Abstract. Nitrous oxide (N2O) from animal excreta in grazed pasture systems makes up a significant component (c. 10%) of New Zealand's total greenhouse gas inventory. We report an effective method to decrease N2O emissions from animal urine patches by treating the soil with the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD), in a simulated grazed dairy pasture system under spray irrigation. The soil was a free-draining Lismore stony silt loam (Udic Haplustept loamy skeletal) and the pasture was a mixture of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens). By treating the soil with DCD, N2O emissions were decreased by 76% following urine application in the autumn, from 26.7 kg N2O-N ha−1 without DCD to an average of 6.4 kg N2O-N ha−1 with DCD over the 6-month experimental period. N2O flux was decreased by 78% following urine application in the spring, from 18 kg N2O-N ha−1 without DCD to 3.9 kg N2O-N ha−1 with the application of DCD over the 3-month period. A single application of DCD immediately after urine was sufficient to effectively mitigate N2O emissions from the urine. The results showed that repeated applications of DCD after urine application, or mixing DCD with urine, offered no advantage over a single application of DCD immediately after urine deposition.

Notes: Abstract. Pig slurry was applied by open-slot injection to experimental plots on a sandy loam site at ADAS Gleadthorpe, Nottinghamshire. Volume and distribution of over-winter drainage were adjusted through the use of rainfall exclusion covers or irrigation. The resultant slurry N leaching over the range of drainage values tested (up to 300 mm) could be satisfactorily described by curve-fitting, using a quadratic or exponential function. Initial simulations of slurry N leaching using the manure nitrogen decision support system manner (v. 3.0) compared poorly with the experimental data, predicting both earlier and greater amounts of nitrate leaching. However, the lack of fit could be explained by consideration of the likely ammonia emissions following slurry injection, the actual volumetric soil moisture capacity at the experimental site and the likely time delay for the nitrification of slurry N following application. Good agreement between modelled and observed data was achieved when these factors were taken into account. The manner model was used to simulate nitrate leaching beyond the range of drainage treatments tested in the experiments and the anticipated sigmoidal relationship between nitrate leaching and drainage was observed. The model was then used to study the effects of manure application timing and the likely impact on nitrate leaching, across the range of rainfall conditions found in Great Britain. Simulations for a range of manure types were undertaken, with manures applied at rates up to the limit of permitted N loading on freely draining sandy loams. Rainfall inputs for these simulations were based on long-term average climatic data. Results are presented for two contrasting manure types, cattle slurry and poultry manure, both of which are subject to controls in Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs) in Great Britain.

Notes: Abstract. As measures to reduce point source inputs of phosphorus (P) to water have been introduced, the effect of diffuse P has become more evident. Land drains can act as an effective conduit for transfer of sediment and sediment P from agricultural land to surface waters. This article describes the development of a national risk map, identifying areas of agricultural land in England and Wales that are most likely to be prone to such losses. The map is based on data obtained from a variety of sources, including field studies, laboratory-based rainfall simulation experiments and secondary sources. From these studies, eight factors relating to soil HOST class, rainfall, soil moisture deficit, land use and the type and condition of land drains were identified as influential in the process of sediment and sediment P transfer. Each factor was weighted to provide an estimate of risk and the combined total was used to plot a national risk estimate at a resolution of 25 km2. The exercise suggests that large areas of England and Wales may be at risk of subsurface sediment and sediment P transfer from agricultural land to rivers. The scale of the map is insufficient for planning at the farm level, but further work incorporating similar data and principles could make it more applicable to potential end-users on the ground.

