ALBERT

Notes: The equilibrium thermodynamics of the reaction:And the equilibrium constant is composed of activities formulated using ideal mixing on sites. Consideration is given to the evaluation of uncertainties in pressures calculated using the geobarometer. Preliminary testing suggests that the geobarometer has considerable potential. Much wider testing is now required.

Notes: Abstract. Pink piemontite-spessartine-bearing and grey-green spessartine-bearing manganiferous quartzose schists derived from siliceous pelagites, and green quartzofeldspathic schists, are described from the greenschist facies of the Haast Schist terrane, near Arrow Junction, western Otago. Electron microprobe data are reported for sphene, spessartine-rich garnet, manganoan epidote, piemontite, tourmaline, phengitic muscovite, chlorite, albite, haematite, rutile, manganoan calcite and chalcopyrite.Metamorphism occurred at about 6.4kbar, 400°C. Xco2 was above the quartz-rutile-calcite-sphene buffer (Xco2± 0.02) throughout the recorded metamorphic history of the piemontite schists. It dropped from above to below this critical buffering value in a spessartine-rich schist and it was close to or below the buffering value in the quartzofeldspathic schists. Production of piemontite required high fO2, believed to be inherited from MnOx in the parent pelagite. Substantial loss of O2 (e.g. minimum of 0.19% by weight in one rock) during diagenesis and/or metamorphism is inferred. In the grey-green schists this inhibited piemontite formation. Slight loss of O2 and Ca2+ accompanied minor late-stage replacement of piemontite by second generation spessartine. Observed zoning and mineral replacements indicate rise of temperature, drop in pressure, or invasion by solutions of lower fO2 and XCO2 equilibrated with surrounding schists.The detailed chemistry of the minerals studied correlates with available Mn and with bulk-rock (Fe3+ x 100)/(Fe2++ Fe3+). The oxidation ratio ranges from 24 in average green quartzofeldspathic schist, through 78 in average grey-green manganiferous quartzose schist, to almost 100 in some piemontite-bearing schists. As Fe2+ gives way to Fe3+, Mg/Fe ratios tend to rise in chlorite, phengite, tourmaline, spessartine, and calcite, Mn increases and Ti decreases in haematite, Mn increases in spessartine and calcite, and Fe increases in rutile. Available divalent cations are depleted relative to Al; chlorite is more aluminous, and phengite more paragonitic than in typical Haast schists.

Notes: Field, petrographic and microprobe investigations of metaclastic rocks, calcareous schists, marbles, chloritic calcareous meta-volcanic units and schists/paragneisses which crop out along the eastern portion of the Central East-West Cross Island Highway in Taiwan demonstrate that metamorphic intensity gradually increases eastward. The lower greenschist facies Slate Formation on the W contains completely recrystallized, pure albitic plagioclase, but at least some of the white micas (± chlorites) probably represent relict detrital flakes. Neo-blastic biotite and epidote occur sporadically in the Pihou(?) Formation, and increase dramatically eastward; concomitantly the abundance of carbonaceous matter decreases to zero in the eastern Tailuko zone, and the amount of chlorite + white mica diminishes somewhat. Epidote becomes more aluminous at higher metamorphic grade. Eastward, phengites change progressively to more muscovitic compositions as the proportion of biotite increases.A close approach to chemical equilibrium for the pre-Cenozoic, complexly deformed metamorphic basement assemblages is suggested by regular, systematic, major and minor element partitioning between analysed coexisting phases. Fractionation is less pronounced on the E, reflecting higher temperatures. Estimated physical conditions of recrystallization with αH2O and αCO2 moderate, are: T 〉 325 ± 75°C, P 〉 3 kbar (W); T 〉 425 ± 75°C, P 〉 4kbar(E).The gradual eastward increase in metamorphic intensity from the Slate Formation through the Pihou(?) Formation and the three Tailuko zones, as well as the relict precursor textures in the pre-Cenozoic layered basement rocks indicate that the observed paragenetic sequence could represent a synchronous Neogene recrystallization event, probably accompanying the Plio-Pleistocene collision of the Asiatic continental margin and the Luzon (Coastal Range) andesitic arc.

Notes: The structure, microstructure and petrology of a small area close to the village of Bard in Val d'Aosta (Italy) has been studied in detail. The area lies across the contact between the Gneiss Minuti (GM) and the Eclogitic Micaschist (EMS) Complexes of the Lower element of the Sesia portion of the Sesia-Lanzo Zone (Western Alps). Both complexes have undergone high-pressure metamorphism, but the metamorphic assemblages indicate a sudden increase in pressure in going across the contact from the GM to the EMS. Therefore, we interpret the contact as a thrust dividing the lower element of the Sesia into two sub-elements. This interpretation is supported by structural evidence.The early Alpine (90-70 Ma) metamorphic history is best preserved in the EMS and is one of increasing pressure associated with thrusting. The maximum P/T recorded in the EMS is 〉1500 MPa (〉15kbar) and 550°C and in the GM is 〈 1500-1300 MPa (〈 15-13 kbar) and 500-550°C. We suggest that the rocks were probably in an active Benioff zone during this time.From then on the histories of the GM and EMS are the same. Deformation continued and the thrust and thrust slices were folded during decreasing pressure. We interpret the first postthrusting deformation in terms of uplift associated with continued shortening of the crust and underplating after the Benioff zone had become inactive and a new Benioff zone had developed further to the north-west.A still later deformation and the Lepontine metamorphism (38 Ma) are related to continued uplift. Much of this deformation is characterized by structures indicative of vertical shortening and lateral spreading as the mountains rose above the general level of the surface.

Notes: In the Boi Massif of Western Timor the Mutis Complex, which is equivalent to the Lolotoi Complex of East Timor, is composed of two lithostratigraphical components: various basement schists and gneisses; and the dismembered remnants of an ophiolite. Cordierite-bearing pelitic schists and gneisses carry an early mineral assemblage of biotite + garnet + plagioclase + Al-silicate, but contain no prograde muscovite; sillimanite occurs in a textural mode which suggests that it replaced and pseudomorphed kyanite at an early stage and some specimens of pelitic schist contain tiny kyanite relics in plagioclase. Textural relations between, and mineral chemistries of, ferro-magnesian phases in these pelitic chists and gneisses suggest that two discontinuous reactions and additional continuous compositional changes have been overstepped, possibly with concomitant anatexis, as a result of decrease in Pload during high temperature metamorphism. The simplified reactions are: garnet and/or biotite + sillimanite + quartz + cordierite + hercynite + ilmenite + excess components. P-T conditions during the development of the early mineral assemblage in the pelitic gneisses are estimated to have been P + 10 kbar and T 〉 750°C, based upon the plagioclase-garnet-Al-silicate-quartz geobarometer and the garnet-biotite geothermometer. P-T conditions during the subsequent development of cordierite-bearing mineral assemblages in the pelitic gneisses are estimated to have been P + 5 kbar and T + 700°C with XH2O 〈 0.5, based upon the Fe content of cordierite occurring in the assemblage quartz + plagioclase + sillimanite + biotite + garnet + cordierite coexisting with melt.Final equilibration between some of the phases suggests that conditions dropped to P 〉 2.3 kbar and T 〉 600°C. A similar exhumation P-T path is suggested for the pelitic schists with early metamorphic conditions of P 〉 6.2 kbar and T 〉 745°C and subsequent development of cordierite under conditions in the range P = 3-4 kbar and T = 600-700°C. The tectonic implications of these P-T estimates are discussed and it is concluded that the P-T path followed by these rocks was caused by decompression during rifting and synmetamorphic ophiolite emplacement resulting from processes during the initiation and development of a convergent plate junction located in Southeast Asia during late Jurassic to Cretaceous time.

Notes: Plagioclase compositions vary from An0.1–2.5 to An32 with increasing grade in chlorite zone to oligoclase zone quartzofeldspathic schists, Franz Josef-Fox Glacier area, Southern Alps, New Zealand. This change is interrupted by the peristerite composition gap in rocks transitional between greenschist and amphibolite facies grade. Oligoclase (An20-24) and albite (An0.1–0.5) are found in biotite zone schists below the garnet isograd. With increasing grade, the plagioclase compositions outline the peristerite gap, which is asymmetric and narrows to compositions of An12 and An6 near the top of the garnet zone. In any one sample, oligoclase is the stable mineral in mica-rich layers above the garnet isograd, whereas albite and oligoclase exist in apparent textural equilibrium in adjacent quartz-plagioclase layers. The initial appearance of oligoclase in both layers results from the breakdown of epidote and possibly sphene. Carbonate is restricted to the quartz-plagioclase rich layers and probably accounts for the more sodic composition of oligoclase in these layers. The formation of more Ca-rich albite and more Na-rich oligoclase near the upper limit of the garnet zone coincides with the disappearance of carbonate and closure of the peristerite gap. Garnet appears to have only a localized effect on Ca-enrichment of plagioclase in mica-rich layers within the garnet zone. The Na-content of white mica increases sympathetically with increasing Ca-content of oligoclase and metamorphic grade.Comparison of the peristerite gap in the Franz Josef-Fox Glacier schists and schists of the same bulk composition in the Haast River area, 80 km to the S, indicates that oligoclase appears and epidote disappears at lower temperatures, and that the composition gap between coexisting albite and oligoclase is narrower in the Franz Josef-Fox Glacier area. It is suggested that a higher thermal gradient (38-40°C/km) and variations in Si/Al ordering during growth of the plagioclases between the two areas may account for these differences. In the Alpine schists the peristerite gap exists over a temperature and pressure interval of about 370-515°C and 5.5-7 kbar (550-700 MPa) PH2O.

Notes: The Susunai Complex of southeast Sakhalin represents a subduction-related accretionary complex of pelitic and basic rocks. Two stages of metamorphism are recognized: (1) a local, low-P/T event characterized by Si-poor calcic amphiboles; (2) a regional, high-P/T event characterized by pumpellyite, actinolite, epidote, sodic amphibole, sodic pyroxene, stilpnomelane and aragonite. The major mineral assemblages of the high-P/T Susunai metabasites contain pumpellyite + epidote + actinolite + chlorite, epidote + actinolite + chlorite, epidote + Na-amphibole + Na-pyroxene + chlorite-(-haematite. The Na-amphibole is commonly magnesioriebeckite. The Na-pyroxene is jadeite-poor aegirine to aegirine-augite. Application of empirically and experimentally based thermobarometers suggests peak conditions of T= 250–300C, P= 4.7–6 kbar. Textural relationships in Susunai metabasite samples and a petrogenetic grid calculated for the Fe3+-rich basaltic system suggest that pressure and temperature increased during prograde metamorphism.

Notes: In the Llano Uplift of central Texas (USA), prograde homogenization of garnet growth zoning took place during moderate-to high-pressure dynamothermal metamorphism over a narrow temperature range near the transition from the amphibolite to the granulite facies. This subtle record of early dynamothermal metamorphism survived subsequent static metamorphism at low pressures in the middle-amphibolite facies, despite the destruction of most high-pressure mineral assemblages that originated in the early metamorphic episode. Geographically systematic variations in the degree of homogenization indicate that the uplift as a whole underwent high-pressure metamorphism, in accord with emerging tectonic models for the mid-Proterozoic evolution of the southern margin of the North American continent.

