ALBERT

Notes: This study develops a microanalytic simulation model to examine the effects of macroeconomic fluctuations on the distribution on the distribution of income. A representational sample of the population of the United States is linked with equations determining the variability of various types of factor income. Each family's income experience is simulated under alternative aggregate conditions, and the income distributions arising under these conditions are compared. The main results are similar for alternative specifications of the model. The incidence of a downturn in economic activity, whether accompanied by changes in the rate of inflation or not, and measured in terms of the loss of factor income, leaves the upper middle class relatively better off than before and leaves most others relatively worse off. The very rich bear the heaviest burden.

Notes: In the latest official national income publication the Australian Commonwealth Statistician has altered the treatment of stock appreciation in the measurement of national income at current prices. Previously, stock appreciation had been included in both national expenditure and national product. Now the amount of stock appreciation (the difference between the change in the value of stocks and the value of the change in stocks) has been deducted from investment in stocks, and consequently national expenditure, and from trading incomes, and consequently national income. The former procedure (including stock appreciation in national expenditure and national product) had been advocated by the present author, when editor of the first official national income publications issued by the Commonwealth Statistician. In this note an attempt is made to set out the reasons for this view. A new approach is also suggested for handling the item of stock appreciation in national income accounts, which does not rest on the assumption that stock appreciation is a capital gain which should be excluded from trading incomes and national product.

Notes: This paper entails an investigation of the effects of data revisions on forecasting accuracy, through use of preliminary and revised national accounting data compiled by the United Nations. A small model was estimated for each of fourteen countries and ex post“forecasts” generated for each country and each year of the period 1957–1964, using first preliminary and then revised data.A prior analysis of the data revisions indicated a strong and widespread tendency for the preliminary estimates to understate both levels and year-to-year changes. This is consistent with the findings of other studies.Two sets of forecasts obtained from the reduced form of the model were considered in relation to “actual” levels and changes, obtained from the revised data, and also in relation to each other. A strong downward bias was observed in the forecasts of levels based on preliminary data, and a weaker one in the forecasts of changes. The forecast discrepancies for different variables were found to be significantly correlated.The results suggest that a tendency toward understatement in preliminary data may account in part for the general tendency toward understatement in forecasts noted in other studies.

Notes: Part I: Availability and meaning of East European distributional statistics are discussed. Part II: Measures of inequality to be used in this study are examined: the Gini coefficient of concentration, though superior to some other single indicators, is found to be an unreliable comparative measure of inequality, and is therefore supplemented by a set of ratios of selected percentiles to the median. Part III: Inequality of full-time gross monthly earnings is measured for (almost) the whole civilian working population and for some subpopulations (selected industries, men, women) in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia through 1970, in Hungary through 1968: the observed inequality appears to be less than in small capitalist countries, in spite of the reversal of the socialist egalitarian trend in the 'sixties. The main factor of equalization of socialist earnings are small interoccupational and interregional differentials and a very flat age profile. Part IV: The socio-economic structure of households, the size of samples underlying the distributional statistics, and the composition of household “revenues” (wage and salary earnings, agricultural incomes, social security payments, relatively unimportant property incomes, as well as non-income cash flows) are examined. Inequality coefficients are estimated for per capita revenues of all households as well as subpopulations of households in Czechoslovakia and Hungary, and some information is given on the distribution of household incomes in Yugoslavia. Part V: Limits of desirable equalization of earnings are discussed. With very narrowly dispersed short-term earnings, lifetime earnings tend to be rather unequally distributed because of the variation of earning years among occupations. With largely equalized primary incomes, per capita household incomes tend to be more unequally distributed, in spite of massive transfers, because of the varying ratio of earners to dependents within households. The need of income differentials as incentives to work, the probable trade-off between income equality and economic growth, and socialist distributive principles are outlined.

Notes: In this paper we discuss a few of the problems that have been encountered in defining output and in comparing prices for the International Comparison Project (ICP). We report also on the way in which these problems are being met.The ICP has for its purpose the establishment of a systematic set of procedures for making international comparisons of gross domestic product (GDP) and of the purchasing power of currencies. Substantive work on comparisons involving Colombia, the European Economic Community (EEC), Hungary, India, Japan, Kenya, the United Kingdom and the United States is also being carried on with the aid of the statistical services of the countries and of the EEC. It is hoped to expand the comparisons beyond these countries as rapidly as possible.

Notes: This paper discusses a number of problems arising in comparisons of levels of national accounting aggregates between countries with different economic systems, notably between countries with market economies and countries with centrally planned economies. It considers problems arising from differences in the national accounting concepts used and problems arising from institutional differences, both of which are viewed as relating to the concepts on which the comparison should be based and the adjustment of national data to these concepts. The final section considers index number problems.

Notes: There is some advantage in comparing price levels using consistent methods because this gives unique results. This paper examines some available methods of consistent comparison, pointing out difficulties associated with heterogeneous data, and suggesting adaptations yielding better comparisons. Next, the problem of non-availability of price and quantity decomposition is considered. Another problem relating to non-identical lists of commodities and quality differences is tackled by using linear programming instead of regression methodology, both methods using some transformed variables. The procedure suggested is likely eventually to be useful for comparison of dissimilar countries. Computations on some Indian population groups illustrate the findings.

