ALBERT

Notes: Summary The complex of ‚lysenkoism‘ cannot satisfyingly be explained as a pure and internal marxist tradition and reception. A necessary external addition has to consider the social history of the Soviet Union, her political economy, and the development of her scientific history. Hence, a more adequate connection to the ‚stalinist‘ epoch can be drawn.

Notes: Summary My concern in what follows is to give a comparative report on some important lectures held at the Hegel-Kongreß 1981 in Stuttgart. In discussing the views of Quine, Hacking, Davidson, Putnam and Habermas I want to confront them with some details of Rorty's recent critique of our philosophical tradition. At last I try to give a tentative answer whether there is an end or a turning-point for current analytical philosophy.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Gegen den Vorwurf, die sprachanalytische Philosophie sei einzelsprachlich relativ oder provinziell, haben sich die sprachanalytischen Philosophen mit mindestens vier Argumenten erfolgreich gewehrt: (I) Den Vertretern derphilosophischen Grammatik geht es zwar um die einzelsprachliche Grammatik bestimmter Ausdrücke; aber um eben diese Grammatik muß es ihnen auch gehen, da philosophische Probleme aus dem Getäuschtsein durch die Grammatik entstehen. Nicht nur die Problemlösung, sondern auch die Problemstellung ist provinziell. (II) Den Vertretern derlinguistischen Phänomenologie geht es um die Unterscheidung und Ordnung von Phänomenen. Weil sie dabei die Sprache und ihre Distinktionen bloß als heuristisches Mittel gebrauchen, haben ihre Aussagen die gleiche Reichweite wie die Ergebnisse einer mundan-phänomenologischen Analyse. (III) Den Vertretern derinformalen Logik geht es um die Logik bestimmter Begriffe und Propositionen. Die Explikation der Logik dieser Begriffe und Propositionen hat Gültigkeit für den gesamten Bereich, in dem eben diese Begriffe und Propositionen ‘verbalisierbar’ sind. (IV) Den Vertretern derSprechakttheorie schließlich geht es um die Regeln, denen Sprechakte gehorchen. Die Analyse dieser Regeln gilt für alle diejenigen Sprachen bzw. Gesellschaften, in denen es die Institution des betreffenden Sprechakts gibt.

Notes: Summary Ordinary language philosophers frequently draw on the fact that an appropriately selected sentential combination of the form “p but not q” can, or cannot, be uttered without absurdity; however, they do so without sufficient reflection on the methodology of such combination tests, which results in considerable shortcomings even in practical application. To improve things, I shall discuss two criteria for distinguishing ‘pragmatic’ from ‘non-pragmatic’ implications and for separating the latter into ‘linguistic’ (‘semantic’ and ‘syntactical’) and ‘non-linguistic’ ones (2–3); consider the bearing of the principle of ‘sense-constancy‘ on the applicability of combination tests (4); and call attention to the important, though merely heuristic, function of investigating pragmatic, as opposed to semantic, implications (5.1–5.2). Finally, I shall hint at a striking analogy between the linguistic (yet non-empirical) method of combination tests, the phenomenological method of ‘fictional variation’, and the empirical method of ‘conjectures and refutations’ (5.3).

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Begriff der axiomatischen Basis einer physikalischen Theorie wurde in [1] eingeführt. Die dort gegebene Definition ist zu eng verglichen mit dem, was in der theoretischen Physik angestrebt wird und z. B. für die Quantenmechanik in [2] und [3] durchgeführt ist. Die in dieser Arbeit angegebene, neue (erweiterte) Definition einer axiomatischen Basis beschreibt das tatsächliche Vorgehen der theoretischen Physik methodisch besser. Die neue Definition erlaubt es auch, die Untersuchungen über physikalische Begriffe insofern gegenüber [1] zu verbessern, als es möglich ist, sauber zwischen „theoretischen Hilfsbegriffen“ und „theoretischen Begriffen“ zu unterscheiden. Es läßt sich genauer definieren, was man unter „physikalisch interpretierbaren“ Gesetzen verstehen will. Entgegen mancher Meinung wird die Vermutung aufgestellt, daß man jede physikalische Theorie mit „physikalisch interpretierbaren“ Gesetzen, d. h. ohne theoretische Hilfsbegriffe formulieren kann.

Notes: Summary This study gives an arithmetic calculus to determine tautologies, contradictions and satisfiable formulas of the first order logic. The presented calculus may easily be extended on modal and deontic logic. The mathematical foundation of this arithmetic calculus is a Boolean ring.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Im Rahmen der Popperianischen Bewährungstheorie spielt der Begriff der Strenge eines Tests eine wichtige Rolle. Einige konkurrierende Vorschläge zur Bestimmung der Teststrenge werden vorgestellt, auf ihre Konsequenzen hin analysiert und miteinander verglichen. Gegen Vorschläge von Popper und Watkins bzw. Lakatos und Musgrave werden schwerwiegende Einwände vorgebracht; durch die Erweiterung einer Idee von Zahar lassen sich deren vertretbare Konsequenzen aber erhalten und sogar erklären. Es wird die Ansicht vertreten, daß es im Zusammenhang mit einer rationalen Theorienpräferenz mehr auf ein Optimum an empirischer Kritik als auf ein Maximum ankommt: ein Test muß zwar streng, aber auch fair sein.

Notes: Summary In an illuminating article A. Kamlah considers philosophy of science as an activity leading step by step from neutral descriptions to rational prescriptions. What his remarks do not offer us is a way of dealing with the troublesome ambiguities we find in the analyses provided by those philosophers of science who refuse to say whether they legislate how scientists should behave or describe how they do. In this context I want to draw attention to a helpful distinction H. A. Simon has made.

Notes: Summary Some leading ideas of the constructivist protophysics are discussed on the basis of P. Janich's Protophysik der Zeit. After having reviewed the contents of the second edition Janich's claim that analytical philosophy of science is purely affirmative and not critical towards science in its historical appearence is refuted. In the next section the principles of constructivist methodology of physics are criticised, and the claim is refuted that prescriptions for measurement cannot without circularity be shown to be invalid by experimental results. In the last section we discuss Janich's foundation of time measurement in a mathematical frame similar to that for extensive systems. Thus the relation between Janich's and the ordinary account is cleared up.