Notes: Successful long-term wetland restoration efforts require consideration of hydrology and currounding land use during the site selection process. This article describes an approach to initial site selection in the San Luis Rey River watershed in southern California that uses watershed-level information on basin topography and land cover to rank the potential suitability of all sites within a watershed for either preservation of restoration. This approach requires the use of a geographic information system (GIS)to map relative wetness and land cover within a watershed. Relative potential wetness values were derived from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 30-m digital elevation models by calculating the flow that would potentially accumulate at all 30-m × 30-m pixels within the watershed. Land cover was derived from a Landsat scene covering the 1500 Km2 study area. We ranked sites (contiguous groups of pixels 〉 1 ha with similar land cover) in terms of their potential for restoration or preservation based on their wetness values (Iow, medium, and high), size, and proximity to existing riparian vegetation. Sites with medium or high wetness values and extant vegetation were identified as potential preservation sites. Agiricultural or barren sites with medium to high wetness were identified as potential restoration sites. Approximately 5500 ha (3.67% of the total watershed) were prioritized for preservation or resloration.

Notes: This historical and conceptual overview of riparian ecosystem restoration discusses how riparian ecosystems have been defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and biotic processes that create and maintain riparian ecosystems of the western USA, identifies the main types of anthropogenic desturbances occurring in these ecosystems, and provides an overview of restoration methods for each disturbance type. We suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of two zones: Zone I occupies the active floodplain and is frequently inundated and Zone II extends from the active floodplain to the valley wall. Successful restoration depends n understanding the physical and biological processes that influence natural riparian ecosystems and the types of disturbance that have degraded riparian areas. Thus we recommend adopting a process-based approach for riparian restoration. Disturbances to riparian ecosystems in the western USA result from streamflow modifications by dams, reservoirs, and diversions; stream channelization; direct modification of the riparian ecosystem; and watershed disturbances. Four topics should be addressed to advance the state of science for restoration of riparian ecosys-tems: (1) interdisciplinary approaches, (2) a unified framework, (3) a better understanding of fundamental riparian ecosystem processes, and (4) restoration po-tential more closely related to disturbance type. Three issues should be considered regarding the cause of the degraded environment: (1) the location of the causative disturbance with respect to the degraded riparian area, (2) whether the disturbance is ongoing or can be elim-inated, and (3) whether or not recovery will occur nat-urally if the disturbance is removed.

Notes: A two-stage system for selecting stream reaches and riparian communities for restoration was applied to the 80-km San Luis Rey River below the Lake Henshaw dam in southern California. In the first satge, data from topographic quadrangles and aerial photographs were analyzed to define and classiy reaches. These analyses concluded that (1) 28 km of the river and adjacent floodplain were suitable for second-stage evaluation of restoration needs and (2) 32 km met criteria for reference conditions at the stream reach scale and should be protected from further impacts. The remaining 20 km of the river and floodplain were considered unsuitable for restoration to reach-scale reference conditions; individual sites may be restored under existing regulatory review. Second-stage field sampling provided data on vegetation and floodplain landforms and substrate from more thatn 3000 plots within the 28 km of river and 1120 ha of floodplain selected for further Study. Classification of floristic samples stratified by landform/substrate class indicated six primary riparian communities on the floodplain, some associated with particular floodplain landform/substrate classes and others ubiquitous. Reference conditions for these communities were interpreted from the data. There were two major departures from reference conditions: tree-dominated communities were less extensive than historic levels and exotic plants had significantly invaded some landforms and communities, displacing natural com-munities. General goals would include restoration of tree communities and removal of exotics, with further consideration of site-specific objectives. The results included estimates of the areas by community type re-quiring restoration. The approach was developed for streams in the semi-arid western United States, but it may be adapted for use elsewhere.

Notes: This study compares the results of Olson and Harris (1997) and Russell et al. (1997) in their work to prioritize sites for riparian restoration in the San Luis Rey River watershed. Olson and Harris defined reaches of the mainstem and evaluated the relative potential for restoration and protection based on cover of natural vegetation, land use, and connectivity. Then they used data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and community structure to prescribe strategies for restoration. Russell et al. used a modeling approach within a geographic information system to combine data on wetness and land use/land cover to identify areas with potential for protection and restoration. They prioritized the areas based on patch size and proximity to extant riparian habitat. The main-stem and associated floodplain defined by Olson and Harris was more than twice the size of the area defined by Russell et al., because Olson and Harris considered the entire valley floor, whereas Russell et al. used a wetness index to identify saturated zones within the floodplain. For seven of the twelve management units delineated along the mainstem, the two studies agreed on a strategy of restoration or protection. They differed on two. No comparison could be made of the three units for which Olson and Harris used project review, a unique category. Agreement of the results is due to the similarity of criteria used to identify and rank sites for protection and restoration; disagreement is due primarily to the level of resolution of the data. Both approaches have potential for use in watershed-level planning. The predictive power of the two approaches may be maximized when they are used in a complementary fashion.

Notes: We present a conceptual model for identifying restoration sites for riparian wetlands and discuss its application to reaches within the Upper Arkansas River basin in Colorado. The model utilizes a Geographic Information System (GIS) to analyze a variety of spatial data useful in characterizing geomorphology, hydrology, and vegetation of riparian wetland sites. The model focuses on three basic properties of riparian wetland sites: relative soil moisture, disturbance regime, and vegetative characteristics. A relative wetness index is used to define nominal soil moisture classes within the watershed. These classes generally coincide with uplands (low), channel margins (moderate), and channels or open water (high). Vegetative conditions are characterized using color infrared aerial photographs. Land cover types are grouped into five major land cover classes: riparian, moist herbaceous, bare ground, upland, and open water. Disturbance regime is characterized by a reach-based index of specific power (ω). Preliminary results indicate that reaches within the Upper Arkansas River basin can be classified as high energy (ω≥ 8 W/m2) or low energy (ω≤ 3W/m2), using discharge estimates that reflect the 10-year flood event. Field surveys of channel and floodplain conditions show that high-energy reaches (ω≥ 8 W/m2) are characterized by sites where the channel occupies a large proportion of the valley bottom. By contrast, low-energy reaches (ω≤ 3 W/m2) are characterized by meandering channels with wide alluvial valleys. Restoration potential is evaluated as a combination of nominal scores from wetness, land cover, and disturbance indices. Application of these methods to field sites within the Upper Arkansas River basin identifies a wide range of riparian wetland sites for preservation or restoration. Potential sites within identified reaches are prioritized using size and proximity criteria.

Notes: A major goal of population biologists involved in restoration work is to restore populations to a level that will allow them to persist over the long term within a dynamic landscape and include the ability to undergo adaptive evolutionary change. We discuss five research areas of particular importance to restoration biology that offer potentially unique opportunities to couple basic research with the practical needs of restorationists. The five research areas are: (1) the influence of numbers of individuals and genetic variation in the initial population on population colonization, establishment, growth, and evolutionary potential; (2) the role of local adaptation and life history traits in the success of restored populations; (3) the influence of the spatial arrangement of landscape elements on metapopulation dynamics and population processes such as migration; (4) the effects of genetic drift, gene flow, and selection on population persistence within an often accelerated, successional time frame; and (5) the influence of interspecific interactions on population dynamics and community development. We also provide a sample of practical problems faced by practitioners, each of which encompasses one or more of the research areas discussed, and that may be solved by addressing fundamental research questions.

Notes: Sapphirine occurs in a 3-5 m wide zone between amphibole-lherzolite and garnetiferous metagabbro at Finero in the Ivrea Zone, NW Italian Alps. Layers consisting of plag + hb + sa + cpx + opx + sp + gt are interbanded with spinel pyroxenites, which may contain sapphirine replacing spinel. All minerals are very magnesian, with XMg between 0.78 and 0.92. Bulk rock analyses suggest that precursors to the sapphirine-bearing rocks were igneous cumulates of plagioclase + olivine + hornblende + spinel. Up to 16wt% CaO does not inhibit sapphirine formation and it is the unusually Mg-rich nature of the host rocks which allows sapphirine development. The early igneous assemblage was replaced by one of cpx + sa + hb +± plag at a pressure of 9 ± 1 kbar and temperatures of 900 ± 50°C. Subsequent rapid uplift caused the instability of gt, gt + hb, hb and sa + cpx to form opx + plag ± sp ± sa symplectites.

Notes: The Gran Paradiso basement complex of the French and Italian Alps is composed of metasediments, termed the gneiss minuti, and metabasic rocks, both of which are intruded by a late Hercynian granite. The Bonneval gneiss, which crops out at the western edge of the complex, is composed of highly deformed metasediments, volcanics and volcaniclastic rocks. Eclogites, now highly altered, occur in the metabasic rocks. Kyanite and blue-green amphibole are locally present in the gneiss minuti and aegirine plus riebeckite occur in the Bonneval gneiss. A moderately high pressure - low temperature metamorphic event of probable Alpine age occurred in the basement complex. This metamorphic event differs from that in the overlying Sesia unit and ophiolites of the Schistes lustrés nappe in being at lower pressures (below the ab = jd100+ qz transition) and post-dating the major (D2A) deformation. The origin of the metamorphism is discussed and interpreted as a probable consequence of the overlying nappe pile which was emplaced during the D2A event. Subsequent greenschist facies metamorphism in the basement complex is a consequence of thermal relaxation during uplift.

Notes: Abstract. A method for the quantitative analysis of the spatial relations of minerals is described. Dispersed distributions are formed by annealing and destroyed in post-tectonic migmatization. Aggregate distributions characterize solid-state differentiation, whereas leucosomes formed in systems of high fluid:rock ratio (in the examples studied, anatectic melts) show random distributions.Quantitative textural analysis can be used to indicate whether migmatization was post-tectonic or earlier, though caution is necessary if post-migmatite cooling is slow or if there is some minor deformation. More importantly, it can be used to discriminate melt-present from melt-absent leucosomes; this is exemplified by a suite of metamorphic and anatectic migmatites from the Scottish Caledonides.The textural evolution of anatexites with increasing melt percentage is traced. Initial feldspar porphyroblastesis occurs by Ostwald ripening via grain boundary melts; subsequently ophthalmites develop with fabrics and chemistry inherited from the palaeosome. At greater than 30% melt these inherited fabrics are wholly destroyed. Deformation prompts segregation into melanosome and leucosome; resultant leucosomes contain no inherited crystals. The scale of anatectic systems is fixed at the point at which segregation begins; ophthalmites provide evidence for melt and crystal transfer beyond original palaeosome boundaries. In contrast, metamorphic migmatites are necessarily small-scale systems because of diffusive constraints, and melanosomes are invariably produced.

Notes: The oligoclase-biotite zone of the Bessi area, central Shikoku is characterized by sodic plagioclase (XCa= 0.10–0.28)-bearing assemblages in pelitic schists, and represents the highest-grade zone of the Sanbagawa metamorphic terrain. Mineral assemblages in pelitic schists of this zone, all with quartz, sodic plagioclase, muscovite and clinozoisite (or zoisite), are garnet + biotite + chlorite + paragonite, garnet + biotite + hornblende + chlorite, and partial assemblages of these two types. Correlations between mineral compositions, mineral assemblages and mineral stability data assuming PH2O = Psolid suggests that metamorphic conditions of this zone are about 610 ± 25°C and 10 ± 1 kbar.Based upon a comparative study of mineralogy and chemistry of pelitic schists in the oligoclase-biotite zone of the Sanbagawa terrain with those in the New Caledonia omphacite zone as an example of a typical high-pressure type of metamorphic belt and with those in a generalized‘upper staurolite zone’as an example of a medium-pressure type of metamorphic belt, progressive assemblages within these three zones can be related by reactions such as:

Notes: An assemblage consisting of corundum, sapphirine, spinel, cordierite, garnet, biotite and bronzite is described from the Messina area of the Limpopo Mobile Belt, and consideration given to its petrogenesis. Various geothermometers and geobarometers have been applied in an attempt to determine the temperatures and pressures of metamorphism.A former coexistence of garnet and corundum is suggested to have developed during the earliest high pressure phase of the metamorphism, where temperatures exceeded 800°C and pressures as high as 10kbar may have been experienced. Subsequently, continuous retrograding reactions from medium pressure granulite facies at about 800°C and 8kbar towards amphibolite facies generated spinel, cordierite, sapphirine and possibly also bronzite. The most notable reaction was probably of the form: garnet + corundum = cordierite + sapphirine + spinel.