Notes: The article reviews the methods used in practice and/or proposed by various authors for compiling indices in multilateral international comparisons. The various procedures are examined in the light of the following requirements: characteristicity (i.e. the weights should be characteristic to the countries which are compared), unbiasedness, circularity, internal consistency and factor relations.There is no perfect solution since characteristicity and circularity are always and unbiasedness and internal consistency often in conflict with each other. The indices which are best for bilateral purposes are not transitive and the basic problem of multilateral comparisons is to obtain circularity, without losing too much of the characteristicity of the bilateral comparisons. Different compromises between the two requirements are possible and this is first of all what distinguishes the various methods used in practice.Two main types of solution are applied in the various international comparisons. The first is based on the inter-spatial Fisher's ideal formula (e.g. the Eltetö–Köves–Szulc method, the van Yzeren method, the “central country” solution); the second type uses some kind of average prices (e.g. the Geary–Khamis method).In the author's view there is no best method in absolute terms. Every method has some weaknesses and which of these weaknesses is the easiest to accept depends to a large extent on the actual aims of the comparison and on various other circumstances.

Notes: This paper attempts to estimate genuine scale effects in retail trade from a cross section of retail stores in Israel. This is done by estimating a simple production function for several retail branches and employing the faithful old direct Cobb-Douglas structure with value added as output and labor and capital inputs. And indeed despite the well-known peculiarities of the retail industry, a cross section estimation produces “normal” production-function estimates with reasonable input elasticities. The estimates also identify marked increasing returns-to-scale parameters, higher in food and lower in branches less affected by consumer participation and geographical dispersion. These increasing returns may explain a good part of the increase in sales per unit of inputs observed in time series.

Notes: This article consists of a description and critical analysis of two important works on national accounting which have appeared fairly recently—see footnotes 1 and 2. There are fundamental differences between the systems of accounts proposed in these two works, the author tending to prefer the Ruggles system. While full of admiration for the thoroughness and other qualities of the new SNA, the author finds the system it proposes over-elaborate as a programme for national statistical offices. In his view decision as to which is the “best” system is still wide open, despite the acceptance of the new SNA by the UN Statistical Commission. In the article there is bare mention of a new (1972) book Economic Accounts and Their Uses by J. W. Kendrick which the author has since read. All three works help in determining the best practical system of accounts. It is hoped that this article (in its small way) will also make a contributionThe subject of national accounts at constant prices is not dealt with at all in any of the three works despite the fact that it has received considerable attention at various meetings of IARIW. Accounts at constant prices and their concomitant price indexes are more important in these days of the curse of inflation than are accounts at current prices. Of course the new SNA deals with items at constant prices but the author finds the treatment rather inadequate.It is satisfactory that the new SNA provides for input-output but the author agrees with the Ruggles view that the textual treatment in SNA is somewhat incomplete.The article gives the author's views on many other topics relevent to national accounting (which encompass all economic statistics!) including price index number making, inaccuracies in data, delays in availability of so-called “current” statistics, and treatment of financial intermediaries.

Notes: This paper suggests a modification of the Becker–Chiswick model for analyzing investment in human capital where the capital market is imperfect. The modification essentially involves the addition of a consumption function to the model. As a result it is possible to include the effects of human capital investment on a student's income expectations, on consumption, and thereby on the availability of funds for the student to finance investment in human capital.

Notes: The objective of this paper is to present income and expenditure accounts, accumulation accounts, and the asset side of the wealth accounts for the U.S. private national economy in current and constant prices. These accounts are integrated with the production and factor outlay accounts for the U.S. private domestic economy in current and constant prices given in our earlier papers. Taken together, these accounts constitute a complete accounting system in current and constant prices for the private sector of the U.S. economy.Our complete accounting system incorporates a new concept of the standard of living, defined as the ratio of the quantity index of gross private national expenditures to the quantity index of gross private national consumer receipts. Our concept of the standard of living is similar but not identical to our concept of total factor productivity. Changes in the private standard of living reflect both changes in total factor productivity and changes in the proportion of the total product consumed in the public sector.

Notes: The results reported in the Searle report have stimulated me to carry out an extensive study of unit value indices, based on a much more extensive body of data and much improved procedures as compared to the preliminary evidence contained in my “Measurement Bias in Price Indices for Capital Goods,” published in this journal in June, 1971. Once again, the new study confirms the hypothesis that transaction prices of capital goods exhibit procyclical fluctuations relative to list prices. Machinery prices appear to have been considerably more flexible downward during the period of weak investment demand between 1957 and 1963 than indicated by the Wholesale Price Index (WPI), and more flexible upward during the subsequent expansion during 1963–1969. This brief paper is a summary of the study. A complete and detailed report or results is contained in my forthcoming monograph, Measurement of Durable Goods Prices, to be published by the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Notes: Professor Moser regards the purpose of social indicators as being to aid the policy maker by summarizing the state and changing conditions of society, pinpointing the outstanding existing and emerging social problems and monitoring the effects of social policies and programmes. Thus social indicators will frequently, though not necessarily, be normative and they will often, though again not necessarily, be concerned with outputs rather than inputs. Although many writers regard social indicators as being combinations of series, the problems of construction are substantial. Central to the idea of a social indicator, however, is that it should represent or summarize a broader concept than itself and that it should belong to a structure or system of series. Although there are no social theories about society in general on which a structure of indicators can at present be based there are a number of middle range theories relating to specific fields or sectors, such as occupational mobility, education, migration, mental health, etc., around which quantitative relationships and models can gradually be be built to give insight into social changes and perhaps eventually into the manipulation of policy instruments for the improvement of social conditions.

Notes: In a statistical file system, data collected from different sources and at different dates are stored at an individual unit level. Thus, they may be linked and used for the preparation of statistics and for analytical purposes as the need arises. The statistical file system will provide a much improved data basis for empirical research in the social services including demography, economics, economic geography, sociology, education, labour, social medicine, criminology and social psychology.