Notes: Abstract. Detailed morphological, physical, chemical, mineralogical and micromorphological studies were carried out to identify properties that influence the yield of deep-rooted crops in 29 Vertisols of semiarid central India, since existing land evaluation methods are not adequate to explain the yield of cotton obtained by farmers. The studies indicated that among the soil parameters, CaCO3 in the clay fraction, the exchangeable Ca/Mg ratio, exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (HC) were the yield-influencing factors. The pedogenetic relationships between the semiarid climate, formation of pedogenic calcium carbonate, exchangeable Ca/Mg, ESP and HC have been established. In view of the pedogenetic processes that ultimately impair the drainage of soils, evaluation of Vertisols for deep-rooted crops on the basis of HC alone may help in planning and management of soils, not only in the Indian semiarid tropics, but also in similar climatic areas elsewhere.

Notes: Abstract. Water retention properties of 219 horizons were measured in Cambisols, Luvisols and Fluvisols, mainly from the Paris basin. We derived class pedotransfer functions (class PTFs) based on texture alone and in a second stage class PTFs based on classes combining texture and clod bulk density. The performance of these two types of PTFs were discussed at −330 and −15000 hPa water potential on an independent set of 221 horizons. Results showed that PTFs based on sets grouped by texture and clod bulk density provide estimates with an accuracy that is (i) greater than with class PTFs based on texture alone, and (ii) similar to the estimation accuracy recorded with continuous PTFs. As a consequence, the lack of interest in class PTFs should be reconsidered to bridge the gap between the available basic soil data and hydraulic properties which are generally missing, particularly when pertinent soil characteristics can be derived from the data available in soil databases. The two types of class PTFs providing gravimetric water contents at seven water potentials ranging from −10 to −15 000 hPa were converted to volumetric water content using the soil bulk density. Finally, the parameters of van Genuchten's water retention curve model were computed for every class PTF.

Notes: Abstract. Soils can be used as a biospheric sink for carbon under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol and parties are able to use agricultural soil carbon sinks to contribute towards carbon emission reduction targets. This should be done ‘taking into account uncertainties, transparency in reporting, and verifiability’. Models are often tested against data sets of long-term changes in soil organic carbon (SOC), but most data sets have only mean SOC values available at each sample date, with no estimates of error about the mean. We show that when using data sets that do not include estimates of error about the mean, it is not possible to reduce the error (root mean squared error) between modelled and measured values below 6.8–8.5%, even with site-specific model calibration. Equivalent errors for model runs using regional default input values are 12–34%. Using error as an indicator of the certainty that can be attached to model projections, we show that a significant reduction in uncertainty is needed for Kyoto accounting. Uncertainties for modelling during the first Kyoto Commitment Period could be reduced by better replication of soil measurements at benchmark sites. This would allow model error to be separated from measurement error, which would allow more comprehensive model testing and, ultimately, more certainty to be attached to model predictions.

Notes: Abstract. Artificial urine containing 20.2 g N per patch of 0.2 m2 was applied in May and September to permanent grassland swards of a long-term experiment in the western uplands of Germany (location Rengen/Eifel), which were fertilized with 0, 120, 240, 360 kg N ha−1 yr−1 given as calcium ammonium nitrate. The effect on N2O fluxes measured regularly during a 357-day period with the closed-chamber technique were as follows. (1) N2O emission varied widely among the fertilized control areas without urine, and when a threshold water-filled pore space 〉60% was exceeded, the greater the topsoil nitrate content the greater the flux from the individual urine patches on the fertilized swards. (2) After urine application in May, 1.4–4.2% of the applied urine-N was lost as N2O from the fertilized swards; and after urine application in September, 0.3–0.9% of the applied urine-N was lost. The primary influence on N2O flux from urine patches was the date of simulated grazing, N-fertilization rate being a secondary influence. (3) The large differences in N2O emissions between unfertilized and fertilized swards after May-applied urine contrasted with only small differences after urine applied in September, indicating an interaction between time of urine application and N-fertilizer rate. (4) The estimated annual N2O emissions were in the range 0.6–1.6 kg N2O-N per livestock unit, or 1.4, 3.6, 4.1 and 5.1 kg N2O-N ha−1 from the 0–360 kg ha−1 of fertilizer-N. The study demonstrated that date of grazing and N-fertilizer application could influence the N2O emission from urine patches to such an extent that both factors should be considered in detailed large-scale estimations of N2O fluxes from grazed grassland.