Notes: A review of currently available information relevant to the Basal Gneiss Complex (BGC) of Western South Norway, combined with the authors’own observations, leads to the following conclusions.1. Most of the BGC consists of Proterozoic crystalline rocks and probably subordinate Lower Palaeozoic cover.2. The last major deformation of these rocks was during the Caledonian orogeny and involved large-scale thrusting, recumbent folding and doming. The structural development of the BGC is closely tied in with that of the Caledonian allochthon.3. The whole eclogite-bearing part of the BGC has suffered a high pressure metamorphism with conditions of between 550°C, 12.5 kbar (Sunnfjord) and about 750°C, 20 kbar (Møre og Romsdal) at the metamorphic climax.4. This metamorphism was of Caledonian age, probably rather early in the Caledonian tectonic history of the BGC and is considered to have been a rather transient event.By setting these conclusions in a framework provided by geophysical evidence for the deep structure of the crust in southern Norway we have constructed a geotectonic model to explain the recorded metamorphic history of the BGC. It is suggested that considerable crustal thickening was caused by imbrication of the Baltic plate margin during continental collision with the Greenland plate. This resulted in high pressure metamorphism in the resulting nappe stack. Progradation of the suture caused underthrusting of the Baltic foreland below the eclogite-bearing terrain causing it to emerge at the Earth's surface, aided by tectonic stripping and erosion.Application of isostacy equations to the model shows that eclogites can be formed by in-situ metamorphism in crustal rocks and reappear at the land surface above a normal thickness of crust in a single orogenic episode of approximately 65-70 Ma duration.

Notes: Detailed geochronological, structural and petrological studies reveal that the geological evolution of the Field Islands area, East Antarctica, was substantially similar to that of the adjacent Archaean Napier Complex, though with notable differences in late and post Archaean times. These differences reflect the area's proximity to the Proterozoic Rayner Complex and consequent vulnerability to tectonic process involved in the formation of the latter. Distinctive structural features of the Field Islands are (1) consistent development of a discordant, pervasive S3 axial-plane foliation; (2) re-orientation of S3 axial planes to approximate to the subsequent E-W tectonic trend of the nearby Rayner Complex; (3) selective retrogression by a post-D3 static thermal overprint; and (4) relatively common development of retrogressive, E-W-trending, mylonitic shear zones.Peak metamorphic conditions in excess of 800°C at 900 ± 100 M Pa (9 kbar) were attained at one locality following, but probably close to the time of D2 folding. D3 took place in late Archaean times when metamorphic temperatures were about 650°C and pressures were about 600 MPa (6 kbar). Later, temperatures of 600 ± 50°C and pressures of 700 MPa (7kbar) were attained in an amphibolite-facies event, presumably associated with the widespread granulite to amphibolite-facies metamorphism and intense deformation involved in the formation of the Rayner Complex at about 1100 Ma. The area was subsequently subjected to near-isothermal uplift.Rb-Sr isotopic data indicate that the pervasive D3 fabric developed at about 2400–2500 Ma, and this age can be further refined to 2456+8-5 Ma by concordant zircon analyses from a syn-D3 pegmatite. All zircons were affected by only minor (〈7–10%) Pb loss and/or new zircon growth during the Rayner event at about 1100Ma. Thus the 450–850 μg/gU concentrations of these zircons were too low to cause sufficient lattice damage over the 1350 Ma (from 2450 Ma) for excessive Pb to be lost during the 1100 Ma event. The emplacement of pegmatite at 522 ± 10 Ma substantially changed the Rb-Sr systematics of the only analysed rock that developed a penetrative fabric during the 1100 Ma event. Monazite in this pegmatite contains an inherited Pb component, which probably resides in small opaque inclusions.A good correlation is found between Rb-Sr total-rock ages and rock fabric. U-Pb zircon intercepts with concordia also mostly correspond to known events. However, in one example a near perfect alignment of zircon analyses, probably developed by mixing of unrelated components, produced concordia intercepts that appear to have no direct geochronological significance.

Notes: Cool smoke treatments were applied to unmined Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) forest soils, rehabilitated bauxite mine soils, and broadcast seed to determine if enhancement in germination could be effected with a view toward maximizng the establishment of species in bauxite mines in Western Australia.Forest sites showed a 48-fold increase in total germinants from the soil seed bank when treated with aerosol smoke. Newly returned bauxite mine soils showed a greater than threefold increase in total germinants after the same treatment. There were also significant increases in the number of species germinating in response to the aerosol smoke treatment in both the forest and the mined soils. Similarly, application of smoked water to the soil seed bank in previously mined sites elicited a significant positive germination response, increasing total germinants and species numbers by 56 and 33%, respectively.Treatment of mixed seed lots with aerosol smoke before broadcast resulted in highly significant improvement in germination when compared to untreated seed. Both total number of germinants, and number of species emerging from mined sites were positively influenced (85% and 34% increases, respectively).Ten target species were used to determine the relative effectiveness of different methods of smoke treatment on the germination of broadcast seed. Nine of the species involved displayed a promotive effect with at least two of the treatments. Generally, however, aerosol smoking of seed before broadcast proved to be the more effective approach. As a result of these findings, all broadcast seed for use in Alcoa's bauxite mined areas in the southwest of Western Australia is now routinely smoke treated before application.

Notes: Understanding Cladium jamaicense (sawgrass) seedling establishment is an important component of an Everglades restoration program because the degree of sawgrass recovery and concurrent Typha domingensis (cattail) decline will be used to evaluate restoration success. To understand sawgrass recovery at locations with increased soil nutrients, we tested the effects of transplanting sawgrass seedlings to pots at different densities and investigated how nutrient additions affect seedling growth. Survivorship of seedlings transplanted into moist commercial potting soil at three densities ranged from 61% to 95%. After 6 months, maximum survivorship (90%) occurred at medium densities (2–4 seedlings per pot 16 cm in diameter). Nutrient additions, totaling 6.5 N g/m2, 9.8 P g/m2, 6.5 g/m2, were applied approximately 4 months after seedlings were transplanted. The biomass of the plants receiving nutrient additions (pulsed) was significantly higher (by over 30%) than plants with no nutrient addition (control). Photosynthetic rates for nutrient-enriched plants (measured 6-weeks after the nutrient additions) were significantly greater (by 32–45%) than for control plants. Instantaneous leaf water use efficiency increased significantly (by more than 20%) in pulsed plants. The results suggest that preventing root damage is crucial for the success of trans planted sawgrass seedlings and that nutrient additions enhanced seedling growth.

Notes: I evaluated responses by 16 native woody species to differential soil compaction and density of ground cover. The trees and shrubs studied represent sites in southern Illinois that commonly have restrictions to root growth from soil or drainage conditions. The study site was a restored surface coal mine in southern Illinois with a rooting medium compacted by grading and a dense ground cover of pasture species. Soil compaction was alleviated in half the study area before tree planting by mechanically ripping the soil to a depth of 1.2 m. Roots of half the trees and shrubs were dipped in a Terra® slurry before planting, and the ground cover around all planting spots was afterwards sprayed with herbicide. In year 2 after planting the ground cover in half of the unripped and half of the ripped area was further controlled by repeated application of herbicides. Ripping significantly increased height growth of all trees combined and all species individually in each year of the study. Second-year control of ground cover increased height growth of all trees combined and of seven species individually. Some species were damaged by herbicides. Terra® had little evident effect on species performance. Animal damage reduced early survival and growth, especially of Acer (maple) and Cornus (dogwood) species, and later growth of Quercus rubra (red oak). Removal of ground cover with herbicides tended to increase deer browse. Soil ripping, herbicide application, and choosing tree species unattractive to deer can be recommended to increase success in planting trees for forest restoration.

Notes: Woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. in temperate southeastern and southwestern Australia have been extensively cleared for agriculture and are often badly degraded by livestock grazing. This has resulted in the loss of biodiversity and widespread land degradation. The continuing decline of these woodlands has become a concern for the conservation of biodiversity, and there is a growing interest among farmers, land managers, and researchers in developing techniques for restoring them. Currently few scientific guidelines exist for undertaking woodland restoration programs. We use a state and transition model to develop hypotheses on restoration strategies for salmon gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) woodlands. We consider that this approach provides a suitable framework for organizing knowledge and identifying areas where further information is needed, and hence provides a useful starting point for a restoration program. The model has the potential to provide a tool for land managers with which they can assess the action and effort needed to undertake woodland restoration in agricultural landscapes.

Notes: Most of the world's forest has been cleared, cultivated, and then often abandoned. In many instances these areas have changed to successionally arrested grasslands, shrublands, or fernlands maintained by frequent fires and high herbivore populations. Many studies have shown that various herbaceous, nitrogen-fixing legumes can protect soil surfaces, retain soil moisture, improve soil fertility, and retard ground fires. Our objective was to ascertain if some of these species can potentially inhibit herbivory and satisfactorily establish in these arrested grassland areas to serve as sites for reforestation. We evaluated the potential for four species of nitrogen-fixing legumes (Calapogonium mucunoides, Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium ovalifolium, and Pueraria phaseoloides) to establish on exposed soil within successionally arrested grasslands of Panicum maximum and Cymbopogon nardus in the central hills of Sri Lanka. Four different sites within rectangular grassland areas were cleared of graminoids and sown with seed of each legume. Half of each clearing was protected from browsing rabbits and porcupines, and half was not protected. After 6 months, certain plots were destructively sampled to determine dry biomass gain for each species and treatment. Analyses of variance were performed to test for differences among sites, treatments, and species. All three factors revealed differences, indicating that species must be matched to site. On sites with high amounts of herbivory, D. ovalifolium had the greatest dry biomass gain after 6 months of growth, possibly because of its relatively low nitrogen and moisture content. Where herbivory was absent, P. phaseoloides and C. muconoides had the greatest dry biomass gain. Dry biomass gain of all four legume ground covers was low on sites with lowest pH and nutrient concentrations. Under conditions of low relative fertility and low pH, establishment of the tested legumes failed. Though soil moisture availability was not measured, we speculate that these low fertility sites were also prone to drought. Findings support the site-specific establishment of legume species for purposes of reforestation and watershed protection in central Sri Lanka. This work is applicable to other regions particularly dominated by successionally arrested grasslands with similar circumstances in other parts of south and southeast Asia.