Notes: Serious doubts have been raised as to the validity of using cross-sectional estimates of the average propensity to consume over time. These d⊙ubts are based on empirical evidence for the United States presented by Kuznets and Goldsmith. This paper extends these considerations to developing countries by looking at the evidence for India. Simple statistical techniques, including ordinary least squares regression, Chow tests, and t-tests, are used in the estimation of the consumption functions and the formulation of hypotheses. Both India and the U.S. are seen to exhibit the same characteristic secular constancy in the average propensity to consume. For India the average propensity to consume is about 0.95 and is maintained in the face of no substantial secular increases in per capita income during the period under study (1919–1960).The same inconsistencies between time series and cross-section evidence on the average propensity to consume are found to exist for India. The permanent income theory suggested only a partial explanation of these inconsistencies and the reconciliation was achieved by a Duesenberry type explanation based on evidence for a shifting cross section consumption function over time. The date was provided by a set of Family Living Surveys for Industrial Workers: 1926, 1933–1935, 1950–1952, 1958–1959.Finally it was noted that the cross-section consumption function in India had shifted both upwards and downwards over the period under study, in contrast to the strict upward shift for the U.S. In an economy such as India's, where secular growth is by no means assured, it is not always likely that consumers can avoid lowering previously achieved consumption standards in the face of cyclical economic conditions.

Notes: The paper relates the Swedish discussion and criticism of national accounting statistics, especially GNP, as a measure of welfare. It describes some results of recent Swedish attempts to find practicable measures of welfare components, i.e. the investigations of the Low Income Commission and of the Expert Group on Regional Development Research. In both cases the regional aspects of welfare are emphasized in the paper.The results are presented as a sign of important needs for new methods and new systems of concepts in measuring welfare. The Expert Group has for instance in different ways tried to map and compare the “service structure” of separate parts of Sweden. The Low Income Commission has principally studied the position in Swedish society of low income recipients and has not been working particularly on the illumination of regional differences, but since different types of region are included as a background variable, the investigations also give certain measures of the regional aspects of welfare.In the last part of the paper some of the risks that seem to be difficult to avoid in trying to use welfare measurements are pointed out.

Notes: The paper is concerned with a method of organizing and analyzing information relating to human stocks and flows. The kind of statistical reporting system envisaged is of a traditional kind, but extended so as to record year-to-year changes of state. Life is divided into a number of sequences, each with its own set of characteristic classifications, to avoid an excessive proliferation of categories and so enable many analyses to be made with the kind of statistics already avilable in a number of countries. The need, for some analytical purposes, to combine classifications from different sequences is fully recognized; and this need indicates a direction in which statistical reporting systems should move in the future.The main analytical tool is a set of linear difference equations which, under suitable conditions, can be interpreted either in terms of an input-output system, as in economics, or in terms of an absorbing Markov chain, as in probability theory. A simple regression model is used to link characteristic classifications.About half the paper is taken up with numerical examples, mainly connected with the British educational system as it was in the mid-1960's. An application is also given to movements into, through and out of a psychiatric service system in Scotland.

Notes: This paper is directed at the following question: given an incomplete set of price data relating to goods or services in some category of output for each of a number of different countries, what arithmetic should be performed on the prices to get a meaningful representation of the relative category price-levels of the countries? In the course of developing an answer to the question, some broader matters are considered and illuminated. A comparison of category price-levels for different countries is analogous to a commonly-encountered problem in many areas, that of ranking ordinally or cardinally in one dimension a group of “entities”—persons, households, firms, industries, etc.—on the basis of sets of measurements associated with the individual entities. It is this point of view which dominates the following presentation.

Notes: In order to obtain the information needed to include Kenya in an international comparison of income and purchasing power, it was necessary to collect some data to supplement the regularly collected statistics. Special collection was particularly important for capital goods prices and rural consumer goods prices. The remainder of the work involved using unpublished data available from the Kenyan Statistical Division, either to obtain additional detail required by the comparison, or to maintain international consistency in concept and estimating procedures.

Notes: The paper begins with a discussion of the concepts used and the scope of their application. Then the purchasing power parity rates for LAFTA countries in 1968 are presented and analyzed. With the aid of such rates the real gross domestic products of these countries in 1968 are estimated. Among other conclusions, it is found that these differ quite importantly from GDP calculations using foreign exchange rates, even within the LAFTA area. Finally, the levels of consumer prices in the region in 1968 are compared, and these are contrasted with the results of a similar survey undertaken in 1960.

Notes: Several recent studies of short-cut estimates comparing real income (on a purchasing power basis) of countries are reviewed, including methods comparing real income based on indicators, like electricity consumption. New estimates are presented for 101 countries which had a tradition of conventional national income estimates in 1965, and for 40 countries without extended national income series. One conclusion from the empircial analysis was that until there exist a large number of countries for which purchasing power estimates of real income are available, it is difficult to discriminate between alternative short-cut methods using indicators, and difficult to estimate real per capita incomes of low income countries without substantial errors of estimate. The paper advocates more purchasing power estimates, and institutionalizing the collection of international prices of specified items so that abbreviated market baskets can be readily compared across countries.