Notes: Abstract. We studied the effects of five diverse non-agricultural organic wastes on soil composition, grass yield and grass nitrogen use in a 3–year field experiment. The applied wastes were distillery pot ale, dairy salt whey, abattoir blood and gut contents, composted green waste (two annual applications each), and paper-mill sludge (one annual application). With the exception of N immobilization in the paper-mill sludge treatment, the wastes had no unfavourable effects on the soil. In the 2–year treatments, grass dry matter yields from the abattoir and distillery wastes (26.3 t ha−1) were larger than those from a NH4NO3 fertilizer treatment (24.3 t ha−1) and from the dairy waste (20.4 t ha−1) and composted waste (22.8 t ha−1). Yield and N recovery were impaired markedly after the single application of paper-mill sludge, both in the year of application and in the following year. The results demonstrated clear differences in the ability of the applied wastes to provide crop-available N. We conclude that in order to improve prediction of both the benefits and risks from waste recycling to land, more information should be gathered on soil/waste/crop interactions.

Notes: Abstract. A laboratory study was conducted to investigate the effects of adding an intermediary byproduct of olive oil extraction (alperujo or solid olive-mill waste, SOMW) on the sorption, degradation and leaching of the herbicide simazine in a sandy loam soil. The effect of SOMW addition on soil porosity was also assessed. The soil was amended in the laboratory with SOMW at two different rates (5% and 10% w/w). Simazine sorption isotherms showed a great increase in herbicide sorption after SOMW addition to soil; sorption increased with the amount of SOMW added. Incubation studies showed extended persistence by reduced biodegradation of simazine in the soil amended with SOMW compared with the unamended soil. Although the addition of SOMW to soil increased the total porosity, breakthrough curves of simazine in handpacked soil columns showed that SOMW addition retarded the vertical movement of the herbicide through the soil and reduced the total amount of herbicide leached. It appeared that the longer residence time of simazine in the amended soil columns (〉20 days) compared with that in the unamended soil column (〈20 days) allowed enhanced degradation and/or irreversible sorption under column leaching conditions. The results revealed important changes in herbicide behaviour upon SOMW addition, confirming the need to assess these changes in order to optimize the combined use of organic wastes and soil-applied pesticides.

Notes: Abstract. Jute geotextiles are widely used to stabilize steep banks and road cuttings. Jute protects bare surfaces until seeded grass becomes established, then after several years, the jute decays. To evaluate two types of jute geotextiles, eight erosion plots were established in July 1994 at the Hilton Experimental Site, Shropshire, UK. On 10 April 1995, the plots were treated as follows:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1jute geotextile net;2jute mat;3perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne); and4bare soil, with duplicates of each treatment.Over one year, sediment yields from jute net and jute mat were 1.1% and 1.2%, respectively, of the yield from the bare control. Although both had similar soil protection qualities, runoff was very different. The runoff from the jute net was 35% and the jute mat 247% of the control. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of jute net for erosion and runoff control, while the jute mat may both conserve soil and ‘harvest’ rain or redirect runoff.

Notes: Abstract. A predictive model of metal concentrations in crops was developed to optimize soil liming and sludge application strategies at a dedicated sewage sludge disposal site. Predictions of metal concentrations in plant tissue were derived from measured values of soil metal concentration, humus content and soil pH. The plant and soil data used to parameterize the model were collected on site using quadrat sampling of mature crop and underlying topsoil. The uptake model was used to map predicted metal concentrations in wheat grain and forage maize based upon a database of soil characteristics (metal content, % humus and pH) measured as part of a routine geochemical survey of the site. The effect of a management strategy to modify uptake of Cd by wheat by changing soil pH was investigated. The effect of soil dust adhering to maize plants at harvest was also simulated to investigate the importance of this pathway for Cd transfer to animal feed such as silage.The model gave satisfactory predictions for uptake of Cd and Zn but less useful simulations for Pb, Cu and Ni. The results for Cd uptake showed a greater dependence on soil pH in the case of wheat in comparison to maize. It is suggested that, for the study site, liming to pH 7.0 will reduce Cd concentrations in wheat grain to within EC legal standards. However the Cd content of maize may still exceed these guidelines, with a relatively minor contribution from contamination with soil dust.