Notes: Oyster cultch was added to the lower intertidal fringe of three created Spartina alterniflora marshes to examine its value in protecting the marsh from erosion. Twelve 5-m-wide plots were established at each site, with six randomly selected plots unaltered (non-cultched) and cultch added to the remaining (cultched) plots. Within each cultched plot, cultch was placed along the low tide fringe of the marsh during July 1992, in a band 1.5 m wide by 0.25 m deep. Marsh-edge vegetation stability and sediment erosion were measured for each plot from September 1992 to April 1994. Significant differences (p 〈 0.05) in marsh-edge vegetation change were detected at the only south-facing site after a major southwester storm. Significantly different rates of sediment erosion and accretion also were observed at this same site. Areas upland of the marsh edge in the cultched areas showed an average accretion of 6.3 cm, while noncultched treatment areas showed an average loss of 3.2 cm. A second site, with a northern orientation, also experienced differential sediment accretion and erosion between treatment type, caused instead by boat wakes that were magnified by the abutment of a dredge effluent pipe across the entire front fringe of the site. During this period we observed significant differences in sediment accumulation, with the areas upland of the marsh edge in the cultched treatment having an average accretion of 2.9 cm and the noncultched an average loss of 1.3 cm.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: The Significance and Regulation of Soil Biodiversity. Harold P. Collins, G. Philip Robertson, and Michael J. Klug, editors

Notes: An occurrence of quartz-eclogite is described from the Inner Schieferhülle unit of the Pennine Basement Complex in the SE Tauern Window, Austria.Field relations strongly suggest a pre-Alpine age for the primary eclogitic mineral assemblage (garnet + omphacite + quartz + rutile). This implies that there was no connection between the formation of these eclogites and the late Cretaceous and Tertiary tectonic evolution of the Eastern Alps. The quartz-eclogite mineral assemblage crystallized under conditions of 620 ± 100°C and at pressures in excess of 12 kbar, and suffered amphibolitic overprinting of Alpine and possibly Hercynian age.A four-stage polymetamorphic history is proposed for the Inner Schieferhülle:

Notes: Mafic and ultramafic xenoliths in a basaltic cone at The Anakies in south-eastern Australia are geochemically equivalent to continental basaltic magmas and cumulates. The xenolith microstructures range from recognizably meta-igneous for intrusive rocks to granoblastic for garnet pyroxenites. Contact relationships between different rock types within some xenoliths suggest a complex petrogenesis of multiple intrusive, metamorphic and metasomatic events at the crust/mantle boundary during the evolution of south-eastern Australia. Unaltered spinel lher-zolite, typical of the uppermost eastern Australian mantle, is interleaved with or veined by the metamorphosed intrusive rocks of basaltic composition.Geothermobarometry calculations by a variety of methods show a concordance of equilibration temperatures ranging from 880°C to 980°C and pressures of 12 to 18 kbar (1200-1800 mPa). These physical conditions span the gabbro to granulite to eclogite transition boundaries. The water-vapour pressure during equilibration is estimated to be about 0.5% of the load pressure, using amphibole breakdown data. Large fluid inclusions of pure CO2 are abundant in the mineral phases in the xenoliths, and it is suggested that flux of CO2 from the mantle has been an important heat source and fluid medium during metamorphism of the mafic and ultramafic protoliths at the lower crust/upper mantle boundary.The calculated pressures and temperatures suggest that the south-eastern Australian crust has sustained a high geothermal gradient. In addition, the nature of the mineral assemblages and the contact relationships of granulitic rock with spinel lherzolite, characteristic of mantle material, suggest that the Moho is not a discrete feature in this region, but is represented by a transition zone approximately 20 km thick. These inferences are in agreement with geophysical data (including seismic, heat-flow and electrical resistivity data) determined for south-eastern Australia.Underplating at the crust/mantle boundary by continental basaltic magmas may be an important alternative or additional mechanism to the conventional andesite model for crustal accretion.

Notes: Chemical disequilibrium exists between all phases of the Alpe Arami garnet-peridotite body (Ticino, Switzerland) which hampers the evaluation of P-T conditions of origin, yet disequilibrium offers the inherent possibility to derive a P-T-t path for this mantle slice. We tried to tackle this problem by carrying out new mineral analyses and taking diffusion rates and bulk-rock compositional effects into consideration. Peak metamorphic conditions from mineral core compositions were estimated as 112050C/50.2 GPa. These values are significantly higher than previously published results and were determined from a combination of the O'Neill & Wood (1979) Fe/Mg garnet-olivine exchange thermometer and the Al-in-orthopyroxene barometer (Brey & Köhler, 1990), and are supported by the Ca/Cr ratios in garnet, which are in accord with these conditions. Details of the exhumation path were derived from (1) rim compositions of minerals that yield a first retrograde stage of 720 50C/2 0.25 GPa (2) a spinel lherzolite assemblage in narrow shear zones (tectonic phase F0″, after Möckel, 1969) which documents a second retrograde stage at 500–600C/0.8-l.5 GPa. The Ca content in olivine (Köhler & Brey, 1989) can be used to evaluate further P-T conditions along the retrograde path. We measured very low values (30–40 ppm Ca) in the cores of olivine and a remarkable increase towards the rim (120 ppm). The low core values may reflect an equilibrium stage during the main Alpine metamorphism. The increasing values towards the olivine rims probably represent a late-stage heating event. The initial cooling rates for the peridotite body are between 2700 and 5100C Ma-1, depending on which diffusion data are used.

Notes: Declines in native plant and animal communities have prompted new interest in the restoration of aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Past restoration activities typically have been site specific, with little thought to processes operating at larger scales. A watershed analysis process developed in the Pacific northwest identifies four operating scales useful in developing restoration priorities: region, basin, water-shed, and specific site. Wtershed analysis provides a template for restoration practitioners to use in prioritizing restoration activities. The template identifies seven key steps necessary to understand and develop restoration priorities: (1) characterization, (2) identification of key issues and questions, (3) documentation of current conditions, (4) description of reference conditions, (5) identification of objectives, (6) summary of conditions and determination of causes, and (7) recommendations. When a similar process was used in the Uinta Mountains, Utah, and in the Sluslaw National Forest, Orgon, specialists were able to identify key habitat conditions and habitat forming processes and then to establish restoration priorities and implement the appropriate activities. Watershed analysis provides a valuable set of tools for identifying restoration activities and is currently being used throughout the Pacific Northwest to develop management strategies and restoration priorities. Although the analysis requires significant time, money, and personnel, experience suggests that watershed analysis provides valuable direction for managing aquatic and riparian resources.

Notes: Landscape ecology focuses on questions typically addressed over broad spatial scales. A landscape approach embraces spatial heterogeneity, consisting of a number of ecosystems and/or landscape structures of different types, as a central theme. Such studies may aid restoration efforts in a variety of ways, including (1) provision of better guidance for selecting reference sites and establishing project goals and (2) suggestions for appropriate spatial configurations of restored elements to facilitate recruitment of flora/fauna. Likewise, restoration efforts may assist landscape–level studies, given that restored habitats, possessing various patch arrangements or being established among landscapes of varying diversity and conditions of human alteration, can provide extraordinary opportunities for experimentation over a large spatial scale. Restoration studies can facilitate the rate of information gathering for expected changes in natural landscapes for which introduction of landscape elements may be relatively slow. Moreover, data collected from restoration studies can assist in validation of dynamic models of current interest in landscape ecology. We suggest that restoration and landscape ecology have an unexplored mutualistic relationship that could enhance research and application of both disciplines.

Notes: Restoration ecologists use reference information to define restoration goals, determine the restoration potential of sites, and evaluate the success of restoration efforts. Basic to the selection and use of reference information is the need to understand temporal and spatial variation in nature. This is a challenging task: variation is likely to be scale dependent; ecosystems vary in complex ways at several spatial and temporal scales; and there is an important interaction between spatial and temporal variation. The two most common forms of reference information are historical data from the site to be restored and contemporary data from reference sites (sites chosen as good analogs of the site to be restored). Among the problems of historical data are unmeasured factors that confound the interpretation of historical changes observed. Among the problems of individual reference sites is the difficulty of finding or proving a close match in all relevant ecological dimensions. Approximating and understanding ecological variation will require multiple sources of information. Restoration, by its inherently experimental nature, can further the understanding of the distribution, causes, and functions of nature's variation.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Water Quality: Management of a Natural Resource James Perry and Elizabeth Vanderklein

Notes: The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation created a shallow, 110-m channel to provide habitat for two endangered fishes, Cyprinodon elegans (Comanche Springs pupfish) and Gambusia nobilis (Pecos gambusia), at the site of the fishes' former natural habitat. The ciénega (marsh) associated with Phantom Lake Spring in Jeff Davis County, Texas, was destroyed by the creation of an irrigation canal system. In 1993, the endangered fishes were stocked into the refuge with individuals from the irrigation canals, and in the case of C. elegans, hatchery stocks. The condition of habitat, status of fish populations, and fish ecology within the refuge were then monitored for two years. The abundance and density of both species increased in accordance with aquatic plant development. Cyprinodon elegans abundance peaked after one year and stabilized at an average density of 14.7/m2 by the end of our study. Juvenile C. elegans were always rare, which may indicate that the population reached the refuge's carrying capacity and that recruitment is low. Gambusia nobilis was the most abundant fish in the refuge (average density 96/m2), used the entire refuge, and outcom-peted nonindigenous G. geiseri. The two Gambusia species used similar habitats but showed almost no dietary overlap. High densities of aquatic plants reduced the amount of open water areas necessary for C. elegans. The refuge will sustain the two endangered fishes at this historic site of endemism while maintaining flow to the irrigation system; however, the refuge is not equivalent to a restored ciénega.

Notes: No guidelines are currently available that advise which soil properties of arable land can be used to suggest suitable locations for heathland reconstruction. This paper reviews studies comparing soil properties of heathland or semi-natural grassland with those of adjacent arable fields, investigations in the autecology of the dominant heathland plant, Calluna vulgaris (common heather), and long-term experiments of fertilizer inputs on arable soils. Three properties must be assessed before the suitability of a field can be determined: extractable phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and pH. A number of other nutrients may also be important, but evidence is currently insufficient to substantiate this. Natural changes in levels of extractable phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and pH appear to be very slow, so nutrient stripping and acidification will be necessary where recommended levels are exceeded to successfully restore heathland vegetation.

Notes: Ants are widely used as bioindicators in Australian land assessment and monitoring programs, particularly in relation to ecosystem restoration following mining. Little is known, however, about the relationship between ant community development and key ecological processes such as nutrient cycling. We have examined the relationship between ant species richness and soil microbial biomass at 17 sites subject to disturbance by mining in the Kakadu region of Australia's Northern Territory. The number of ant species recorded ranged from 7 at an unvegetated site undergoing restoration to 43 at a site that was undisturbed except for edge effects. Soil microbial biomass ranged from 19.3 to 134.3 μgC/g. Ant species richness was positively correlated with soil microbial biomass (r= 0.638), more so than was plant species richness (r= 0.342 for total plant species, r= 0.499 for woody species only). Our findings demonstrate a correlation between aboveground ant activity and belowground decomposition processes at disturbed sites, thereby providing support for the use of ants as indicators of restoration success following disturbance. Interestingly, when a range of undisturbed sites in the region was considered, a negative rather than positive relationship between ant richness and soil microbial biomass was found. This illustrates the importance of distinguishing between variation within a habitat due to disturbance and variation across different habitats when searching for indicators of ecological change.

Notes: Bottomland hardwood forests in the southcentral United States have been cleared extensively for agriculture, and many of the remaining forests are fragmented and degraded. During the last decade, however, approximately 75,000 ha of land—mainly agricultural fields—have been replanted or contracted for replanting, with many more acres likely to be reforested in the near future. The approach used in most reforestation projects to date has been to plant one to three overstory tree species, usually Quercus spp. (oaks), and to rely on natural dispersal for the establishment of other woody species. I critique this practice by two means. First, a brief literature review demonstrates that moderately high woody species diversity occurs in natural bottomland hardwood forests in the region. This review, which relates diversity to site characteristics, serves as a basis for comparison with stands established by means of current reforestation practices. Second, I reevaluate data on the invasion of woody species from an earlier study of 10 reforestation projects in Mississippi, with the goal of assessing the likelihood that stands with high woody species diversity will develop. I show that natural invasion cannot always be counted on to produce a diverse stand, particularly on sites more than about 60 m from an existing forest edge. I then make several recommendations for altering current reforestation practices in order to establish stands with greater woody species diversity, a more natural appearance, and a more positive environmental impact at scales larger than individual sites.