Notes: Summary This paper discusses critically the fundamental elements of the Stegmüller/Sneed-reconstruction of Kuhn's normal science concept. It is argued that a) Kuhn himself cannot accept this reconstruction if he wants to describe theory dynamics in the past; b) the reconstruction is not based on a pure non-statement view; c) to have a theory in the sense of Kuhn, should be related to the ordered pair 〈K,Io〉 to ensure the desired constancy over time; d) the reconstruction implies, contrary to Kuhn, the ability of rejecting a theory without having an alternative one; e) the rejection of a theory can be the result of a falsifying procedure and, therefore, theories are not immune from falsification; f) the reconstruction still contains rationality gaps; g) the reconstruction shows more precisely than Kuhn's work that Popper is right when he attacks normal scientist's behaviour; h) the positions of the Kuhnians and of the criticists could be reconciled partially.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Das Aufkommen der „klassischen Mechanik“ wird als paradigmatisch für die Entstehung des neuzeitlichen wissenschaftlichen Denkens angesehen. Geht man nun dem Beginn dieser Entwicklung nach, so stößt man sehr bald auf den Begriff der Selbsterhaltung. Das Postulat der Selbsterhaltung erweist sich als zentrale Kategorie bei der Herausbildung einer „externen“ Naturvorstellung, nach der ein sich bewegender Körper keiner zusätzlichen Kraft bedarf, um die betreffende Bewegung aufrechtzuerhalten (Trägheitsprinzip). Sie erhält sich von selbst. Das Prinzip der Selbsterhaltung taucht in dieser Epoche auch in verschiedenen anderen Disziplinen auf, beispielsweise der Staatsphilosphie (Th. Hobbes) und der Ethik (Spinoza). Ein paralleles Phänomen während dieser Zeit ist eine beginnende Emanzipation des Individuums. Der allmähliche Ausbau einer Autonomie im Denken und Fühlen findet seinen Ausdruck in einem neuen Vernunftsbegriff, der nicht mehr in Abhängigkeit von theologischen Postulaten steht. Die Autonomie des Individuums wird weitgehend als Selbsterhaltung der Vernunft verstanden. Es liegt nahe einen Zusammenhang zu vermuten zwischen der neuzeitlichen Naturerfassung auf der Grundlage des Selbsterhaltungsbegriffes und der „Entdeckung“ einer individuellen, sich selbst konstituierenden Vernunft.

Notes: Summary It is here shown that the relativistic doctrine of the relativity of simultaneity is untenable and that both the special and general theories of relativity are inconsistent. It is also shown that the theories can perhaps be made consistent, but excessively weak, through the reintroduction of absolute space and a weakening of the Lorentz transformations. Non-relativistic hypotheses for some events thought to require relativity are suggested. Finally, some conjectures are made on how so wrong a theory could have been accepted by so many for so long.

Notes: Summary A pattern can be found in the history of semiconductor electronics, which largely appears to coincide with that of scientific revolutions as described by Thomas Kuhn1. However, the history of semiconductor electronics has some characteristics which suggest that Kuhn's model requires correction in important respects.

Notes: Summary In a case study Kuhn's morphology of scientific revolutions is put to the test in confronting it with the contemporary developments in physics. It is shown in detail, that Kuhn's scheme is not compatible with the situation in physics today.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Peter Janichs konstruktiver Aufbau einer Chronometrie, wie er in der neuen Auflage seines Buches „Die Protophysik der Zeit“ beschrieben ist, wird einer detaillierten Kritik unterzogen. Dabei kristallisieren sich drei ernste Probleme heraus: Das Problem der Eindeutigkeit der Leitlinie, das Problem der Transitivität der Begleitstellungen, und das Problem der eindeutigen Bestimmtheit der Uhren. Alle drei Probleme bleiben bei Janich unbewältigt, woraus folgt, daß seine Chronometrie in der vorliegenden Form zumindest unvollständig ist.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird zu zeigen versucht, daß die Unterscheidung logischer und faktischer Wahrheiten nicht gelingen kann, solange nicht zwei Arten von Existenz unterschieden werden, nämlich logische Existenz als Widerspruchsfreiheit und faktische als an Ort und Zeit gebundene Existenz. Die Vernachlässigung der Bedingungen von Ort und Zeit führt dazu, daß z. B. Leibniz, Frege und Russell die faktische Wahrheit auf die logische zurückführen, was wiederum dadurch begünstigt wird, daß die genannten Autoren Individuum und Einermenge nicht konsequent unterscheiden. Die Unterscheidung logischer und faktischer Wahrheiten ist aber zugleich wichtigster Bestandteil des empiristischen Sinnkriteriums der logischen Empiristen. Der Streit zwischen Carnap und Quine über die Unterscheidbarkeit analytischer und synthetischer Sätze war daher zugleich ein Streit um die Unterscheidbarkeit logischer und faktischer Wahreiten. Da aber weder Quine noch Carnap bereit waren, Voraussetzungen ontologischer Art zu machen, und sie daher Wahrheit auf Beweisbarkeit sowie auf den richtigen Gebrauch einer Sprache zurückführten, wurden auch für sie Individuum und Einermenge und damit auch logische und faktische Wahrheiten ununterscheidbar. Daher kommen beiden trotz ursprünglich gegensätzlicher Auffassungen zu sehr ähnlichen Ergebnissen. Während Quine nämlich die logische Wahrheit auf die faktische zurückführt und Wissenschaft für ihn nichts weiter ist als mit Erfahrung verknüpfte Gedankenkonstruktion, führt Carnap ganz im Sinne von Leibniz die faktische Wahrheit auf die logische, nämlich auf Widerspruchsfreiheit zurück, so daß die gesamte Erfahrungswelt für ihn nichts weiter ist als eine aus Grundelementen rational konstruierbare Welt des sinnlichen Scheins. Wenn faktische Wahrheit aber mehr ist als nur Widerspruchsfreiheit und Deduzierbarkeit, dann muß die Wahrheit von unabhängigen Atomsätzen anerkannt werden, deren Wahrheit nicht mit rein innersprachlichen Mitteln gesichert werden kann, sondern durch die Existenz außersprachlicher individueller Objekte abgestützt werden muß; denn Individuelles läßt sich in seiner Individualität nicht aus allgemeinen Gesetzen herleiten. Ein Wahrheitsbegriff, der dies leistet, findet sich bei Bernard Bolzano, der dafür die Annahme einer dritten Welt, einer Welt möglicher Intensionen, benötigte. Daß solch eine Annahme keine unnötige Vervielfältigung von Entitäten bedeutet, wird deutlich an den Schwierigkeiten, die für Wittgenstein dadurch entstanden, daß er einerseits mit Freges Theorie vom Sinn sprachlicher Zeichen eine semantische Grundlage sprachlicher Zeichen anerkannte, zugleich aber einen nominalistischen Standpunkt vertrat, indem er nur Namen, nicht aber Sätzen eine Bezeichnungsfunktion zuerkannte. Bolzanos Theorie von den zwei Arten der Existenz und der durch sie begründeten Arten von Wahrheiten bedarf jedoch einer Ergänzung und einer begrifflichen Analyse dessen, was unter „Sachverhalt“, „Tatsache“, „Faktum“, „Ereignis“ und „Individuum“ zu verstehen ist, was einer späteren Arbeit vorbehalten bleiben soll.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Anknüpfend an den Beitrag von U. Steinvorth in Heft 1/1980 wird die Auffassung vertreten, daß die moderne allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie bisher keine überzeugende Antwort auf die Frage nach dem Status der Politischen Wissenschaft und ihrer theoretischen Erzeugnisse gegeben hat. In diesem Beitrag wird in Auseinandersetzung mit Steinvorth u. a. hervorgehoben: Analog zu der These, daß in der Politik Vernünftigkeit nicht auf Rationalität reduziert werden darf, ist es weder möglich noch wünschenswert, für alle spezifischen politischen Wertungen einen Erklärungstyp zu begründen oder als verbindlich vorzuschreiben. Die Wissenschaftstheorie muß sich in bezug auf die Frage nach dem Status „politischer“ Theorien mit einem Theorietypus beschäftigen, der ein neues Abgrenzungskriterium voraussetzt, nämlich einen spezifischen Satz von Prinzipien und Regeln zur Konstruktion politikwissenschaftlicher Theorien.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Da Goethes Farbenlehre im allgemeinen allein unter dem Blickwinkel der darin enthaltenen methodologischen Thesen untersucht wird, tritt hier die Rekonstruktion ihres physikalischen Gehalts in den Vordergrund. Es zeigt sich auf diese Weise, daß die Farbenlehre als eine Verbindung physikalischer und sinnesphysiologischer Aspekte einige der zentralen Versuche der Newtonschen Optik angemessen interpretieren kann. Die Diskussion der Methodologie zeitigt anschließend ein zukunftweisendes Element: die Erkenntnis der Bedeutung der Meßapparatur für die Konstitution der Theorie. Schließlich wird Goethes Naturbild und seine Aktualisierung in den Bestrebungen der kritischen Theorie erörtert.