Notes: Abstract. The transfer of suspended sediment (SS) and phosphorus (P) in overland flow from 30 m2 field plots receiving either nil, surface-applied or incorporated manure (slurry) were monitored to determine the vulnerability of land cropped to continuous forage maize to diffuse pollutant transfer in winter runoff. In the absence of slurry, P export was dominated by particulate forms, with up to 1 t SS ha−1 and 0.75 kg total P ha−1 collected from an individual storm event. Background concentrations of P in soluble (〈0.45 μm) form were large (c. 0.5 mg L−1) by eutrophication standards due to the previous build-up of soil P, and largely independent of SS concentrations. Largest P exports (representing up to 23% of the slurry P applied) were measured when dairy slurry (3–13% dry solids) was surface-applied. The P mobilized from the slurry accounted for up to 60% of total plot P export, with the majority occurring in a soluble bioavailable form during the first storm event. Initial P concentrations in runoff were in proportion to the amount of slurry P applied and significantly lower where rainfall was delayed after application. In one year, splitting the slurry application (3 × 10 kg ha−1) reduced total P export by 25% compared to a single surface application (30 kg P ha−1). In two years, incorporation of slurry, either by ploughing, or by tine cultivation, reduced the amount of overland flow by 50%, and the amount of P export by up to 60%, compared to the surface-applied slurry treatments. Timeliness of slurry spreading to avoid periods of wet weather and simple cultivation of maize fields after harvest are practical and effective options to minimize SS and P transfer in land runoff from maize fields. The results also draw attention to the need to grow maize, and apply slurry to fields with a low P loss risk.

Notes: Abstract. This paper describes a study of 37 farms in the Batinah region of Oman where fodder crops and date palms are grown using saline irrigation water. Soil water salinities (εs) range from 2 to 50 dS m–1. Soil water salinity depends on irrigation water quality and management factors such as the amount and frequency of irrigation and the area of the irrigation basin relative to the vegetation canopy. An irrigation management model for soil salinity control IMAGE has been developed, based on the salt balance of the profile assuming that the εs is in equilibrium with the irrigation water. The input parameters required to run the model include the annual water application, irrigation interval, soil textural class, potential evaporation, the ratio of crop canopy to irrigation basin area and the salinity of irrigation water. Verification of the model using rather uncertain data from a survey of the farms showed that this simple approach predicted εs to within 2.5 dS m–1 in 82% of cases. The model showed that εs was highly sensitive to the size of irrigation basin and the amount and scheduling of irrigation, and so provides a tool for optimizing salinity management.

Notes: Abstract. There is increasing evidence that phosphorus (P) can be transferred to surface waters by leaching as well as by erosion and surface runoff. Recently it has been suggested that P soluble in 0.01 m CaCl2 may be a good indicator of the specific Olsen-P concentration (usually termed the ‘Change Point’) at which the rate of P leaching from soil suddenly increases and poses a greater threat of eutrophication to standing waters. We know that these ‘Change Points’ vary from soil to soil but, so far, we do not fully understand the mechanism(s) involved. Here, we combine methods for assessing isotopically exchangeable P and P sequential fractionation to gain an insight into the processes which cause this sudden increase in P solubilization. We suggest that Change-Points simply define the asymtote of rapid desorption isotherms relating to that P which is most readily isotopically exchangeable (i.e at 24 h –33P24) with the soil solution. This involves ligand exchange at hydroxyl sites associated with Fe and Al cations, which is kinetically governed by the concentration of surface complexes on soil minerals. Individual Change-Points reflect the mineralogy and surface chemistry of different soil types. Laboratory and field measurements of the Olsen-P Change-Point reflect these surface phenomena and are similar. Olsen-P extracts the portion of the exchangeable pool that most readily controls solution P, and the Olsen-P/33P24 ratio is linearly related to Olsen-P Change-Points. This may provide a method for estimating P Change-Points where gradients of soil P are not available.