Notes: We evaluated the ecological and reproductive characteristics of plant species occurring in severely disturbed areas that were revegetated with exotic grasses. We identified those species with the best combination of attributes that increase their probability of success in degraded lands. Fifteen degraded areas were studied in two different bioclimatic regions, a high premontane humid bioclimate and a low premontane humid bioclimate. The frequency of native colonizing species and the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization in their roots were evaluated. The sexual and breeding system, pollination mode, fruit set, and dispersal syndrome of ten of the most frequent colonizing species were also studied. The floristic survey of the colonizing species revealed a similarity to the reported flora of the treeless savannas that are dominant in the region. Bioclimatic conditions prevailing in the degraded lands seem to be an important factor for the presence of colonizing species and for species richness. All colonizing species studied were mycorrhizal, and for this reason the restoration program in these degraded areas should take mycorrhizae into account, reintroducing them or manipulating the soils to increase the mycorrhizal inoculum. We suggest Scleria cyperina and Trachypogon plumosus to start or promote the natural succession in the degraded areas from La Gran Sabana. Because their frequency is high and their reproductive system is less dependent on biotic factors, these species stand out in the studied areas.

Notes: Disturbance of coastal sage scrub in southern California has led to extensive displacement of native shrubs by exotic annual grasses. The initial conversion from shrubland to exotic grassland is typically associated with disturbance caused by intense grazing, high fire frequency, or mechanical vegetation removal. While native shrubs have been shown to recolonize annual grasslands under some conditions, other annual grasslands are persistent and show no evidence of shrub recolonization. This study examined the mechanisms by which annual grasses may exclude native shrubs and persist after release from disturbance. Grass density was manipulated in experimental plots to achieve a series of prescribed densities. Artemisia californica, a dominant native shrub, was seeded or planted into the plots and responses to the grass density treatments were measured over two growing seasons. A. californica germination, first season growth, and survival were all negatively related to the density of neighboring annual grasses. The most probable mechanism underlying the reduction of first season growth and survival was depletion of soil water by the grasses. The effects of the grasses on A. californica were no longer significant in the second season. The results of this study indicate that Mediterranean annual grasses reduce recruitment and can persist by inhibiting post-disturbance establishment of A. californica from seed. Although succession alone may not return disturbed annual grasslands to their former shrubland composition, the results suggest that restoration can be achieved by using container plantings or grass removal followed by seeding.

Notes: This study evaluated the genetic consequences of a reintroduction of the endangered annual plant Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus to Sweetwater Marsh (San Diego County, California). A survey of 21 enzyme loci in natural populations revealed that genetic diversity is very low and is primarily found as rare alleles at a few loci, making this species especially susceptible to the loss of alleles and heterozygosity through genetic drift. The reintroduction was performed in 1991 and 1992 by sowing seeds (collected from Tijuana Estuary) in numerous small patches of suitable habitat. For this study, leaf tissue was collected from all plants in all patches during flowering in 1995 and surveyed for genotype at the three enzyme loci that are polymorphic at Tijuana Estuary. Rare alleles were absent in 27 out of 30 patches for Pgm-1, in 17 out of 30 patches for Pgm-2, and in 10 out of 11 patches for Mdh-1. In all, half of the patches lacked any rare allele. Rare alleles tended to occur in patches with few individuals. Overall rare allele frequency was lower than in the colonies from which seeds were collected at two of the three loci, and heterozygosity was reduced. The Sweetwater Marsh population is at risk of losing most of its genetic variation at enzyme loci through the extinction of patches with few individuals. Future reintroduction attempts should attempt to create contiguous sets of patches or to periodically reseed existing patches to reduce the loss of genetic variation.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Riparian Ecosystem Recovery in Arid Lands: Strategies and References. Mark K. Briggs Land Restoration and Reclamation: Principles and Practice James A. Harris, Paul Birch, and John Palmer

Notes: Effects of waterlogging were studied in the field and under glasshouse conditions on two clonal lines of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh (river red gum), which are used in the rehabilitation of damaged agricultural catchments in Western Australia. The plantation of 9-year-old trees was in a position that covered a range of waterlogging and salinity conditions. Up-slope the water table was deeper (0.65–1.5 m), whereas the water table was closer to the ground surface down-slope (0.45 m in winter; 1.25 m in summer). Salinity was greater downslope and increased at the end of the dry summer, remaining high until diluted by the winter rains. Trees of both clonal lines were smaller downslope and used less water over the year. Clone M80 used more water in winter; clone M66 more in summer. In the field, the roots of clone M80 were evenly distributed through the soil profile, while roots of clone M66 decreased with increasing depth. Production of new root terminals varied with season. Greatest production was in spring and early summer, with much lower production over late autumn and winter. Only clone M66 produced new root terminals at depth (60–75 cm) during the drier months of late summer and early autumn. At this time, saline ground-water was the main source for water uptake. To explore clonal differences more closely, the effects of prolonged waterlogging were studied under glasshouse conditions. Clone M80 grew similarly under freely drained and continuously waterlogged conditions for the experimental period (21 weeks). The response under continuously waterlogged conditions was achieved through adventitious root production. By contrast, growth of clone M66 was suppressed under continuous waterlogging, a response associated with the lack of adventitious root production. The results from field and glasshouse studies suggest that clone M80 is more adapted to waterlogging by relatively fresh water than clone M66, but that clone M66 may use water of higher salinity than clone M80. Clone M80 would be better suited to higher positions in partially cleared catchments, where rainfall provides relatively fresh soil water. Clone M66 is better suited to lower catchment positions due to its ability to utilize more saline groundwater. Restoration of the water balance of damaged agricultural catchments can be best managed by matching specialized genotypes with particular catchment positions.

Notes: I conducted small-mammal trapping surveys on a desert scrub restoration site in Palm Springs, California, to document concomitant recovery of the rodent community. These surveys were conducted following quantitative vegetation sampling efforts that indicated that a predefined successful restoration criterion of 15% total shrub cover had been met throughout most of the area. But shrub cover, native shrub cover, herb cover, native herb cover, total cover, and total native cover remained significantly lower in the restoration area than in undeveloped desert scrub immediately surrounding the site. Native herb species richness was also generally lower in the restoration area. Despite these vegetation differences, rodent diversity, evenness, and abundance were very similar between the restoration and natural areas (they were consistently slightly higher in the restoration area). More diverse microhabitats, proximity to water, and reduced competition with harvester ants may have contributed to this outcome. If ecosystem restoration is the goal, reestablishment of a faunal community in restored habitat, rather than surpassing a predefined percent cover of vegetation, may be a better indicator of success, because plant cover proved to be a poor predictor of mammal success.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: California Rivers and Streams: The Conflict Between Fluvial Processes and Land Use. Jeffery F. Mount Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem: Defining Unique Units in Population Conservation. J. L. Nielson, editor

Notes: Closed or abandoned landfills represent significant land areas, often in or near urban centers, that are potential sites for ecological restoration of native woodlands. But current guidelines in many jurisdictions do not allow for the installation of trees or shrubs above landfill clay caps, although these plants have many environmental, functional, and aesthetic advantages, including a rapid start to community succession. Typical closure procedures for capped landfills include only a grass cover to control moisture infiltration and impede soil erosion. The main concern that limits the application of a woody cover to a closed landfill is that roots may penetrate and weaken the clay cap. As part of a comprehensive experimental program on woodland restoration, we installed 22 tree and shrub species on Staten Island, New York (the Fresh Kills Sanitary Landfill). We found no evidence that roots of the transplanted woody plants penetrate caps used on these landfills. Root growth requirements and dynamics stop penetration of these materials. Anoxic and acidic conditions were found in the sandy subsoil above the cap, as indicated by corrosion patterns on steel test rods. Also, the intensity of mycorrhizal infection on the experimental plants was high in the surface soil and decreased progressively with increasing soil depth. The potential vertical rooting depth during this time period was greater than that occurring over the clay cap. This was shown from data collected on a nearby control site, where seven of the species were installed on an engineered soil lacking a clay barrier layer, and roots of all seven species penetrated deeper than on the landfill. The engineered landfill soils are poor growth media for roots, and below ground constraints that limit restoration on these sites must be addressed.

Notes: The Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery plan proposed reintroduction of Canis lupus (gray wolf) to Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho as part of a wolf restoration plan for the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. Strong opposition from some factions within the region forestalled the action for two decades. An environmental impact statement, conducted in 1992–1994 with extensive public input, culminated in a proposal to reintroduce wolves designated as “non-essential—experimental” under Section 10 (j) of the federal Endangered Species Act. This approach, approved by the Secretary of the Interior in 1994, provided for wolf restoration while allowing management flexibility to deal with concerns of the local public. A reintroduction plan was developed in the summer and fall of 1994. Acquiring, holding, transporting, and releasing suitable wolves for reintroduction presented a myriad of technical and logistical challenges that required effective planning and coordination by all participants. In January 1995, 29 wolves were captured in Alberta and transported to Yellowstone National Park (14) and central Idaho (15). Idaho wolves were freed immediately upon arrival; Yellowstone wolves (three family groups) were held in acclimation pens in the park until late March. Most Idaho wolves traveled extensively within the area intended for them, averaging 82 km net distance away from release sites after 5 months (range = 30–220 km), and three male-female pairs formed by July. After 5 months in the wild, at least 13 of 15 Idaho-released wolves were alive within the intended area, as were 13 of 14 Yellowstone wolves; one wolf was known to have been illegally killed in each area. No livestock were killed. Wolves released into Yellowstone Park continued to live as packs, stayed closer to their release sites (x = 22 km at end of June), and settled into home ranges; two packs produced a total of nine pups. The progress of the reintroduction program in its first year far exceeded expectations. Reintroductions of about 15 wolves to each area for 2–4 more years are scheduled, but the project may be shortened because of early successes. Future reintroduction planners can expect sociocultural issues to pervade the effort, but they can be optimistic that, from a biological standpoint, reintroduction of wolves has strong potential as a restoration technique.

Notes: This paper summarizes the accumulation of nutrient capital during the natural afforestation of iron-smelting slag. The study site was the Beckley Furnace (North Caanan, Connecticut, U.S.A.) slag dump, which was abandoned around 1918. Currently, a Pinus strobus (white pine)-dominated forest occupies the site. Our primary objective was to determine the relationships among stand development and belowground nutrient pools to evaluate controls on the rates at which nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and potassium accumulate in the developing forest. Along a developmental gradient of increasing stand basal area, we measured (1) aboveground biomass, (2) root biomass, (3) above-ground nutrient capital, (4) belowground nutrient capital, (5) soil weight, (6) soil organic carbon weight, (7) soil moisture, and (8) understory richness and density. Regression analysis suggests, as expected, that the addition of organic matter controls the accumulation of above- and belowground nutrients, soil water, and understory plant composition and distribution. The rather rapid rate of nitrogen accumulation suggests that allochthonous as well as autochthonous organic matter is an important source of nutrients for the developing forest soil and vegetation. Compared to those of other northeastern forests, soils in the most developed areas at the Beckley site have accumulated more than enough labile nutrient capital in 75 years to support a forest typical of the region. In the most developed stands, understory composition indicates mesic soil conditions, and that within the next 75 years or so the Beckley slag dump will be floristically very similar to the surrounding forest.

Notes: Extensive land loss, which is mostly wetland loss, has taken place during this century in the Mississippi River delta and other river deltas. Our purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of constructing “artificial” crevasses, or cuts in the natural levee, made by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Delta National Wildlife Refuge (DNWR) to slow or reverse this type of land loss. Land growth of the crevasses was determined from aerial photographs and was related to crevasse-site characteristics. The newly constructed crevasses create emergent wetlands after 2 years of subaqueous growth at about 4.7 ha/year and an average cost of $21,377 per crevasse. The present total cost per hectare declines with age as new land builds, and it will equal $48 per hectare if all the open water in the receiving ponds fills in. At these rates, the net land loss rates in the DNWR measured from 1958 to 1978 would be compensated for by the building of 63 crevasses, 24 of which are already in place.