Notes: Summary Presented here is an overview from the standpoints of sociology, history of science, philosophy of science and “pure science” of the lingering question of whether sociology is a form of scientific pursuit. The conclusion is drawn that sociology barely meets any of the rigid criteria traditionally associated with the natural sciences. Sociology is viewed as having a position of theory and argument which is labeled “inconoclastic scepticism.”

Notes: Summary Pluralism and monism are the two current views concerning scientific research and language understanding. Between them there is a third, intermediate, view. We take a “procedural methodology of science” as exemplified in the work of L. Tondl, and “procedural linguistics”, as exemplified in the work of B. Harrison, to be representative of this third possibility. Procedures are cognitive, linguistic, and physical processes which, through their hierarchical interconnections can generate fruitful “mechanisms”. These “mechanisms” are sensitive to context and operate in heuristic and algorithmic ways. Their similar logical structure points towards a profound unified basis for scientific and linguistic activities, thus providing an interesting bridge between what is achieved by a little child talking to his parents, and a creative scientist struggling to interpret the results of his experiments. “Variety of rules with unity of principles is a requirement of reason ..., such a requirement however, prescribes no law to the objects themselves. It is merely a subjective law of economy ..., namely a logical form, a faculty whereby the cognitions of the understanding are arranged among themselves only, andlower rules under higher ones.” Kant,Critique of Pure Reason “We can conceive of theinvention of new metaphors as aprocess of discovery, with definite criteria of success attached to it rather than as a matter of arbitrary caprice.” Harrison B.,Meaning and Structure

Notes: Abstract This study reviews the literature on academic environments with particular reference to the academic department which is seen as the most important factor in the teaching and learning environment. Departmental environment characteristics as identified by faculty and by students are described. For students the most important are:- Student-Faculty Relationships; Interest and Engagement in Teaching; and Satisfaction with Instruction. Differences between teaching and between learning environments are explained, especially differences between social science and natural science departments. These differences reflect the interaction between discipline, personal styles of faculty and students, and faculty-student relationships. Student academic satisfaction seems to be heavily dependent upon the relationships between students and faculty. Student achievement in relation to students' perception of the academic department seems to be dependent on the degree of their adaptation to the department. The studies reviewed clearly show that there are differences between departments. They also show that these differences may be explained not only by differences with regard to the characteristics of the academic discipline concerned, but also by differences concerning student-faculty relationships, faculty interest in students and teaching and the interaction between these factors. Teacher and student satisfaction and student achievement are affected by these variables.

Notes: Abstract First year student expectations of their forthcoming chemistry courses, the degree to which those expectations are realised, and their attitudes towards chemistry at the end of the year were examined by discriminant analysis. A total of 1,438 Students (Ss) drawn from three Belgian universities and taking twelve different major study subjects took part. Degree of satisfaction with the separate components of the chemistry courses, unlike the overall sense of satisfaction, does not seem to be a valid means of discriminating between their differing course needs. The same is true of their expectations. Any rejection of the development of abstract thinking in universities was found not to be the result of experience prior to university entrance. Attitudes towards chemistry alone also cannot be used as a means of discriminating between populations, although attitudes do correlate with the concordance between expectations and realisations. Evidence was also found supporting earlier work of others that negative attitudes toward science (in this case chemistry) are generated by pitching courses at too great a level of difficulty. Overlap of population interests indicates that the chemistry course needs of the students (Ss) could be met by four separate courses.