Notes: Abstract. Soil removed on sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.) at harvest may be an important factor in soil degradation causing significant decline in soil productivity. This study evaluated soil losses on sugarbeet and estimated the cost of plant nutrients lost by this process. The losses were calculated using data from the agricultural reports published by the General Directorate of the Turkish Sugar Industry. Organic matter and plant available nutrient contents of soils removed from sugarbeet fields were determined. It was estimated that approximately 30 000 t of soil is lost annually in Erzurum, and 1.2 million t in the whole of Turkey. The cost of N, P and K losses is approximately 60 000 US$ annually for the study area.

Notes: Abstract. Inputs and outputs of sulphur (S) were quantified over a three year period using field lysimeters containing undisturbed 60 cm deep soil monoliths of a sandy loam. There were four treatments, including a control (no S) and three forms of sulphur fertilizers: ammonium sulphate (AS); micronized elemental sulphur (MS0); and bentonite clay and elemental sulphur mixture (BS0). Sulphur was applied at the beginning of the experiment in autumn at 50 kg ha–1. Atmospheric deposition varied between 6.7 and 7.8 kg S ha–1 yr–1. Leaching losses of S ranged from 35 kg ha–1 in the control to 83 kg ha–1 in the AS treatment over three years, with dissolved organic S accounting for 6–10% of the S leached. In the first year, 7, 26 and 72% of the applied S was lost to drainage water in the BS0, MS0 and AS treatments, respectively, and the percentages increased to 33, 75 and 96% by the end of year 3. No significant differences in sulphur uptake by herbage were found in any of the harvests except a significant increase in the BS0 treatment in the second cut of the second year. Over three years, total S outputs exceeded total S inputs in all treatments, with the control and the AS treatments showing a larger S deficit (34–35 kg ha–1) than the MS0 (23 kg ha–1) and BS0 (7 kg ha–1) treatments. The deficits indicate a depletion of soil S, probably through net mineralization of organic S. The results confirm that sulphate was highly mobile and prone to leaching under the experimental conditions, whereas the slow release characteristics of elemental S, particularly BS0, led to smaller leaching losses and larger residual values.

Notes: Nitrate and Man: Toxic, harmless or beneficial? By J. L ‘Hirondel and J-L L ‘Hirondel.

Notes: Abstract. In general, agricultural management has focused on differences between fields or on the gross differences within them. Recent developments in agricultural technology, yield mapping, Global Positioning Systems and variable rate applications, have made it possible to consider managing the considerable variation in soil and other properties within fields. This system is known as precision agriculture. More precise management of fields depends on a better understanding of the factors that affect crop input decisions. This paper examines the spatial variation in crop yield, soil nutrient status and soil pH within two agricultural fields using geostatistics. The observed properties vary considerably within each field. The relation between yield and the measured soil properties appears to be weak in general. However, the range of spatial correlation for yield, shown by the variogram, is similar to that of the soil chemical properties. In addition the latter changed little over two years. This suggests that information on the scale of variation of soil chemical properties can be derived from yield maps, which can also be used as a guide to a suitable sampling interval for soil properties.

Notes: Abstract. This study employed both natural and social sciences to examine the relationship between resources and economic development in the Red Soil Zone along the coast of South China. Based on the data collected by field investigation and laboratory analysis as well as from literature sources, the authors discuss the environmental problems and the main factors influencing them by using the case of Guangdong province. The results indicate that there are three important problems of Red Soil utilization: soil degradation and pollution, soil erosion and geological hazards. The main reasons for these problems involve the physical and chemical characteristics and mineral composition of the soil, climate and meteorological changes and human activities. The latter is currently the dominant factor influencing the change and deterioration of the Red Soils.