Notes: This paper considers the adequacy of unit value indexes as proxies for industrial selling price indexes in Canada, in light of the considerations raised in the Searle report for the United States (summarized elsewhere in this issue). Some 3,237 regressions are run using the industrial selling price index for a commodity group as the dependent variable and the corresponding unit value index as the independent variable. The unit value indexes perform poorly as predictors of the I.S.P.I.; the overall tendency is for the unit value index to overestimate changes in the I.S.P.I.; and to explain on average only about 30 percent of the total variance of the I.S.P.I.

Notes: The current practice in national accounting is to exclude from national product investment in schooling and on-the-job training, except for direct costs of schooling which are included in consumption. Foregone earnings, which form the major part of investment in human capital, go unrecorded.Much is to be gained in consistency and analytical clarity by treating human capital like physical capital in national accounting. Estimating the amount of foregone earnings net of deterioration, that is, net investment, is a step in this direction.Using the framework of the life-cycle hypothesis of earnings, and assuming declining-balance deterioration of human capital, estimates of deterioration rates in respect of American males by race and education level are computed for 1960. Every such d is, however, the minimum consistent with the respective costs and benefits profile. Hence an upper limit d is assumed. The model generates for each costs and benefits profile and in respect of either d, a year-by-year series of net investment in human capital. These are used to obtain two estimates (which turn out to be close to each other) of aggregate net investment in American white males in 1960. On the basis of these estimates, aggregate net investment in human capital is found to be about equal to net investment in physical assets (including consumers’durables).It is also found that the Denison method of estimating the contribution of the increase in human capital to economic growth understates this contribution by a ratio approximately equal to net investment in on-the-job training to returns to human capital. This was about 16 percent in 1960.

Notes: Since Dr. Bartsch has gone only partially into the history of the United Nations definition of employment and unemployment, let me pursue it a bit further. To begin, the ILO is a Member Agency of the UN and thus automatically subsumed under the latter. I am fully aware that the ILO segment of the UN was given the area of labor statistics as its domain, and hence draws up official definitions, etc. (Except for the industrial composition classification of the economically active, which area was assigned to the UN Statistical Office.)

Notes: Master diagrams for electromagnetic responses of nine dipole dipole systems are presented for various depths of a vertical infinitely conducting vein. The YY system gives the minimum anomaly for both the inline and broadside arrays. Among other inline systems, it is difficult to decide the clearcut superiority of one system over the other, whereas the XX system in broadside array gives maximum anomaly.

Notes: The Laboratory of Geophysics of the University of Arizona was presented with an exploration problem by Falconbridge, Ltd. of Canada. Massive mineralized hemispherical “pods” are in the vicinity of a tuff layer of high conductivity and induced polarization response, covered by large thicknesses of resistive volcanics. The initial approach was to utilize electrolytic tank modeling. The extreme resistivity and IP contrasts proved to be difficult to recreate. Two dimensional modeling was attempted next with conductive paper, using copper and silver paint for anomalous masses. This method also proved inadequate. Finally, mathematical equations were solved which could model any arbitrary anomalous body in any steady state electrical field. Plane waves as well as point current sources producing non-plane waves are possible. Finite difference equations were derived for the non-linear partial differential equations under consideration. The equations were solved using a digital computer. Initially, the boundary conditions had to be satisfied at the boundaries of resistivity changes, severely restricting possible geometric shapes for anomalous bodies. The final and successful solution was to apply numerical techniques to obtain solutions of equations which require only that the relative resistivities through the area be specified. The Falconbridge problem and its solution are analyzed.

Notes: For the two and three layer cases geo-electrical sounding graphs can be rapidly and accurately evaluated by comparing them with an adequate set of standard model graphs. The variety of model graphs required is reasonably limited and the use of a computer is unnecessary for this type of interpretation.For more than three layers a compilation of model graphs is not possible, because the variety of curves required in practice increases immensely. To evaluate a measured graph under these conditions, a model graph is calculated by computer for an approximately calculated resistivity profile which is determined, for example, by means of the auxiliary point methods. This model graph is then compared with the measured curve, and from the deviation between the curves a new resistivity profile is derived, the model graph of which is calculated for another comparison procedure, etc. This type of interpretation, although exact, is very inconvenient and time-consuming, because there is no simple method by which an improved resistivity profile can be derived from the deviations between a model graph and a measured graph.The aim of this paper is, on the one hand, to give a simple interpretation method, suitable for use during field work, for multi-layer geo-electrical sounding graphs, and, on the other hand, to indicate an automatic evaluation procedure based on these principles, suitable for use by digital computer.This interpretation system is based on the resolution of the kernel function of Stefanescu's integral into partial fractions. The system consists of a calculation method for an arbitrary multi-layer case and a highly accurate approximation method for determining those partial fractions which are important for interpretation. The partial fractions are found by fitting three-layer graphs to a measured curve. Using the roots and coefficients of these partial fractions and simple equations derived from the kernel function of Stefanescu's integral, the thicknesses and resistivities of layers may be directly calculated for successively increasing depths.The system also provides a simple method for the approximative construction of model graphs.

Notes: The theoretical horizontal resistivity profiles over an outcropping vertical dyke for various parameters-electrode spacing, vein-width and resistivity contrast—with inline alpha, beta and gamma-Wenner electrode systems are described. The resistivity profiles present a most bewildering variety of shapes as compared to those in resistivity soundings. The analysis of type curves suggests suitable electrode configuration for detection of wide, moderately wide, and thin veins. The negative apparent resistivity values on the gamma anomalies for resistive vein over certain vein-widths of higher positive values of resistivity reflection factor contradict the concept of apparent resistivity hitherto held.