Notes: Abstract The historical background to the emergence of the Japanese system of higher education is described, attention being drawn to the link established between national aims and those of the university and to the system of gakubatsu (a form of patronage for graduates of a particular university). Post World War II expansion brought junior colleges (tanki-daigaku) into the sphere of higher education as well as universities (daigaku). Though formally and legally these classes of institution are equal they are in fact ranked according to the old system. Within universities there is also a ranking which is reinforced by gakubatsu. This ranking limits mobility in the academic profession; academic staff are likely to spend all their careers, undergraduate, postgraduate and as faculty members, at the same university. This system prevents Japanese scholars from taking posts abroad though it must also be pointed out that many Japanese academics go to great lengths to remain fully acquainted with western scholarship.

Notes: Abstract The term “certification”, as used in discussions concerning higher education, is clarified and a distinction made between terminal awards which do have a genuine “certifying effect” in the sense of procuring admission to a profession and those which do not. Institutions wishing to increase the value of the “certifying effect” of their awards, seek to do this by stimulating applications for entry to their institution. The longer the queue at the gate the greater the prestige of the terminal award. The ability to influence the “certifying effect” of an award does not, however, lie with the teaching institutions alone; business, the employers and the professions can, and increasingly do, determine the relative value of awards and of different ways of preparing for the exercise of a particular profession. The case of the business schools in France is described to illustrate how teaching institutions once they are established seek to increase the “certifying effect” of the diplomas they award by actually reducing the number of graduates. The numerus clausus, as applied to medical schools, provides another example of the same phenomenon. Such strategies lead to what the author describes as “consumer effect”. Once admittance to a prestige institution has been gained, entry to a position of influence and possibly affluence, is more or less assured. Students in such institutions, in both capitalist and communist countries, have exploited this by persuading teaching staff to acquiesce in a reduction of the demands made by the course, though some directors of institutions have begun to respond by failing more students, seeking to re-establish positions surrendered in the days of student unrest and by these and other means seeking to reduce “consumer effect”. Teacher training colleges provide an interesting example of institutions having a low but certain “certifying effect”, producing a high “consumer effect”. The possibility of deriving a general theory from the proposition put forward in the article is discussed.

Notes: Abstract In the 1970's Denmark established two new institutions called “university centers” which were to differ from the traditional universities in terms of academic organization and curriculum. The first center, Roskilde, was established near the national capital while the second center, Aalborg, was established in a provincial area. The development of these two centers, though emanating from the same plan, has been strikingly different particularly in terms of institutional stability, autonomy and distinctiveness. This article presents case studies of these two institutions from their opening in 1972 and 1974 respectively to the summer of 1979 and attempts to explain the different patterns of development.

Notes: Abstract The article describes our experience and experiments in helping to develop a training programme for academic staff at Universiti Sains Malaysia and the model of staff training associated with this programme. This is used as a basis for proposals for a more general scheme of staff training for universities in the South East Asian region, a special feature of the proposals being the use of distance teaching and of individualised learning materials in teaching and learning in higher education. The ultimate aim of the scheme is to make the region independent of outside assistance.

Notes: Abstract The problems involved in the effective dissemination of information and ideas concerning teaching in higher education are discussed. The contribution made by the operation of the Open University is considered in this context. The results of a study investigating the influence the Open University has on teaching staff in other institutions in higher education are reported and discussed. The teacher in higher education who is also a part-time staff member of the Open University is seen to be considerably influenced by the Open University. The influence of the Open University is attributed to the accessibility of its materials and its tendency to adopt the characteristics of curriculum innovation identified by the Nuffield researchers.

Notes: Abstract The use of planning models in higher education has been receiving increasing attention in recent years. The article summarizes the planning model literature from its earliest use to the present, emphasizing the generalized resource allocation models. An organizational chart is presented which allows a more specific categorization of models. Several examples of each category are cited from the current literature. Conceptual issues such as implementation, acceptance, suitability and effectiveness are discussed in terms applicable to models in general. The article concludes with an in-depth analysis of the six significant resource allocation models: HELP/PLANTRAN, RRPM, SEARCH, CAMPUS, TRADES, and EFPM.

Notes: Abstract Part-time positions in academe have long been considered women's work because of the opportunities they afford for child care and household responsibilities, as well as the lower status and pay which they generally carry. Recent data indicate that men are just as likely as women to be part-timers, and that the large majority of women do not fit the stereotypical view of women part-timers. This paper uses data from a nation-wide survey of part-timers, conducted by the American Association of University Professors in 1977, to compare job-related characteristics of males and females and their motivations for working part-time. The data suggest that part-time academic employment may, in fact, be a female issue since some differences between the sexes are found to exist. In several instances women appear to be worse off than their male counterparts. The article concludes with policy recommendations to improve this situation.

Notes: Abstract For the past two decades universities in Africa have been engaged in a re-examination of their relationship with society. In the light of this, the popular characterization of the African university as reflecting colonial, international, “stages of development”, or “levels of integration” models, appears inadequate to describe the challenge involved in creating an African identity for the university. Similarly, conceptions of the university as an instrument for creating an “educated”, “planned” or “changed” society or to think of it in terms of preserving and reflecting the dominant features of society, seem inadequate to describe fully the demands of contemporary and future society upon the university. A new framework of thought is urgently required; such a framework would encompass the desired aims of both the university and society and the relationships - dynamic and organic - between them. This article attempts to formulate such a framework and indicates its implications for the structure, content and operation of the university in Africa.

Notes: Abstract Drawing upon recent literature on educational inflation, overeducation, and the diploma disese, this paper examines analytically both the positive and negative aspects of degreeism in developed as well as in developing nations. Some of the positive effects of degreeism found are, for example, (1) a positive employment effect, (2) a proxy information effect, and (3) ritualistic effects. Among the major negative effects of degreeism discussed are (1) economic waste, (2) imbalance between job expectations and labor market realities, and (3) consumer deceit. Finally, alternative policy suggestions are presented for addressing the problem of degreeism. Some of the policies discussed are the degree tax, incomes policy, improved labor market information services, and modified civil service procedures. The major implication of such policies is to direct attention to the real issue of competency, not diplomas.

Notes: Abstract The validation of models of “good” teaching is discussed in terms of students' learning, and opinions of teaching are considered in this context. First-year university students were asked their opinions about good teaching and 40 items were derived from the interview data. The appropriate student population (2300) was then asked to rate the items for (a) Importance, and (b) Typicality. Discrepancies between ideal and typical teaching were derived for the whole sample and six different degree groups. Generally, the groups have similar opinions but there are significant differences depending upon the discipline studied and specific teaching experiences. Ratings were factor-analysed to reveal the underlying dimensions. The model of good teaching is characterised by two general factors — the first is learning-centred, the second associated with teaching — together with some minor specific factors. No general factors are associated with the “typical” models which tend to be more complex. Some methodological and practical implications of the results are discussed.