Notes: Abstract. In the Kamuikotan zone, central Hokkaido, Japan, two distinct types of metamorphic rocks are tectonically mixed up, along with a great quantity of ultramafic rocks; one type consists of high-pressure metamorphic rocks, and the other of low-pressure ones. The high-pressure metamorphic rocks are divided into two categories. (1) Prograde greenschist to glaucophaneschist facies rocks derived from mudstone, sandstone, limestone, a variety of basic rocks such as pillow and massive lavas, hyaloclastite and tuff, and radiolarian (Valanginian to Hauterivian) chert, among which the basic rocks and the chert, and occasionally the sandstone, occur as incoherent blocks (or inclusions) enveloped by mudstone. (2) Retrograde amphibolites with minor metachert and glaucophane-calcite rock, which are tectonic (or exotic) blocks enclosed within prograde mudstone or serpentinite, or separated from these prograde rocks by faults. The K-Ar ages of the prograde metamorphic rocks (72, 107 and 116 Ma on phengitic muscovites) are younger than those of the retrograde rocks (109, 132, 135 and 145 Ma on muscovites, and 120 Ma on hornblende). The low-pressure metamorphic rocks consist of the mafic members of an ophiolite sequence with a capping of radiolarian (Tithonian) chert with the metamorphic grade ranging from the zeolite facies, through the greenschist (partly, actinolite-calcic plagioclase) facies to the amphibolite (partly, hornblende-granulite) facies. The low-pressure metamorphism has a number of similarities with that described for‘ocean-floor’metamorphism. The tectonic evolution of such a mixed-up zone is discussed in relation to Mesozoic plate motion.

Notes: The rocks of the Scourian Complex have been intensively studied, but there is still no consensus as to the conditions of the granulite-facies metamorphism preserved in these rocks. Recent estimates of these conditions fall into two groups, one at 820-920°C and ca. 11 kbar and the second at ca. 1000°C and 〉12 kbar. Investigation of a variety of rocks shows that the recorded conditions vary with grain-size, with higher-grade conditions recorded by the cores of coarser (ca. 10 mm) crystals, and lower-grade conditions recorded by the rims of coarser grains and by finer grains. This observation suggests that re-equilibration during recovery of these rocks to the surface has been important which may account for the discrepancy in estimated P-T conditions. Revised estimates of the equilibration conditions of the Scourian Complex of T 〉 1000°C and P 〉 8.5 kbar are presented. The conditions suggested for the peak of metamorphism mean that the role of anatexis in the genesis of these rocks must be considered and the nature of the fluid phase thoroughly investigated.

Notes: Abstract. Plagioclase porphyroblasts from silvergrey schists belonging to the Nevado Filabride Complex in the Sierra Alhamilla (Betic Zone, SE Spain) are interpreted as having been formed preand synkinematically with respect to the second phase of deformation. Different types of inclusion patterns represent 'snap-shots’(high growth-rate/strain-rate ratio features) of the formation of a diffentiated crenulation cleavage during this second phase of deformation, by the processes of kinking, crenulation and associated differentiation.Regional considerations indicate an Alpine age for this tectono-metamorphic event, which can be explained by the‘hot emplacement’of the higher Nevado Filabride units. The observed structural evolution is not consistent with a pre-Alpine polyphase deformation history.

Notes: Evidence from rock microstructures, mass transfer and isotopic exchange indicates that substantial quantities of aqueous fluids are involved in low- and medium-grade regional metamorphism. Similar conclusions are drawn from many retrograde environments, whereas high-grade metamorphic fluids may be melt dominated. The mobile fluids play essential roles in metamorphic reactions, mass transport and deformation processes. These processes are linked by the mechanical consequences of metamorphic fluid pressures (Pf) generally being greater than or equal to the minimum principal compressive stress. Under such conditions metamorphic porosity comprises grain boundary tubules and bubbles together with continuously generated (and healed) microfractures. Deformation results in significant interconnected porosity and hence enhanced permeability. Lithologically and structurally controlled permeability variations may cause effective fluid channelling.Simple Rayleigh-Darcy modelling of a uniformly permeable, crustal slab shows that convective instability of metamorphic fluid is expected at the permeabilities suggested for the high Pf metamorphic conditions. Complex, large-scale convective cells operating in overpressured, but capped systems may provide a satisfactory explanation for the large fluid/rock ratios and extensive mass transport demonstrated for many low- and medium-grade metamorphic environments. Such large-scale fluid circulation may have important consequences for heat transfer in and the thermal evolution of metamorphic belts.

Notes: Hydrothermal synthesis of Fe-pum-pellyites was conducted using high pressure cold-seal apparatus and solid oxygen buffering techniques at temperatures between 250°C and 550°C and 2.0–9.1 kbar Pfluid. Fe-pumpellyites were synthesized from partially crystalline gel mixtures of compositions: 4CaO - 2.1Al2O3_1.5FeO - 0.3MgO - 6SiO2 (II) and 3CaO - 1.5 Al2O3 - 2.7FeO - 0.3MgO - 6SiO2 (III) in the presence of excess H2O at Pfluid of 5–9.1 Kbar, temperatures between 275°C and 325°C, and fO2 defined by the QFM and HM buffers; for both of these compositions (II and III), the condensed synthetic run products included minor 7Å chlorite ± garnet ± Fe-oxide. The cell dimensions and aggregate refractive index (a= 19.13(2)Å, b= 5.940(4)Å, c= 8.847(5)Å, ±= 97.37(6)±, and n= 1.702(2)) of the pum-pellyite synthesized from the bulk composition II mix are compatible with those of natural pumpellyites containing similar total Fe contents. Attempts at synthesizing Fe-pumpellyites from a Mg-free bulk composition were not successful; these results are consistent with the total absence of natural Mg-free pumpellyites.The higher temperature, higher oxygen fugacity assemblages of the equivalent bulk compositions (II and III) consist of epidote ± minor amounts of chlorite, garnet, quartz, hematite, and magnetite. The results of these synthesis experiments accord with the mineral parageneses observed in low-grade metabasites which imply that Fe-pumpellyites are replaced by epidote with increasing temperature and/or fO2 and that Fe3+ is preferentially partitioned into epidote with respect to coexisting pum-pellyite. In addition, these synthesis experiments indicate that Fe-bearing pumpellyites crystallize at and are stable to lower temperatures than more aluminous pumpellyites—a result also consistent with natural systems.

Notes: The High Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) of Bhutan were penetratively deformed, intruded by leucogranite and metamorphosed during the collision of the Indian and Asian plates. Metamorphic reaction textures in the HHC show that it experienced decompression while maintaining a laterally heterogeneous, and locally inverted, internal temperature range of c.600–750C. This thermal structure was produced by thrusting hot, migmatitic rocks over lower-grade rocks within the HHC and by the advection of heat from the intrusion of leucogranite dykes and sills during decompression. A variable velocity field within the HHC during exhumation and extrusion between India and Tibet caused the inversion of top to the south sense of shear present throughout most of the HHC to top down to the north shear near its top.

Notes: The Tormes Gneissic Dome (TGD, NW sector of the Iberian Massif, Spain) is a high-grade metamorphic complex affected by a major episode of extensional deformation (D2). The syn-D2 P-T path of the Lower Unit of the TGD was deduced from the analysis of reaction textures related to superimposed fabrics developed during exhumation, analysis of mineral zoning and thermobarometric calculations. It comprises an initial phase of decompression, determined using the tweequ thermobarometric technique, from 6.4–8.1 kbar at 735–750C (upper structural levels) and 7.2 kbar at 770C (lower structural levels) to 3.3–3.9 kbar and 645–680C. This evolution is consistent with the observed sequence of melting reactions and the generation of garnet-and cordierite-bearing anatectic granitoids. The later part of the syn-D2 P-T path consisted of almost isobaric cooling associated with the thermal re-equilibration of the unit in the new structural position. This segment of the P-T path is recorded by assemblages with And + Bt + Ms and Ms + Chi + Ab related to the later mylonitic S2 fabrics, which indicate retrogression to low-amphibolite and greenschist facies conditions.

Notes: Eclogite-grade metamorphism of the Seve Nappe Complex (SNC) in Norrbotten, Sweden, records the attempted subduction of the Baltic continental margin during the early Palaeozoic evolution of the Iapetus Ocean. Metamorphic titanite sampled from several calcsilicate gneisses of the SNC in Norrbotten occurs as part of a prograde, eclogite facies metamorphic mineral assemblage and yields concordant to nearly concordant U/Pb ages of 500–475 Ma. Later structural disruption of these rocks occurred during the Siluro-Devonian Scandian phase of the Caledonide orogeny, but the U/Pb systematics show no evidence of a second generation (metamorphic or recrystallized) of titanite, or of post-Early Ordovician disturbance through Pb loss. Hence the U/Pb ages are believed to record the time of prograde mineral growth during eclogite facies metamorphism of the SNC.These results support earlier Sm/Nd and 40Ar/39Ar studies indicating an Early Ordovician metamorphic age for the eclogitic Norrbotten SNC, and confirm the Early Ordovician destruction of at least this segment of the Palaeozoic passive margin of Baltica. These results indicate that the SNC in the northern Scandinavian Caledonides was subducted and metamorphosed to high grade some 50–70 Myr prior to the high-grade metamorphism of the SNC in the central Scandinavian Caledonides. This result requires significantly different early Palaeozoic tectonic histories for rocks mapped as SNC in the northern Caledonides and those in the central Caledonides, despite a seemingly similar tectonostratigraphic position and broadly similar high-grade metamorphism.

Notes: A suite of garnet-wollastonite-scapolite-bearing calcsilicate granulites from the Eastern Ghats has been investigated to document the controls of mineral reactions during the metamorphic evolution of the deep continental crust. The rocks studied show heterogeneity in modal mineralogy and phase compositions in millimetre-sized domains. Textural relations, and the compositional plots of the phases, established that the clinopyroxene exerts a strong influence on the formation and composition of garnet in the complex natural system. P-T estimates using the vapour-independent equilibria involving garnet define a near isobaric cooling path from c. 850C at c. 5.5–5.2 kbar. The deduced trajectory tallies well with the terminal segment of the overall retrograde P-T path construed from the associated rocks using well-calibrated thermobarometers. The ubiquitous occurrence of wollastonite and scapolite in the main calcsilicate body suggests low aCO2 during peak metamorphic condition. Fluid compositions constrained from mineral-fluid equilibria of the garnet-bearing assemblages show domainal variations as a function of the compositions of the solid phases, e.g. garnet and clinopyroxene. A quantitative log/CO2-log/O2 diagram has been constructed to depict the stability of the different calcsilicate assemblages as functions of the compositions and the behaviour of these fugitive species. The results of the mineral-fluid equilibria and the quantitative fluid/rock ratio calculations, in conjunction with the topological constraints, imply vapour-deficient meta-morphism in the rocks studied. It is argued that fO2 during peak metamorphism was monitored by the ambient fO2. Subsequently, during retrogression, different domains evolved independently, whereas the fluid composition was controlled by the mineral-fluid equilibria.

Notes: The Mallee Bore area in the northern Harts Range of central Australia underwent high-temperature, medium-to high-pressure granulite facies metamorphism. Individual geothermometers and geobarometers and average P-T calculations using the program Thermocalc suggest that peak metamorphic conditions were 705–810C and 8–12 kbar. Partial melting of both metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks, forming garnet-bearing restites, occurred under peak metamorphic conditions. Comparison with partial melting experiments suggests that vapour-absent melting in metabasic and metapelitic rocks with compositions close to those of rocks in the Mallee Bore area occurs at 800–875C and 〉9–10 kbar. The lower temperatures obtained from geothermometry imply that mineral compositions were reset during cooling. Following the metamorphic peak, the rocks underwent local mylonitization at 680–730C and 5.8–7.7 kbar. After mylonitization ceased, garnet retrogressed locally to biotite, which was probably caused by fluids exsolving from crystallizing melts. These three events are interpreted as different stages of a single, continuous, clockwise P-T path. The metamorphism at Mallee Bore probably occurred during the 1745–1730 Ma Late Strangways Orogeny, and the area escaped significant crustal reworking during the Anmatjira and Alice Springs events that locally reached amphibolite facies conditions elsewhere in the Harts Ranges.