Notes: Il est maintenant courant d'employer l'ordinateur pour interpréter les sondages électriques. Cependant, le problème à résoudre en prospection électrique n'admettant pas une solution unique, le but des traitements automatiques consiste simplement à fournir plusieurs hypothèses qui aident à bâtir une interprétation géologique des mesures géophysiques. C'est, d'ailleurs, ce qu'on recherche aussi par la comparaison visuelle des courbes de terrain avec des abaques précalculés. Mais, tandis que l'interprétation manuelle, pour conduire à des solutions qui respectent les mesures faites sur le terrain, exige un temps très long, le traitement automatique fournit immédiatement des solutions compatibles avec les courbes àétudier.Les procédés employés s'adaptent aux divers besoins de la prospection: ils peuvent traiter aussi bien la station isolée que les profils de sondages électriques. C'est ce qu'on se propose de montrer, à l'aide de quelques exemples tirés d'études récentes.

Notes: Various experiments are described in designing two-dimensional magnetic interpretation algorithms using computer curve fitting techniques.For a single anomaly the position of the anomaly maximum and the half-width of the anomaly give good initial estimates of the plate position and thickness. A nomogram and formulae for improving these estimates is given. Curves and estimates for the effects of finite depth extent of a plate show the limits, when the lower surface of the plate can be neglected in curve fitting.The combined anomaly of two parallel plates can be separated into partial anomalies with no common points using the horizontal derivative of the anomaly. The changes of the anomaly maxima and changes in anomaly half-widths are studied as a function of plate separation. The position of the maxima and the half-widths can be corrected before applying the one-plate procedure for obtaining initial estimates of plate positions and thicknesses.The performance of standard optimization methods of Powell, Davidon, and Marquardt in improving the values of the plate parameters are compared. The Powell method seems to be the most reliable for both single and multi-plate anomalies. All methods become unacceptably slow when the number of plates is greater than 2 or 3. In these cases feasible interpretation times are obtained using the partial anomalies and sequential parabolic search of the parameter values as tailored specially to the thick plate model.Experiments with three different error norms, the classical least squares, weighted least squares and minimax, show that the first norm gives the best overall performance in automatic interpretation. The behaviour of the classical least squares norm as a function of the plate parameters is also briefly described.

Notes: The growing awareness of the significance of three-dimensional interpretation of seismic reflection data carries with it a need for better understanding of the role of the velocity configuration in the production of reflection patterns. Modeling the reflection responses of a simple dipping plane reflector through velocity models of various degrees of complexity demonstrates the importance of overlying velocities in determining the reflection pattern.Modeling is accomplished using a raytracing technique which determines total travel time of the normal incidence raypath through an arbitrary iso-velocity layer model.

Notes: In a previous paper it has been shown that we can relate the transient IP electric field Ep, existing in a rock after a step wave of polarizing current, with the steady-state current density Jss during the current step wave as follows: Ep=ρ'Jss.This relation may be interpreted as a generalized Ohm's law, valid in linear cases, in which ρ’(fictitious resistivity) is defined as the product of the true resistivity ρ with the chargeability m.Supposing Ep=—grad Up and applying the divergence condition div Jss= o, one can, for a layered earth, obtain a general expression for the depolarization potential Up as a solution of Laplace's equation ∇2Up= o.Since the mathematical procedure for the solution of this last equation is identical to that used in resistivity problems, we propose now the introduction of an apparent fictitious resistivity ρ'a (defined as the product of the apparent resistivity ρa with the apparent chargeability ma) as a new parameter for the interpretations of IP soundings carried out over layered structures with a common electrode array.The most general expression of ρ'a as a function of the electrode distance turns out to be mathematically identical to the general expression of ρ'a. Therefore it is possible to interpret a ρ'a field curve using the same standard graphs for resistivity prospecting with the usual method of complete curve matching.In this manner a great deal of work is saved since there is no need to construct proper ma graphs for the interpretation of IP soundings, as it has been done up to now.Finally some field examples are reported.

Notes: Dipole sounding resistivity measurements over layered earth can be interpreted directly by adapting the procedure given by Koefoed (1968) for Schlumberger system. To carry out the first step of the interpretation leading to the determination of the raised kernel function, partial resistivity functions for the dipole method are derived and given in the form of standard curves. The second step involving the derivation of layering parameters from the kernel being independent of the electrode configurations remains unaltered. The applicability and limitations of the method are discussed.

Notes: Computations have been made for the effect of ground slope in combination with transmitter coil misorientation on different electromagnetic depth sounding systems and sets of frequency sounding master curves are presented for different angles. The effect of a thin air layer due to the elevation of coils above ground surface has been studied for different systems. Also discussed are the effects due to an error in transmitter-receiver coil separation.

Notes: Creation of antifiltrational cementation curtains needed to prevent increased seepage from water reservoirs is a rather labour-consuming and costly measure. High cost of such curtains necessitates careful checking of the quality of cementation as well as the strength and stability of the solidified cement which is being formed in the pores and fissures of injected rocks.The traditional methods of control are rather labour-consuming and do not allow observations during process of cementation. The advantage of electrometric observations of cementation curtains lies in the possibility of making measurements on the surface from the moment of pumping slurry into a borehole up to the termination of cement hardening.The laboratory investigations carried out by the authors demonstrate an increase in the specific electrical resistivity of a cement in the course of hardening as well as the existence of a functional dependence between the electrical and strength parameters which allows to use the resistivity method for checking the cement strength.Methods of electrometric observations of cementation curtains are dependent on the particular features of cementation and the curtain dimensions. The observations are usually conducted in a network of profiles parallel to the curtain axis. The cement slurry spreading in the space is studied on the maps of ρa and geoelectrical sections obtained at different distances from the feed line. Zones of the strongest absorption of cement slurry are indicated by resistivity minima. The electrometric observations should be compared with the data on cement expenditure in the boreholes.The cement strengthening is monitored by comparing the results of control observations consecutively conducted in 1-2 months following the cementation, with utilization of the ρa maps and graphs. If the specific resistivities of the skeleton of the enclosing rocks and the filler of cavities are known, one can approximately evaluate the changes in the cement strength in absolute units (kg/cm2).By way of example, the authors give the results of electrometric observations conducted to evaluate the quality of an antifiltrational curtain on one of the high-mountain water reservoirs in Armenia.