Notes: Abstract The question posed in the title refers to policy for the professional development of academic staff. The answer is considered in five parts with reference to (a) staff associations; (b) university councils; (c) university departments; (d) individual staff; and (e) students. Policies and professionalism are discussed with reference to experiences in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the U.K. A professional development policy is considered to be a prerequisite for in-service programmes for academic staff, for evaluation of academic performance and career related decisions. Members of a profession should accept responsibility for the practice of the profession. In particular, detailed reference is made in the Appendix to the history of the preparation of a policy for the professional development of academic staff by the New Zealand Association of University Teachers.

Notes: Abstract A random sample of 93 lecturers responded to a 40-item questionnaire based on researches into explaining. The lecturers' views on the learnability of various features of explaining were not related to their years of experience of lecturing. But there were significant differences between arts-based and science lecturers on seventeen of the variables and between least and most experienced lecturers on ten of the variables concerned with assigned values. It is suggested that a lecturer's views on explaining may arise from the experience of studying a subject as an undergraduate.

Notes: Abstract This article provides a framework for analysis of the difficulties inherent in educational change. Examples are drawn from medical education to clarify the propositions. Implications for interventions are discussed briefly.

Notes: Abstract The typical Institution of Higher Education (IHE) is usually a large and complex organization. This article develops a framework that fits, with minor if any differences, all IHEs with the aim of improving our understanding of the IHEs functional organizational structure, administrative processes, and its information needs. This framework can be used both as a tool for research as well as for practical application. This article will focus on identifying: (1) the principal functional subsystems of the IHE; (2) their main interrelations; and (3) their interrelations with the external environment. It will be seen that the IHE's functional subsystems cluster into seven upper-level functional systems and two super-functional systems. Special attention will be given to the nature of the functional subsystem in itself.

Notes: Abstract This study reveals and confirms earlier work regarding the positive influence of marriage on the scholastic achievement of community college students. It was found that marital status was an important predictor of community college graduating Q.P.A. in the following programs of study: Business Administration General, Business Administration Transfer, Executive Secretarial, and Nursing Education. Specifically, being a married woman appeared to place students in these programs at an academic advantage. It is suggested that researchers should look more closely at what marriage does to enhance a student's performance at the community college level.

Notes: Abstract A state survey of all two-year colleges in New York focused on the assessment of academic advising in order to facilitate recommendations for institutional policy making. Questions were asked about pre-service training of academic advisers, in-service training of advisers, and the evaluation of advisers and the advising process. Responses were obtained to 10 literature-based statements using a six-point Likert-type scale. A zero-order correlation matrix and a common factor analysis showed relationships between and among variables. It was emphasized that there does not appear to be a single prescription for those institutions who wish to formulate policy for academic advisement.

Notes: Abstract Filipino and American undergraduate students rated college instructor characteristics according to their perceived importance for effective teaching. Items were selected to reflect relevant value orientations in Filipino and American cultures. Factor analysis of the ratings revealed six underlying dimensions. MANOVA results showed that the group ratings on the six corresponding subscales were significantly different. Discriminant function analysis revealed that Filipino students rated items pertaining to authoritarianism and personal appearance of the instructor as significantly more important for effective teaching than did American students. This suggests that cross-cultural differences in perceptions of effective teaching may be predictable from a knowledge of both similar and conflicting value orientations in the specific cultures. Implications for the academic adjustment of students from different cultures were discussed.

Notes: Abstract Dorfman (1980b) investigated correlates of professional activity in retirement of professors at a major state university who continued to reside in their academic community during the entire year. This follow-up study extends that research to the total population of emeriti by including emeriti who left the University community after retirement and emeriti who continued to live in the University community for part of the year. Interviews were conducted with 113 University of Iowa emeritus professors. There was consistency between level of professional activity during the preretirement career and level of professional activity in retirement for the entire group, with “stayers” more consistent than “leavers.” Significant correlates of professional activity in retirement for the entire group included rated importance of consulting and University service, strength of ties to colleagues and professional organizations outside the University, contacts with former students, and perceived rapidity of changes in knowledge in respondents' fields. Multiple regression results showed that the strongest predictors of professional activity in retirement were level of professional activity during the preretirement career and strength of ties to professional organizations outside the University.

Notes: Abstract This research compared the effectiveness of Peer-Centered (PC) and Instructor-Centered (IC) formats for Teaching-Assistant-led discussion sections in chemistry. In addition, an Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI) was hypothesized, such that self-described “collaborative” students would report more learning from the PC format and “competitive” students would benefit more from the IC format. The PC format utilized small subgroups and student presentations, while in the IC format the Teaching Assistant lectured, solved problems, and answered questions. The two sections were approximately equal in overall learning, except that more learning from fellow students occurred in the PC sections. The expected ATI effect was found. In addition, students with interpersonally oriented learning styles benefited more from interactive learning opportunities (such as sections), while those with other learning styles gained more from impersonal media (such as textbooks).

Notes: Abstract This paper reviews the origins of institutional research and its more recent association with a separately identifiable planning function. It examines in depth the issues involved in institutional research and planning and particularly emphasizes the role of values, politics, and social pressures in regard to the planning function. Planning by single institutions is likely to be more directed to attaining administrative and faculty aspirations than to meeting educational and social needs. As a result, there is considerable doubt that the institutional research and the planning function can be successfully conjoined. To prevent one dominating the other, the best resolution is that of interacting but independent units whose analyses and recommendations are brought into accord with reality (both needs and resources) by the administrations and boards in which responsibility for institutional operations is vested. The paper also points up some of the problems generated for institutional researchers by the poor quality and unjustified claims and recommendations of much of what purports to be scholarly writing or research on higher education.

Notes: Abstract This study assesses the effects of college social prestige and college selectivity on men's occupational status and income. The analyses are based on a national sample of men from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. College selectivity, but not college social prestige, has a significant impact on middle-aged men's income in a single year. Neither college social prestige nor selectivity, however, affect further growth in middle-aged men's income. Nor do they affect men's occupational status.