Notes: This paper describes an ecosystem approach (the Bradbury framework) to prioritizing watersheds for watershed restoration and salmon recovery, and gives an example of its application. The framework was applied at three spatial scales (in descending urder) to prioritize (1) river basins within the north coast geographic area of Oregon (USA), (2) watersheds within the Tillamook Bay basin, and (3) restoration activities at the watershed level, Implementing the framework identified the Nehalem and Tillamook Bay basins as high priority for the north coast of Oregon. Within the Tillamook Bay basin, the Wilson, Kilchis, and Trask river watersheds emerged as high priority. Preliminary analysis indicated that controlling sediment sources by addressing upland road conditions and allowing floodplain and riparian ecosystems to recover are highest priority protection and restoration activities within the Tillamook Bay basin. The sample application demonstrates that an ecosystem approach (the Bradbury framework) is particularly advantageous where data are limited, although previous identification of relatively intact areas is required. Implementing the framework is intended to lead to restoration of native species, but it may not provide immediate assistance for some species or populations of concern.

Notes: This paper describes a two-stage system for prioritizing stream reaches and riparian communities along a given river for protection or restoration. The system uses associations between geomorphology and riparian vegetation at stream reach and community scales as a basis for defining reference conditions. First-stage reach classification involves collecting and analyzing data from topographic maps and aerial photographs. These data, along with judgment-based criteria for ranking reaches relative to reference conditions, are used to classify stream reaches as suitable for protection, recommended for mitigation or restoration within existing site-specific regulatory procedures, or requiring further analysis to evaluate community-scale restoration needs. Second-stage field sampling is conducted on the reaches needing further analysis to determine the riparian communities present, the associations between communities and floodplain landforms, and reference community conditions. This stage requires collection of fields data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and plant community structure. Cluster analysis or a comparable technique is used to classify plant communities associated with floodplain landforms and identify reference conditions for each landform. Community structure and species compositiotion are compared to reference conditions to define restoration possibilities at the community scale. The combined results from stream reach and community scale analysis provide a strategy for protecting and restoring riparian resources for a whole river. Implementation requires further site-specific information on hydrology, geomorphology, and other factors.

Notes: In this study, we examined the site-specific effects of a large episodic flood on the riparian vegetation within the floodplain of the San Luis Rey River in southern California. Using multispectral airborne videography, we quantified percent cover of riparian vegetation, cultivated agricultural land, urban surfaces, upland vegetation, bare soil, and water within 22 sections of flood-plain, both before and after a large flood (January 13, 1993). We also quantified the amount of these cover types within bands of the watershed 1 km wide × 5 km long directly upstream of each floodplain site. The amount of riparian vegetation destroyed by the flood within each section varied from nearly zero to almost 40% of pre-flood coverage. The magnitude of loss in riparian vegetation was most strongly related to the amount of riparian vegetation initially present in the floodplain and the amount of urban surfaces in the nearby watershed. These results suggest that riparian vegetation within the San Luis Rey River floodplain is generally at high risk of destruction from large floods, and that this risk is exaggerated in areas with high urban development. We infer from these results that sites near existing large areas of intact riparian vegetation and away from urban development will have the highest potential for successful long-term restoration.

Notes: Airborne multispectral videography has become a useful tool for classifying and mapping riparian vegetation because its spectral and digital format has high spatial resolution. This paper explains the processing steps and procedures required to use this type of spectral imagery for riparian vegetation classification and mapping. A description of the Utah State University airborne system is given, along with the image processing steps used for developing finalized products, because these are used in other articles in this volume. Examples of riparian applications using high-resolution imagery are included.

Notes: Nine Articles in the special issue of Restoration Ecology addrssing the subject of site selection for riparian restoration activities were critically examined for this review. The approaches described make significant and original contributions to the field of riparian restoration. All are interdisciplinary to some extent, often combining the fields of hydrology, geomorphology, and biology in the design of restorationss. A common component among the articles is that they take a broad view, if not a watershed view, of restoration site selection. The approaches can be generally descrobed as top-down strategic approaches to siting restorations, as opposed to the more methods- and site-driven bottom-up, or tactical, approach. All the articles recognize the importance of developing endpoints related to the ecological function of riparian ecosystems. they succeed in their quest for these indicators of ecological function to varying degrees. The most common indica-for used in these papers is riparian vegetation. Several additional elements of scientific investigation, if successfully pursued, could provide vital information and advance our understanding of riparian restoration: developing interdisciplinary approaches more fully; defining endpoints and reference conditions; implementing multiple scale approaches; viewing restorations as experimental ecosystem manipulations; developing a philosophy regarding exotic species; incorporating geographic information systems more often; and integrating science, society, and politics. the foundation provided by the contributions in this issue should provide a strong basis for the rapid advancement of future research in the area of riparian restoration.

Notes: Successional models are used to predict how restoration projects will achieve their goals. These models have been developed on different spatial and temporal scales and consequently emphasize different types of dynamics. This paper focuses on the restoration goal of self-sustainability, but only in the context of a long-term goal. Because of the temporal scale of this goal, we must consider the impact of processes arising outside of the restoration site as of greater importance than restoration itself. Because ecological systems are open, restoration sites will be subjected to many external influential processes. Depending on the landscape context, the impact of these processes may not be noticeable, or, at the other extreme, they may prevent the achievement of restoration objectives. A second issue is to emphasize the nature of processes in the long term, that they are a complex of characteristics such as magnitude, frequency, and extent. Ecological systems are only adapted to a range of values in each of these characteristics. Restoration often combines goals that are of different scales. Models appropriate to these goals need consideration.

Notes: The ecosystem perspective provides a framework within which most other aspects of the ecology of restoration can be incorporated. By considering the ecosystem functions of a restoration project, the restorationist is forced to consider the placement of the project in the landscape—its boundaries, its connections or lack thereof to adjoining ecosystems, and its receipts and losses of materials and energy from its physical surroundings. These characteristics may set limits on the kind(s) of biotic communities that can be created on the site. The ecosystem perspective also gives restorationists conceptual tools for structuring and evaluating restorations. These include the mass balance approach to nutrient, pollutant, and energy budgets; subsidy/stress effects of inputs; food web architecture; feedback among ecosystem components; efficiency of nutrient transfers, primary productivity and decomposition as system-determining rates; and disturbance regimes. However, there are many uncertainties concerning these concepts, their relation to each other, and their relationships to population- and community-level phenomena. The nature of restoration projects provides a unique opportunity for research on these problems; the large spatial scale of restorations and the freedom to manipulate species, soil, water, and even the landscape could allow ecosystem-level experiments to be conducted that could not be performed otherwise.

Notes: Community ecological theory may play an important role in the development of a science of restoration ecology. Not only will the practice of restoration benefit from an increased focus on theory, but basic research in community ecology will also benefit. We pose several major thematic questions that are relevant to restoration from the perspective of community ecological theory and, for each, identify specific areas that are in critical need of further research to advance the science of restoration ecology. We ask, what are appropriate restoration endpoints from a community ecology perspective? The problem of measuring restoration at the community level, particularly given the high amount of variability inherent in most natural communities, is not easy, and may require a focus on restoration of community function (e.g., trophic structure) rather than a focus on the restoration of particular species. We ask, what are the benefits and limitations of using species composition or biodiversity measures as endpoints in restoration ecology? Since reestablishing all native species may rarely be possible, research is needed on the relationship between species richness and community stability of restored sites and on functional redundancy among species in regional colonist “pools.” Efforts targeted at restoring system function must take into account the role of individual species, particularly if some species play a disproportionate role in processing material or are strong interactors. We ask, is restoration of habitat a sufficient approach to reestablish species and function? Many untested assumptions concerning the relationship between physical habitat structure and restoration ecology are being made in practical restoration efforts. We need rigorous testing of these assumptions, particularly to determine how generally they apply to different taxa and habitats. We ask, to what extent can empirical and theoretical work on community succession and dispersal contribute to restoration ecology? We distinguish systems in which succession theory may be broadly applicable from those in which it is probably not. If community development is highly predictable, it may be feasible to manipulate natural succession processes to accelerate restoration. We close by stressing that the science of restoration ecology is so intertwined with basic ecological theory that practical restoration efforts should rely heavily on what is known from theoretical and empirical research on how communities develop and are structured over time.

Notes: Conceptual and logistical challenges associated with the design and analysis of ecological restoration experiments are often viewed as being insurmountable, thereby limiting the potential value of restoration experiments as tests of ecological theory. Such research constraints are, however, not unique within the environmental sciences. Numerous natural and anthropogenic disturbances represent unplanned, uncontrollable events that cannot be replicated or studied using traditional experimental approaches and statistical analyses. A broad mix of appropriate research approaches (e.g., long-term studies, large-scale comparative studies, space-for-time substitution, modeling, and focused experimentation) and analytical tools (e.g., observational, spatial, and temporal statistics) are available and required to advance restoration ecology as a scientific discipline. In this article, research design and analytical options are described and assessed in relation to their applicability to restoration ecology. Significant research benefits may be derived from explicitly defining conceptual models and presuppositions, developing multiple working hypotheses, and developing and archiving high-quality data and metadata. Flexibility in research approaches and statistical analyses, high-quality databases, and new sampling approaches that support research at broader spatial and temporal scales are critical for enhancing ecological understanding and supporting further development of restoration ecology as a scientific discipline.

Notes: Along rural roadsides of the Sacramento Valley of California, we seeded native and non-native perennial grasses to gauge their potential value in roadside vegetation management programs. In trial I (polycultures), three seeded complexes and a control (resident vegetation only) were tested. Each seeded plant complex included a different mix of perennial grasses seeded into each of several roadside topographic zones. The seeded levels of plant complex were: native perennial grasses 1 (8 species); native perennial grasses 2 (13 species); and non-native perennial grasses (3 species). In trial II, plots were seeded to monocultural plots of 15 accessions of native Californian and three cultivars of non-native perennial grasses. Plots in both trials were seeded during January 1992 and evaluated for three successive years.

Notes: We studied the utility of gap formation and soil disturbance as methods to enhance establishment of plant species in the understory of a northern Kentucky forest where Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) produced dense thickets. In May 1994, gaps (5 m diameter) were cut in the shrub thicket. In adjacent areas, the shrub canopy remained intact. Subplots were established where soil was either turned with a spade to a depth of 15 cm or not disturbed. We monitored plant establishment for three growing seasons (1994, 1995, and 1996). Shrub removal increased light availability to about 10% of full sun. Gap formation had a significant (p 〈 0.05) and positive influence on total plant density (exclusive of L. maackii), and soil disturbance did not (p 〉 0.05). After three growing seasons, the most important species were L. maackii, Alliaria petiolata, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis vulpina, and Acer negundo. Of these species, only V. vulpina showed significantly (p 〈 0.05) higher densities in gaps. Other less important species such as Phytolacca americana, Campsis radicans, and Eupatorium rugosum occurred almost exclusively in gaps. Of the 44 taxa observed in this study, most were generalist species that also occur in early successional habitats. Long-term dominance of the understory by L. maackii has likely modified system attributes with corresponding effects on community development. Shrub removal provides a window of establishment for various plant species, but successful restoration may require further management species availability and to control new invaders.