Notes: Abstract. The dual porosity soil water and contaminant transport model MACRO was tested for its suitability to represent water flows and leaching of phosphorus (P) through field drains following spreading of slurry. These flows are characterized by very high loadings of P, including a high proportion in colloidally attached form, for about one week following winter spreading of slurry, followed by quite a rapid decline to the low background level. Use was made of the option in MACRO for representing colloid facilitated contaminant transport. The model simulates transport through macropores and soil matrix pores (micropores) of contaminant carrying colloids, as well as trapping of colloids by straining and filtration using an adaptation of standard filtration equations. Calibration involved selecting soil hydraulic parameters, colloid filtration coefficients and P sorption characteristics for two soils from measured and literature values. Both P in solution and P attached to colloids were represented in simulated outputs. Reasonable agreement was found between simulated and measured water and leached P flows. Work with the model suggests that macropore flow through the soil to field drains of colloidally transported P is an important component of water pollution associated with slurry spreading

Notes: Abstract. Rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations and their association with global climate change have led to several major international initiatives to reduce net CO2 emissions, including the promotion of bioenergy crops such as short rotation coppice (SRC) willow. Although the above-ground harvested bio-fuel is likely to be the major contributor to the CO2 mitigation potential of bioenergy crops, additional carbon may be sequestered through crop inputs into plantation soils.  Here, we describe a process-based model specifically designed to evaluate the potential for soil carbon sequestration in SRC willow plantations in the UK. According to the model predictions, we conclude that the potential for soil carbon sequestration in these plantations is comparable to, or even greater than, that of naturally regenerating woodland. Our preliminary, site-specific model output suggests that soil carbon sequestration may constitute about 5% of the overall carbon mitigation benefit arising from SRC plantations. Sensitivity analyses identified the following factors as the principal controls on rates and amounts of soil carbon sequestration under SRC: carbon inputs (net primary production), decomposition rates of the major soil carbon pools, initial soil carbon content (an inverse relationship with rates of soil carbon sequestration), crop/plantation management, and depth of soil being influenced by the bioenergy crop. Our results suggest that carbon sequestration potential is greatest in soils whose carbon content has been depleted to relatively low levels due to agricultural land use practices such as annual deep ploughing of agricultural soils.

Notes: Abstract. Leaching of phosphorus (P) from agricultural land is the major cause of eutrophication of surface waters in Northern Ireland. However, soil testing using the Olsen method has shown that while soil P in some catchment areas of the Province is low, surface waters within these catchments are, nonetheless, every bit as eutrophic as other local catchments where soil P is high. Soil P measurements on over 6000 samples from Northern Ireland soils (A horizon only) have indicated that Olsen-P values of improved grassland on most parent materials are linearly related to animal intensification. Exceptions are soils derived from peat, marl and basalt. For each of the latter soils, the measured Olsen-P was shown to be around 10 mg L–1 lower than expected for farms with similar intensification on other parent materials. In particular, the mean Olsen-P values of samples from basaltic soils under grass with total Fe above 62 g kg–1 and total Mg above 16 g kg–1 were significantly lower than those from basaltic soils with low total Fe (〈37 g kg–1) and total Mg (〈8 g kg–1). As a result of the depressed Olsen-P value, excessive quantities of P may be applied to these soils to maintain a recommended soil P index thereby enhancing the potential for nutrient enrichment of adjacent surface waters. In such cases, coworkers have shown that acid ammonium oxalate may be a better extractant than bicarbonate as an indicator of plant-available P.