Notes: The paper presents the method and algorithm for computing the time-distance curve for head waves in the case of a dipping refractor and velocity increasing with depth in the overburden. The method is illustrated by an example.

Notes: On an experimental basis, observations were made with various geophysical methods to locate the ancient gold workings in Kolar Gold Fields, Kolar, India. The results of experimental surveys indicated that two-electrode resistivity surveys with two spacings followed by limited trenching would be able to locate about 70 percent of the ancient workings, at 55-60 percent of the cost of conventional trenching.

Notes: There are different types of acoustic noise induced in streamer cables. One type consists of pulsed waves preferentially generated by vertical motions of the towing ship or of the tail buoy. The pulsed waves travel along the streamer with low attenuation and a velocity about 15% less than the velocity of water. Frequencies observed lie between 5 and 15 Hz.These pulsed waves are well known and for the last few years acoustic isolator sections have been used to reduce their generation. But under bad weather conditions and especially in cold water these waves become stronger. Recent investigations demonstrated that the pulsed waves are able to produce a high noise level even in new streamers with acceleration cancelling hydrophones. We point out that the material of the hoses has a dominant effect on the amplitude picked up by the hydrophones.Acoustic theory is applied to understand the phenomenon of these waves.

Notes: To specify intelligently a nondynamite source in a marine seismic data-collection system, it is important to use all known parameters of the system—source, receiver, and recording-system characteristics. A technique has been developed to design the far-field pressure pulse of an air-gun array by taking these parameters into account.Important source variables to consider are interaction among guns in the array and the depth of the array. Near-field pressure signatures of individual guns, which are relatively unaffected by boundaries, have been used to‘construct’the far-field pressure pulse of the array by considering these variables. Comparison between constructed pulses and measured far-field pulses shows substantial agreement.Streamer depth and recording-system bandpass should also be considered when designing an air-gun array. Comparison of far-field pressure pulses for several bandpasses clearly shows the importance of considering this variable; e.g., the initial pulse is severely attenuated when a high-cut filter is used. Likewise, an additional filtering effect due to the streamer's proximity to the surface should be taken into account.Design of an air-gun array using the principles just outlined are illustrated by an example.

Notes: Many practical energy sources are available for land use and likewise a goodly number for marine operations. However, the transitional region between navigable water and negotiable land is poorly served. The vehicles that are capable of operating amphibiously are limited in the pay-load they can transport, and in the bulk of apparatus that can be operated from the space available. The Flex-O-Gun (Trademark of Geo Space Corporation) is a new, lightweight gas exploder designed to meet the requirements for operation in rivers, bays, and marsh areas not generally accessible to the larger, heavier systems such as the Dinoseis (Trademark of Atlantic Richfield Company), Vibrator and Air Guns. Weighing less than 70 kilograms, the Flex-O-Gun requires only modest sources of oxygen and propane and the associated firing equipment for operation.The gun delivers energy by the sudden introduction into the water of high pressure gases resulting from detonation. The device is unique in that the underwater gun assembly contains no gas mixing or firing elements. A flexible, metallic hose conveys the charge of mixed gases and subsequent detonating flame to the gun from control and firing mechanisms located above the surface. With its small weight and total space requirements, the Flex-O-Gun can be operated from small boats, buggies, or trucks, and is easily transported.In this paper the features of the gun are described and the results given of tests of its operations. An implanting device is also discussed which extends its application to viscous formations. The device employs water jets mounted below the gun to wash down a hole and insure placement of the gun at depths to obtain maximum energy output.

Notes: Five test profiles in time-domain induced polarization measurements over conducting sulphide and graphite mineralisations were run with the two-electrode, three-electrode, modified unipole, pole-dipole, dipole-dipole, Schlumberger, and Wenner α and β configurations. The results show that, compared to the other electrode systems, the simplest two-electrode array produces the largest anomalies with the smallest of spacings.

Notes: The theoretical horizontal resistivity profiles Over an outcropping vertical dyke with two-electrode and Schlumberger electrode systems are discussed. The two-electrode array seems very useful in locating the highly conducting thick or thin vein, while the Schlumberger (gradient) array is suited to detect the conducting vein of low and moderately high resistivity contrast and as well as the resistive vein of all widths and resistivity contrasts. Besides, the inline gradient array has a distinction of establishing a clue to evaluate the resistivity contrast of the vein.

Notes: The generalised three layer boundary value problem with a transition layer sand-witched between an isotropic overburden and dipping anisotropic substratum is discussed assuming that plane electro-magnetic waves are incident normally over the air-earth inter-face. The tangential electric (Ey) and magnetic (Hx) fields and the expression for surface-impedance (Ey/Hx) have been evaluated at the earth's surface. Through numerical analysis it is shown that changes in the values of the parameters m (coefficient of anisotropy), h (thickness of the transition layer), α (angle of inclination of the dipping beds), and b (conductivity ratio between substratum and upper layer) modify the amplitude and phase-variation curves (with skindepth) significantly.