Notes: Many forest roads are being closed as a step in watershed restoration. Ripping roads with subsoilers or rock rippers is a common practice to increase the infiltration capacity of roads before closure. When considering the effectiveness of ripping for reducing runoff and erosion and the potential reduction in slope stability by saturating road fills, it is important to know how ripping changes the infiltration capacity of forest roads. Hydrographs from simulated rainfall on 1 × 1 m plots were analyzed to find the saturated hydraulic conductivity, an indicator of infiltration capacity. I examined saturated hydraulic conductivity for three treatments on two different soils. One road was built in a soil derived from the metamorphic belt series geology of northern Idaho, a soil noted for its high rock fragment content. The second road was built in a sandy soil derived from decomposed granitics of the Idaho batholith. On each soil, five plots were installed on a road before ripping, and nine plots were installed on the same road segment following ripping, four covered with a heavy straw mulch and five without. Three half-hour rainfall events with intensities near 90 mm/hr were simulated on each plot. Results show that ripping increases hydraulic conductivities enough to reduce risk of runoff but does not restore the natural hydraulic conductivity of a forested slope. The unripped road surfaces had hydraulic conductivities in the range of 0–4 mm/hr, whereas ripped roads were in the range of 20–40 mm/hr after the second event. Surface sealing and tilled soil subsidence processes are important in reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the soils with repeated wetting. Subsidence appears to be important on the granitic soil, whereas surface sealing was more important on the belt series soil.

Notes: Rainforest restoration is a relatively new endeavor, and few attempts have been made to assess the success of such restoration efforts in terms of the reestablishment of an ecosystem. Small plantings of rainforest tree species have been carried out adjacent to mature rainforest at Lake Barrine National Park in North Queensland, Australia, since 1988. The aim of this project was to assess the leaf litter invertebrate fauna of these plantings as indicators of the success of the restoration process. Plots planted in 1988, 1989, and 1990, as well as adjacent mature rainforest, were sampled in the wet and dry seasons of 1994. Invertebrates were extracted from leaf litter samples with Berlese Funnels and sorted to order. Diversity, the abundance of different size classes and orders of invertebrates, and the abundance of different functional groups were examined. In most respects the 1988 plot was found to differ little from the mature rainforest plots, whereas the 1990 plot lacked small and predatory invertebrates, especially in the dry season. The 1989 plot was intermediate in invertebrate abundance and diversity. The use of partially deciduous trees in the 1989 and 1990 plots, resulting in lower canopy cover at the driest time of the year, may have contributed significantly to the differences found between the early and later plantings. It is recommended that trees that provide good canopy cover year-round be used as dominant species in plantings to facilitate the development of a leaf litter ecosystem that can be sustained throughout the year.

Notes: Tidal wetland mesocosms at Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve failed to elucidate effects of hydrologic treatments (excluded, impounded, and fully tidal systems) for most parameters measuring Salicornia virginica (pickleweed). Although soil salinity increased where tidal flushing was excluded for 10 months (salinities rose ∼20 to 50%), pickleweed cover and algal chlorophyll did not differ among treatments. Effects were seen only in pickleweed growth rates (∼30% decrease where tides were excluded) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measurements. We failed to show any differences between impounded and fully tidal conditions, because the mesocosms had coarse sediments, and impounded water drained easily via subsurface flow. However, the problems that we encountered with the mesocosms led to the following advice for future wetland restoration projects: (1) Mesocosms are useful for testing restoration techniques before an actual restoration project takes place. (2) Mesocosms should be used to test factors that may lead to more successful restoration in the future, including planting techniques, substrate conditions, and hydrology. (3) Mesocosms should be used to develop new assessment methods for monitoring wetland ecosystems. Because of the ability to control some environmental parameters while maintaining seminatural conditions, mesocosms offer great potential for the future evaluation of experimental restoration techniques.

Notes: Habitat protection is a major component of the Exxon Valdez oil spill restoration process. The acquisition of private lands, or partial interests in private lands, is intended to promote natural recovery of spill-injured resources and services by removing the threat of additional development impacts. The Comprehensive Habitat Protection Process is the method that was designed to achieve this objective. Over one million acres within the oil spill affected area were evaluated, scored, and ranked by a multi-criteria evaluation process. Initially, lands were divided into large parcels encompassing entire bays and watersheds. Criteria were then used to assess the habitat and human-use values associated with each parcel and the protection benefit that acquisition would provide for 19 injured resources and services. This process has been the basis for the acquisition of 41,549 acres of land on Afognak Island and 23,800 acres on the Kenai Peninsula and for agreements that, if consummated, will result in the acquisition of fee or lesser rights on over a half million acres of land in the Kodiak Archipelago, on the Kenai Peninsula, and in Prince William Sound. All of these lands or rights, if acquired, will be incorporated into parks or refuges or otherwise managed in a manner that will facilitate the recovery of the resources and services injured by the oil spill.

Notes: Agricultural set-aside and compensation land provide restoration ecologists with opportunities to re-create semi-natural habitats. Restoration sites often have high soil fertility and inadequate seed banks of desirable species. Sowing additional seed is a proven method for establishing chalk grassland vegetation. If seed of local provenance is required, it may be collected by hand or by using specialized machines. Ultimately, the mix collected must provide seed suitable for recreating vegetation similar to that of the donor site. We examine the ability of a vacuum machine to meet this requirement by comparison with hand collection, and we discuss possible effects on invertebrates. Microscope analysis and glasshouse and field trials were used to compare the abundance of seed of different species in harvested mixes with the vegetation composition of the donor site. Seed heads of individual species were examined to determine the number of viable seeds per head and attack rates by phytophagous insects. The mix contained seed of over half the species recorded on the donor site. The seed of taller, more common species was overrepresented in the mix, at the expense of some smaller, mat-forming plants. After one season, however, the vegetation of the field trial plots was of the same type as that of the donor site, although the proportions of the constituent species differed slightly and certain species were absent. Mechanical collection is more efficient than hand collection. Endophagous invertebrates are unlikely to be affected by the machine. Seed collection requires a combination of methods, precise timing, and careful planning to provide a full range of species and to minimize impacts on plant and invertebrate populations.

Notes: Abandoned limestone quarries are hostile environments for plant and invertebrate colonization and establishment. The length of time taken for successful establishment by natural processes may be unacceptable for reclamation purposes; several techniques are used to reduce the time scales involved. A new technique, restoration blasting, aims to replicate natural daleside landforms by selective blasting of modern production quarry faces. We compare the flora and invertebrate fauna of restoration-blasted sites, hydro-seeded with daleside species, with naturally regenerating disused quarries and a natural daleside. Restoration-blasted sites were found to have less plant cover, more bare ground, fewer orders of invertebrates, and generally fewer animals within each order than the other two types of site. The disused quarries tended to have intermediate characteristics between the restoration-blasted sites and the natural daleside. The age of the site may be important in determining the plants and invertebrates occurring there. This may be related to the time available for establishment or a greater degree of settlement or stability within the biotic and abiotic components of the site. Although most of the results indicate that time since establishment may be important, some variations occur. In particular, the development of vegetation cover in areas grazed by rabbits is problematic. These results are important in the assessment of successful reclamation because the invertebrate fauna may contribute greatly to the overall system. Both plant and animal communities appear to be establishing well on the sites reclaimed by restoration blasting. Further monitoring will identify the speed at which such environments achieve the desired aim of replicating daleside communities and the communities best able to be sustained following this technique.

Notes: This paper explores the potential of a digital camera to produce multiple images suitable for plotting. The objective was to build a three dimensional database by linking triangulated images from a Kodak DCS420 digital camera with a computer aided measurement system. The system then supplied X, Y, Z data from x, y image co-ordinates captured off two or more images. Relative accuracy in object space was around 1;50 000.

Notes: For centuries the ruins of Stonehenge have proved to be both a source of fascination and mystery for the many visitors to this World Heritage Site. The monument itself sets a puzzle that even to this day has not been solved, although there have been numerous theories suggested as to its construction. There is little accurate survey data currently available on the stones themselves, against which these many theories could be tested. The Photogrammetric Unit of English Heritage was therefore requested, in 1993, to commence a project to digitally map all the external faces of all the stones that form the visible remains of this internationally important monument. Photogrammetry was the chosen survey technique and this paper outlines the work of the Unit in using the latest digital photogrammetric equipment to generate a basic three dimensional model of Stonehenge.

Notes: The XVIIIth International Congress of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing was held in the Austria Center, Vienna from 9th to 19th July, 1996. Reports on the Technical Commission Activities, on the Congress Exhibition and on the General Assembly were given at a meeting of the Photogrammetric Society on 7th October, 1996. Papers from the Congress were published in the International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 31.

Notes: The paper deals with the determination of the metric quality of a 409634096 pixel high resolution digital camera back achieved from testfield measurements.

Notes: Digital photogrammetric techniques have opened fresh horizons and have enabled photogrammetry to become a more user friendly tool for a wide range of applications. However cost remains a critical issue, because new digital photogrammetric workstations and their related software are considered expensive. This paper examines the problem of digital rectification and presents low cost solutions involving the use of commercial off the shelf software packages, which include graphics and painting software, image processing tools and a CAD system. Additionally, specially developed software performing vector rectification is described and discussed. All the packages have been used for rectifying digital images and the results are presented. An attempt is also made to assess the accuracy and reliability of the results. Finally, several alternative digital products are presented, mainly concerning the use of the methods described in the restitution of cultural monuments.

Notes: Detailed understanding of the processes which control river bank erosion requires high resolution information concerning temporal changes in bank morphology. This paper describes the successful use of digital photogrammetry to extract high resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) from terrestrial oblique stereopairs of rapidly eroding river banks, using the commercial software package Erdas Imagine. This software was developed for use with aerial photography and satellite imagery; problems relating to the use of oblique terrestrial images are discussed and solutions presented. Photography was acquired using semi-metric cameras, mounted on tripods and positioned about 15m from the eroding bank. Data for DEM point spacings of 20mm were obtained, with accuracies of approximately ±12mm in depth. Digital photogrammetry can permit faster analysis, provide better accuracies and involve less ground disturbance than conventional methods of monitoring river channel change. Most importantly, DEM generation is considered to be more useful than traditionally acquired points or profiles for landform monitoring strategies.

Notes: This eighth and penultimate extract from the Archive is an unusual one for a number of reasons. Of these the most important one is the fact that it is concerned solely with instruments produced in Great Britain. It is therefore concerned mainly with the Thompson-Watts plotter, the only British instrument to go into full-scale commercial production. Strictly speaking the other instrument included in this extract should not have had a separate entry at all, simply because no instrument of this type exists now and so cannot have an entry in the catalogue of instruments. However, in order to trace the development of the Thompson-Watts Mk 2 plotter, produced in 1963, from the remarkable work of Henry Fourcade carried out in the 1920s, the Barr and Stroud ZA2 plotter based on his work has been accorded an Appendix of its own.Both instruments in this extract are based on an optical-mechanical solution to the photogrammetric problem of space intersection and the Thompson-Watts is in fact the only instrument of this type to be found in the catalogue. This particular solution did not find great favour on the continent and so few instruments of this type were produced commercially.

Notes: Underwater photogrammetry is being used in the particularly hostile environment of the North Sea where it has been put into commercially viable operation. The authors discuss underwater photogrammetry related to other means of inspection of oil platforms. They also deal with operational experience of 35 mm and 70 mm cameras, camera calibration, the provision of control and photogrammetric observations and data analysis. The demand for underwater photogrammetry continues to grow.

Notes: This paper summarises the theoretical and practical development of’an analytical system for close range photogrammetry. The system uses the extended bundle method of phototriangulation and a sophisticated least squares algorithm. A description is given of computer software, and aspects of statistical testing and gross error detection are discussed in order to assess the accuracy potential. Applications of the system, for precise co-ordination of a target range and camera calibration are outlined.