Notes: Abstract. To determine the effects of low-input agriculture on soil properties, we compared several forms of arable land management in a rotation experiment lasting 8 years on a Cambisol in Lithuania. Conventional arable cropping with applications of inorganic fertilizers increased the potassium (K) status of the soil, but resulted in losses of nitrogen (N) from the soil by mineralization and leaching. With ley–arable integrated cropping, a similar fertilizer regime based on farmyard manure (FYM) augmented with inorganic fertilizers increased the phosphorus (P), K, organic matter and N in the soil, as well as increasing N loss by leaching. These two high-input regimes were compared to three systems with less or no input. A reference treatment with no input, which produced small crop yields, maintained its nutrient status and organic matter. An organic regime receiving FYM and green manure lost only P, but maintained its K and N status, while a second organic regime in which the FYM was replaced by composted sewage maintained its fertility. The microbial activity varied somewhat from treatment to treatment, with the largest numbers of almost all groups of microorganisms in the reference treatment. All treatments led to decreases in fulvic acid, and the soil managed conventionally lost humic acid, too. The content of humic acid increased in the treatments where FYM was applied and in the reference soil, and the fraction bound to calcium increased in the integrated and the first organic treatments. The soil structures under the integrated cropping and second organic regime were the most stable. Of the low-input systems, the second organic regime seemed the most sustainable.

Notes: Household surveys of the distribution of income and expenditure are discussed in this paper. The potential for non-sampling errors, effecting both the mean and measures of dispersion, is noted. These errors are shown to result in substantial discrepancies between the survey data and national accounts-based estimates of the incidence of poverty and trends in living standards. It is argued that the reconciliation of these discrepancies offers the best way forward for improving both types of data.

Notes: One of the major sources of uncertainty in capital stock estimates stems from the use of the perpetual inventory method (PIM) in all the cases where direct stock information is not available. In the Danish capital stock estimates, it has been possible to dispense with the PIM as far as buildings are concerned. Instead, an administrative register of buildings is used together with a property register and the business register to produce an exhaustive enumeration of practically all buildings in the economy broken down by industry and sector. For the most important type of buildings, namely dwellings, the paper compares direct stock estimates derived by multiplying physical quantities (square meters) by the replacement prices per square meter with those that would result from applying the PIM to historical investment series. Dwellings are by far the most important non-financial assets in most developed economies.

Notes: Abstract. Emissions of N2O were measured after application of NH4NO3 fertilizer and incorporation of winter wheat and rye green manures in two field experiments in southeast England. Incorporation of green manure alone resulted in temporary immobilization of soil N, small N2O emissions and also low availability of N for the following crop. Emissions were increased after application of inorganic fertilizer, and were further increased from integrated management treatments whereby green manure residues were incorporated after fertilizer application. The highest emission was from the incorporated winter wheat green manure plus fertilizer treatment, with 1.5 kg N2O-N ha−1 (0.6% of N applied) being emitted over the first 55 days after incorporation. This high emission was attributed to the supply of C in the residues providing the energy for denitrification in the presence of large amounts of mineral N and the creation of anaerobic microsites during microbial respiration.

Notes: Abstract. Soil compaction has long been considered to be a problem in arable land, primarily because it causes damage to soil structure, which can lead to serious reduction in crop yields. However, few studies have sought to investigate the effects of soil compaction on the water transport regime of modified soil pore systems. We attempted to quantify the effects of soil compaction on the initiation of preferential flow by using dye tracers and image analysis. A laboratory methodology involving rainfall simulation enabled us to quantitatively evaluate differences in the mechanisms of water flow between two soil types at several degrees of compaction. The results suggested significant differences in the types of water flow pathways between clay loams and sandy loams at different extents of compaction. In the sandy loam, it was concluded that a high degree of compaction led to an increased likelihood of preferential flow, whereas a more uniform movement of soil water occurred at less compaction. By contrast, preferential routing of soil water was recorded in the clay loam, except at the highest measured compaction. The results indicate that the visual techniques of dye tracing and image analysis could enable improved understanding of flow pathways of soil water associated with soil compaction.