Notes: Gravity modeling involves the evaluation of gravity field due to bodies of irregular shape. This is commonly accomplished by dividing the body into smaller units of regular shape whose field can be determined analytically.Cubes are ideal building blocks for constructing bodies of irregular shape. However, the exact expression defining the gravity field of a cube-shaped body is very long and requires tedious numerical work. Approximation formulas for rapid evaluation of the cube's gravity field are presented and discussed in detail. Their use for computing the field for small distances leads to large errors in the results; on the other hand, using the exact formula for large distances where approximation formulas yield practically identical results, is waste of time. After a detailed analysis about the nature of the cube's gravity field, certain criteria are established for suitably combining the two alternatives. This results in tremendous reduction in the task of computations without affecting the accuracy of data.

Notes: A rigorous proof is presented to show that over a horizontally layered ground the rms velocity cannot exceed the stacking velocity. The proof helps to illustrate the difference between stacking and rms velocities in a quantitative manner. The series of Taner and Koehler (1969) is used for the purpose. Convergence of this series is tested. Including more terms will not necessarily improve the convergence. Although the series is rapidly convergent when the spread length/depth ratio is small, strong oscillations are observed when this ratio is high.

Notes: The properties of cross-correlation functions for the case of gravity and magnetic total field anomalies produced by three geometric models of geological bodies (point-mass, horizontal line-mass, and vertical semi-infinite rectangular prism mass distributions) are studied. This study is carried out on four cases of cross-correlation: the whole curve of anomalies, a single branch of anomalies, the branch between the two inflexion points and the branch between the apex point and the inflexion point. In all cases, the crosscorrelation function can serve as a good indicator to discriminate the so-called genetically related anomalies from those produced by different geological bodies situated on the same vertical line; but the best results are obtained using the cross-correlation of the branches between the apex point and the inflexion point of the two geophysical anomalies.A practical procedure is developed in order to undertake such analysis. The tests in some cases of real gravity and magnetic anomalies mapped in Romania show the validity of this practical procedure.

Notes: The time-honoured method of attenuating coherent noise in the seismic record is by the use of source and geophone arrays. In theory, and using methods familiar in the synthesis of digital frequency filters, arrays can be designed having virtually any desired response in the wavenumber spectrum.In practice, arrays cannot be implemented with the same precision that is applied in design. The response actually achieved must be compromized by a number of factors. These include inaccuracies in the effectiveness or positioning of individual array elements, variations in ground coupling, and the effect of local heterogenities in the environment of the array. We have no reliable way of knowing how well a particular array will perform from one location to the next.Statistical modelling methods have been applied to examine the effects of implementation errors. Experimental results, supported by statistical theory, show that errors are expected to impose a limit upon the rejection capabilities of an array. The expected limiting value of attenuation due to errors in element weights is inversely proportional to the standard deviation of errors and directly proportional to the square root of the number of array elements. Position errors exert a limiting influence which is wavenumber dependent such that attenuation decreases with increasing wavenumber. For arrays of common dimensions, Gaussian random errors of 10% standard deviation in element weights and positions result in an expected attenuation limit of about 30 dB.It follows that the more ambitious array designs are less tolerant of errors, and must be implemented with greater care and precision in the field. The present work enables us to specify tolerances for any particular array design.Ultimately, the degree of pattern refinement which may be effectively employed in any area is determined by errors which are associated with the array environment. Complex arrays are expensive to operate. In order to avoid over-design it would be useful to establish the magnitude of errors to be expected under different terrain conditions.

Notes: During the last ten years data processing has enabled the geophysicist to seriously attack the problem of how to improve the quality of seismic sections. For instance new processing methods have been proposed for improving the resolving power of the seismic pulse. These methods are based on deconvolution and they require lengthy computations.The method discussed here for pulse contraction is based on the use of Hadamard transforms. It is very fast but nevertheless the quality of the result stands comparison with that of conventional methods.

Notes: Application of statistical methods of analysis of geophysical data is often helpful for the detection of weak anomalies against a noisy background. The processing and analysis of areal geophysical data by two such methods are presented. The advantage of these methods are illustrated with the help of two field examples.

Notes: The paper deals with the electro-filtrational fields formed near the drainage structures. Main laws of deformation of these fields above vertical and horizontal drains are considered and practical examples supplied.

Notes: A seismic trace recorded with suitable gain control can be treated as a stationary time series. Each trace, χj(t), from a set of traces, can be broken down into two stationary components: a signal sequence, αj(t) *s(t—τj), which correlates from trace to trace, and an incoherent noise sequence, nj(t), which does not correlate from trace to trace. The model for a seismic trace used in this paper is thus χj(t) =αj(t) * s(t—τj) +nj(t) where the signal wavelet αj(t), the lag (moveout) of the signal τj, and the noise sequence nj(t) can vary in any manner from trace to trace. Given this model, a method for estimating the power spectra of the signal and incoherent noise components on each trace is presented.The method requires the calculation of the multiple coherence function γj(f) of each trace. γj(f) is the fraction of the power on traced at frequency f that can be predicted in a least-square error sense from all other traces. It is related to the signal-to-noise power ratio ρj(f) by 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR660:GPR_660_mu1"/〉 where Kj(f) can be computed and is in general close to 1.0. The theory leading to this relation is given in an Appendix.Particular attention is paid to the statistical distributions of all estimated quantities. The statistical behaviour of cross-spectral and coherence estimates is complicated by the presence of bias as well as random deviations. Straightforward methods for removing this bias and setting up confidence limits, based on the principle of maximum likelihood and the Goodman distribution for the sample multiple coherence, are described.Actual field records differ from the assumed model mainly in having more than one correctable component, components other than the required sequence of reflections being lumped together as correlated noise. When more than one correlatable component is present, the estimate for the signal power spectrum obtained by the multiple coherence method is approximately the sum of the power spectra of the correlatable components. A further practical drawback to estimating spectra from seismic data is the limited number of degrees of freedom available. Usually at least one second of stationary data on each trace is needed to estimate the signal spectrum with an accuracy of about 10%. Examples using synthetic data are presented to illustrate the method.