Notes: Abstract A number of recent studies have used generalizability theory to examine the dependability of student ratings of instruction. This study extends this line of research by examining the consistency of ratings between different sections of a course taught in a given semester by the same instructor, and by comparing the performance of global- and attribute-type instructor rating items. Five samples of physics instructors, varying in size from 5 to 12 instructors, were rated by their students on a form containing two global and eight attribute items. Each instructor taught two sections of a course. The study found that the section effect was small (ratings of instructors were consistent across different sections of the same course), and that the generalizability of ratings was substantially influenced by item specificity. For summary purposes, one global item seemed sufficient.

Notes: Abstract Mentor professors were surveyed with respect to their most successful “protégés” regarding scholarly production, the mentorship role, and their careers. Career stage, network stratification, and weak-tie theories provided the conceptual frameworks. The 62 mentors were highly productive professors who were predominantly both graduates and employees of research universities. Mentors overwhelmingly nominated as their most successful protégés those whose careers were essentially identical to their own—i.e., their “clones.” Women mentors named as most successfully protégés more than twice as many females and males than men did. More productive mentors linked with a greater number of protégés but were less knowledgable about their personal lives, as Granovetter's theory would predict. The results also demonstrate the openness of the network within stratified levels.

Notes: Abstract Multiple group discriminant analysis was employed to determine the utility of preenrollment traits and academic performance in identifying freshman students who persisted, stopped out, or withdrew early from an urban, nonresidential university. An equation based on nine preenrollment variables significantly discriminated among the three groups and correctly identified 48.1% of an independent validation sample (p〈.001 for the hypothesis that overall correct classification was a significant improvement on chance). The clearest separation based on preenrollment traits was between stopouts on the one hand and both persisters and withdrawals on the other. It was only after first-quarter academic performance was added to preenrollment traits that a sharp discrimination was found between persisters and early voluntary withdrawals.

Notes: Abstract This is a comparative longitudinal analysis of the performance of minority and nonminority students in four successive entering classes at a highly selective college. Graduation rates were comparable, but the two groups were found to be as sharply differentiated with respect to cumulative grade point average (GPA) at the end of 4 years as they were at the end of the first year. Unanticipated across-class increases in mean GPA relative to ability, greater for minority than for nonminority students, were found and their implications considered. The validity of admissions tests with respect to long-term cumulative GPA was comparable to that obtained when first-year GPA was used. Questions are raised regarding the possible effect on minority students of persistent minority-nonminority differences in academic performance, especially in settings in which the two groups are sharply differentiated on academic ability measures. Findings of a similarly designed study in a less selective setting are also considered.

Notes: Abstract Based on a national survey of 491 department heads in 25 major universities in the United States, this study examines what department heads perceive to be the component parts in making assignments to faculty members. The importance of evaluating faculty resources based on effort required rather than on time devoted to given tasks is stressed. Regression analysis is used to investigate how department heads interpret effort required to teach classes and how this effort varies by discipline (Biglan taxonomy), by class level, by number of students, and by type of instructional technique. The results are validated against reported time expenditures from a faculty activity analysis.

Notes: Abstract Facing a future of static or declining funding available for faculty salaries, higher education management must evolve strategies to enable their institutions to avoid stagnation of their most prominent and essential resource—the institution's faculty. This task is especially complex in the health sciences because of the existence of two distinct faculty cohorts each with unique organizational characteristics. A simulation model designed to embody this duality is used to assess a variety of policies both individually and in combination. The authors propose guidelines for health-science school administrators in formulating policies to help maintain faculty vitality given severe resource constraints.

Notes: Abstract The potential utility of a college admissions test as a measure of the cognitive learning outcomes of general education is investigated. A residual form of the ACT Assessment was administered to a stratified random sample of 112 seniors at Tennessee Technological University. Detailed comparisons of gain scores are made with those of a previous study which focused upon educational growth with two years of college. Although the results show substantial gains in performance on the ACT Assessment for the seniors, the absence of demonstrable relationships with institutional experience or “exposure” variables together with the presence of “ceiling” effects warrant the recommendation that admissions tests are not appropriate as indicators of cognitive learning outcomes.

Notes: Abstract The merits of double exponential smoothing are discussed relative to other types of pattern-based enrollment forecasting methods. The basic assumptions and formulas for its use are outlined. The difficulties associated with selecting an appropriate weight factor are discussed, and the potential effect on prediction results is illustrated. Two methods for objectively selecting the “best” weight factor are described and analyzed, and evidence is presented suggesting that they may be used effectively in the enrollment-forecasting process.

Notes: Abstract This study examines in-state and out-of-state choice pattern differences among students with regard to certain academic and economic variables (e.g., class standing, parental income, financial support, costs) and then examines the impact that financial aid would have upon their choice. A sample survey of 26,903 Pennsylvania public and nonpublic high school seniors illustrated the role that specific background variables play in determining locational choice. The trends and relationships that emerge provide valuable information to policy makers that can be geared to the specific economic, academic, and geographical preference characteristics of those contemplating formal studies.

Notes: Abstract A research program is suggested that integrates Admissions procedures and methods of statistical analysis to study the first stage of the Admissions selection process: the rating of applicants. To form the base for evaluation research, a systematic procedure is described that provides an index of applicant “quality” in the light of institutional goals. Then the rating process itself is explored using a Path Model to measure the contributions of background and achieved characteristics of applicants to their rating. How questions of bias may be raised and pursued is discussed. Applicants are profiled in segments to show how the effects of policy adjustments may be monitored. For doing marketing research, quality-by-enrollment status segments are defined. Using factor analysis models, an analysis of image variance is applied. Next, a discriminant analysis is used to isolate those institutional attributes that most influence higher quality applicants to enroll. Some specifics of a differentiated policy are given in examples. Implications of this integrated approach are discussed.

Notes: Abstract In recent years, psychologists and educators have shown increased interest in the moral development of college students. Kohlberg and Rest discuss a six-stage model of moral judgment development that has generated considerable research. The findings have raised several issues regarding the relevance of attitudes, traits, and experiences in understanding the moral judgment development of students. This study examines the differential impact of (1) college experiences, (2) attribution beliefs and attitudes about punitiveness, (3) educational and academic characteristics, and (4) freshmen level of moral judgment development on the level of moral development of upper-division students, who as freshmen were classified as having either low or high levels of moral reasoning. For freshmen with low moral reasoning scores, their upper-division level of moral judgment development was significantly related to their causal attribution beliefs regarding personal responsibility. For those freshmen with high moral reasoning scores, their initial level of moral reasoning was the most significant factor related to their upper-division level of moral judgment development. For these students, participation in extracurricular activities was negatively related to upper-division moral reasoning scores. The more they had participated in extracurricular activities, the lower their upper-division moral reasoning scores.

Notes: Abstract Differences in achievement motivations and work values between various types of students are examined. The vocational model is contrasted with the collegiate and non-conformist groups. Using 276 students from Boston University and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, the relationships between types of students and their work values and motivational profiles were investigated by means of factor and discriminant analyses. Both comparisons (the vocational vs. the collegiate and the vocational type vs. the nonconformist) were statistically significant. The comparison between the vocational and academic types was not statistically significant. The results indicate that student self-descriptions on the Clark-Trow typology of academic orientations are associated with different profiles of both achievement motives and work values.

Notes: Abstract The purpose of this study was to test the generalizability of results obtained in laboratory research in the area of persistence behavior of students who drop college courses. Four hypotheses that included predictions concerning which students were most likely to drop courses, which courses were most likely to be dropped, and at what point in the semester students were most likely to drop courses were formulated from the results of laboratory research. None of the hypotheses were adequately supported by the data, suggesting that the results of laboratory research in this area are not readily transferable to college course-dropping behavior, at least without taking into account more relevant situational and personal variables.

Notes: Abstract This paper considers some important psychological aspects of the academic experience for male and female graduate faculty members and students. Drawing on data collected in a recent national study of doctoral program quality, information pertaining to the graduate department's environment for learning, the extent of faculty members' concern for students, graduate student assistantship experiences, and faculty members' satisfactions and views about various departmental practices and policies are examined. Gender differences in both student and faculty member perceptions of their environments were found to be generally slight and to vary by discipline.

Notes: Abstract Regressions can be used to analyze the relationship between departmental activities and the need for nonacademic staff and operating funds. Support costs are broken into task categories and related to certain basic variables describing the composition and activity of the unit (e.g., FTE academic staff, teaching load). The results are then linked in a total model which predicts the cost for departmental support based on institutional activity variables. Beside the number of students, there are other variables such as the number of fields of study, number of teaching and research staff, and the laboratory equipment. The model is generalizable to many national settings.

Notes: Abstract In order to identify factors which help or hinder learning, student evaluations of a course were analysed. The responses were classified in relation to learning in the areas of content, personal development and behavioural change. The major factors which emerged were expectations, learning style and personality. It is suggested that learning is strongly influenced by the interaction between these student characteristics and the parallel features of courses and teachers.

Notes: Abstract The work of universities in developing countries is reviewed in the context of a consideration of the whole system of education in such countries in the post World War II period. The author recommends closer links between the school and university systems with a view to improving teacher education, the creation of school curricula more relevant to current needs and flexibility in relation to admission to post-secondary education. Universities should develop programmes, including sub-degree programmes, designed to meet manpower needs. Efforts should be directed towards developing non-formal education, the training of administrators, political leaders and towards stimulating rural and cultural development. Universities in developing countries should maintain links with universities in advanced countries; the standards they set should be comparable with those of universities in advanced countries whilst at the same time being related to the needs and aspirations of the local communities. Examples are drawn from Africa and the South Pacific.

Notes: Abstract During the rapid growth of higher education from the early 1960s to the mid 1970s, many new universities were founded in different parts of Finland. This article, resulting from the research project “University and Environment,” deals with the impact of this decentralized system of higher education on the regional development of Finland. The research is based on an analysis of the historical and social context of the expansion of higher education, followed by a more detailed examination of the different forms of regional impact. The findings suggest that the change from an agrarian to an industrial or post-industrial society has given rise to the assumption that higher education is a part of the social infrastructure in the world of scientific-technological revolution.

Notes: Abstract The aim of this article is to examine critically—through a review of human capital and screening theories—the foundation of factional pressures for upgrading educational credentials in the labour market. The article refers back to the writings of Adam Smith to show that not only do the claims of the beneficial and productive social effects of educational upgrading need questioning but that these have been so questioned for more than 200 years.

Notes: Abstract This article utilizes data from two surveys of college graduates to addres the issue of the value of postsecondary education in the labor market. In considering income, relation of job to college major, and job satisfaction, it concludes that underemployment and job dissatisfaction are less pervasive than many researchers would have us believe. Differences by sex are also considered. Given a choice of whether or not to attend college, it seems clear that the decision to attend is the wise one. And one way to maximize potential job-related benefits is to be judicious in choice of major. Students apparently are of this advice and are acting accordingly.

Notes: Abstract This case study of the development of the University of Technology in Baghdad, Iraq, illustrates how from its foundation in 1975, this new technological university has adjusted its work to national needs as expressed in National Development Plans. The basic engineering course has a two-plus-two structure with the possibility of students becoming technicians after the first two years, thus meeting a particular national shortage. The course lays particular emphasis upon practical applications and upon close involvement with industry. As industry in Iraq has broadened its scope the curriculum in the university has widened. The non-technical subjects within the course have become more significant in response to a perceived national need. The authors offer this case-study for consideration by those who are concerned with the interaction of universities with society.

Notes: Abstract Considerable stress is associated with undergraduate examinations. Traditional medical schools appear to regard such stress as inevitable and expect students to cope with their anxieties. The Newcastle medical school decided to develop curricular strategies for preventing (or at least reducing) such anxieties, rather than adopt medical or psychological treatment methods for students who subsequently appear unable to cope. Students and staff recommended changes to the original assessment programme after it had operated for four terms. This article reviews the changes and reports on students' greater satisfaction with them and the Newcastle medical school's attitude towards programme improvement. Suggestions are made for a more open, educational approach to student assessment by other learning institutions.

Notes: Abstract Although many institutions are expending considerable effort in attempts to assess institutional performance and to utilize the results in improving performance, there are many impediments to the success of these endeavours. These include conceptual problems with the notion of institutional performance, inadequacies in the current measurement techniques and judgement procedures, and the mis-match between the results produced and management's information requirements. Institutional management in higher education has unique characteristics which give rise to particular information needs. The existing approaches to institutional evaluation vary in their ability to provide information meeting management's requirements.

Notes: Abstract In Part 1 Zimmermann describes the conditions of study, taking as a starting point the considerations relating to the founding of Federal Armed Forces universities in Hamburg and Munich and explaining their educational concept. He then gives an account of the organization, modus operandi and curricular considerations of the Federal Armed Forces University, Munich. These observations are focussed on the successful attempts to offer scientific study courses (four in Hamburg and seven in Munich) providing, after three and a quarter to, at the most, four years, qualifications which are equal in standard to the corresponding diplomas of public universities. Owing to the fact that study courses are shorter and equal in standard, the success rate is, by comparison, slightly lower at the moment. This applies in particular to the technical/natural science courses. The reasons for this will be indicated. As a result of this situation, there is a desire for optimum examination procedures. Ulbricht reports in Part 2 on a study of the problems relating to examinations which he conducted at the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering. First of all he discusses the criteria for “good” grading procedures, then describes the four most common ones and applies them to the results of a written test in engineering mechanics held as part of the preliminary diploma examination; a quantitative comparison produces remarkable results. In conclusion, he studies the required length of the written test and proposes that it should be halved.

Notes: Abstract This article offers a direct empirical test of one of the main tenets of the human capital model. It shows that by the end of their compulsory education English pupils in general are aware of the relationship between educational qualifications and average earnings. For the first time in Britain direct calculations are made of ex ante perceived rates of return to upper secondary and higher education. The perceived rates correspond closely to the actual rates estimated by earlier studies. The article also provides useful evidence of differences between social classes and ability groups. In particular it shows that the human capital model offers a much less satisfactory explanation of the behaviour of low ability and working class pupils than it does of high ability and middle class pupils. A sample of just under 3,000 16-years-old students in England were tested on their reasoning ability and asked about their family backgrounds, self concepts, educational intentions and anticipated earning capacity at various stages of their working lives.

Notes: Abstract This paper examines the impact of the Williams Committee Report on Education and Training on the Australian universities since its publication in February, 1979. In it we discuss the influence of public policy on tertiary education as it has been implemented by the Federal and State Governments of the Commonwealth following the release of the Report. The Federal Government's stated policy in response to the Report was to continue the process of monitoring and adjusting the education system in accord with the Williams Committee proposals for evolutionary change to improve the quality of education. How-ever, because Australian education is experiencing a period of tight economic restraint, it is not surprising that the first tangible reactions to the sections of the Report about universities were to those recommendations about cost, efficiency and availability of tertiary education as well as to those about integration and rationalisation of resources. These outcomes are examined in the context of three Universities, namely, Murdoch University (the Western Australian State Government established a Committee of Inquiry to make recommendations about the future of Murdoch as a result of proposals made by the Williams Committee about it integrating with the University of Western Australia), The University of Tasmania (the Tasmanian State Government took action to follow-up the submission made by the Tasmanian Treasury to the Williams Committee about the rationalisation of resources in tertiary education) and The University of Wollongong (chief executive officers of institutions from the three sectors of higher education in the Illawarra region have reformed an informal advisory group which had operated before the Williams Committee Report was released, into an Advisory Council with a more formal status to explore areas of possible collaboration and cooperation). These reactions have had the aim of broadening the scope of university activities in three of the smallest universities in Australia. In each case, a number of fundamentally important educational and resource issues have been raised and the reactions of the universities have been shaped by public policies. We believe that universities as social institutions should take into account the needs of societies in making decisions about their interests and welfare. It is therefore of paramount importance for universities to be fully aware of relevant public policies and be able and willing to respond constructively.

Notes: Abstract This article reviews some studies of individual demand for higher education undertaken during the 1970s. It argues that although lifetime earnings are positively related to educational qualifications, rates of return to education do not seem to matter much for either public or private educational decisions. Public educational decisions seem to be affected more by such factors as the inertia of the system, expected externalities of socio-political importance, which are not measurable and, therefore, are excluded from the rate of return calculations and some educational objectives, such as meeting social demand and for ensuring equal opportunities to all individuals, which public authorities adopt at any time period. On the other hand, pupils' educational plans for post-secondary education were found to be greatly influenced by their scholastic achievement, sex and socio-economic status. It was also found that the economic factor which clearly enters into their decisions function, is initial salary differentials. However, a high proportion of pupils do not possess this information. It is also argued that individual demand for post-secondary education could be estimated with a high degree of approximation on the basis of pupils' scholastic achievement at secondary school, sex and socio-economic status. The pupil's ability to finance his further studies, particularly the poor student and in the absence of grant or loan systems is of great importance.

Notes: Abstract This article reviews a number of individualized approaches to student learning. The order in which they are discussed is such that each successive approach offers students an increasingly wider degree of choice to determine their own goals and the means of achieving them. Thus at one end of the spectrum is the Keller Plan type of approach, offering students very limited freedom of choice, while at the other end is the Independent Study type of approach, offering students the greatest degree of freedom. The individual approaches are reviewed, and placed in perspective relative to one another, by noting to what extent each might be described as reflecting a number of well-recognised principles of learning. It is clear from the review that an approach cannot automatically be described as being an improvement on another simply because it offers students a greater degree of freedom of choice.

Notes: Abstract This article is based on a survey of universities and polytechnics in the United Kingdom carried out in 1979. The results shed light on the question of who the people are who provide training and development for teachers in institutions of higher education: their departmental attachment, their timetabled involvement, and the facilities that they offer. The article concludes with a discussion of the background to, and implications of, the disparate resources for staff development in universities and polytechnics.

Notes: Abstract Any cost analysis begins by identifying the main cost-inducing variables in the system under consideration. Once these are identified and suitable measures of output derived, it is possible, although not always easy, to analyse expenditure against the level of activity associated with each variable, and thence derive unit costs per measure of output. These unit costs can then be used to assess the financial implications of alternative plans. Such financial information forms an important element in the assessment of any plan. Indeed, while not the only consideration, it is difficult to see how decision-making can be wholly effective in the absence of an analytical framework for the analysis of institutional costs. Such cost projections also enable average student costs to be determined and projected. The importance of these is that they give an indication of the relative overall efficiency of the institution, in comparison with other institutions operating at the same level. The article uses the Universidad Estatal a Distancia as an example to illustrate the methodology and utility of cost analysis in educational planning and decision-making.