Notes: Seismic refraction at sea and on continental shelves requires most of all a precise positioning of the shooting and receiving stations and a good signal to noise ratio.A new system has been developed using detectors anchored on the sea floor and radio transmission of signal for refraction work on continental shelves. This technique satisfies both requirements. The system has been tested in the western Channel in December 1971.

Notes: The problem of interpretation of geoelectrical resistivity soundings has been studied and a compromise method of interpretation developed. A simple depth sequence of increasing bed thickness is taken and resistivities assigned to the various layers so that a good fit is obtained to the observed apparent resistivity curve. An initial estimate of the resistivities is made by a direct method but the model is then altered to give an improved fit by the indirect method of curve matching. The whole method is computerized and input data to the computer program consists of spacings and apparent resistivities. The method is extremely rapid, about one third of the computation time is devoted to obtaining the resistivity transform by the method of convolution. A normal type of solution, incorporating additional information if necessary, can also be obtained.

Notes: The use of arctangents rather than arcsines in the expression for the gravitational attraction of a homogeneous rectangular prism reduces computational difficulties. Once a subroutine is available to compute one component of attraction in a Cartesian coordinate system, the other components may be obtained by cyclic permutation of the field point and body coordinate parameters. This technique also readily provides derivatives of the gravitational attraction and hence forms a compact method for the calculation of a magnetic anomaly due to a homogeneous rectangular magnetic prism.

Notes: With the help of the principle of superposition the Input response of a conducting infinite horizontal homogeneous cylinder is synthesised from its step-function response. The variation of transient peaks and the time lag between the secondary and primary fields with the cylinder constitution parameter are illustrated.

Notes: The new process of automatic determination of seismic velocities by well to well measurements (Bois et al., 1971, Geophysical Prospecting 19, 42-73) gives the possibility to increase the knowledge of oil reservoirs, by detecting large inhomogeneities between wells. It can also give useful informations on the mechanical properties of rocks in mining exploitation and civil engineering, by gallery to gallery measurements. An application of the method is given to the search for the proper location of an underground hydroelectric power plant, where the problem was to investigate the rock properties in a horizontal plane between two exploration galleries.

Notes: Book Review in this Article: The Human Dimension of Housing Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design by Oscar Newman The Welfare Mess Do the Poor Want to Work? A Social-Psychological Study of Work Orientations by Leonard Coodwin. Work and Welfare Go Together by Sar A. Levitan, Martin Rein, and David Marwick. Traditional Issues Examined An American Philosophy of Social Security: Evolution and Issues by J. Douglas Brown A Potpourri of Attitudes Poverty, Economics, and Society, edited by Helen Ginsburg. The Contemporary American City The Social Construction of Communities by Gerald D. The Social Sciences and the City The City in the Seventies, edited by Robert K. Yin. Itasca Political Turnabout in Dixie The Changing Politics of the South, edited by William C. Microscope on Nova Scotia Regional Science Techniques in Practice: The Case of Nova Scotia by Stan Czamanski. A Reasonably Balanced Picture Human Resources and Labor Markets: Labor and Manpower in the American Economy by Sar A. Levitan Race and Class Busing and Backlash: White against White in a California School District by Lillian B. Rubin. Capital Issues Rate of Profit, Distribution and Growth: Two Views by J. A. Kregel Farm Problems Discussed The Overproduction Trap in U.S.Agriculture: A Study of Resource Allocation from World Warf to the Late 1960's, edited by Glenn L. Johnson and C. Leroy Quance. First of Its Kind Conservation in the Soviet Union by Philip R. Pryde. On Nature's Behalf Let Them Live: A Worldwide Survey of Animals Threatened with Extinction by Kai Curry-Lindahl.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:Large Regional Differences Development Alternatives in Pakistan: A Multisectoraland Regional Analysis of Planning Problems by Arthur MacEwan.Mexico's Development Efforts Regional Economic Development: The River Basin Approach in Mexico by David Barkin and Timothy King.Mathematical Exercise Studies in Development Planning, edited by Hollis B. Chenery.What Went Wrong? Iran: Economic Development under Dualistic Conditions by Jahangir Amuzegar and M. Ali Fekrat.Changing the Farmer's Ways Behavioral Change in Agriculture: Concepts and Strategies for Influencing Transition, edited by J. Paul Leagans and Charles P. Loomis.A Laboratory for Development Policy Intersectorul Capital Flows in the Economic Development of Taiwan, 1895–1960 by Teng-hui Lee.Shifting Scenes Democracy in Crisis: New Challenges to Constitutional Democracy in the Atlantic Area, edited by E. A. Goerner.Viewing the U.S. from Abroad America's Empire by Claude Julien (translated from the French by Renaud Bruce).Black-White Economic Relationships The Economics of Black America, edited by Harold G. Vatter and Thomas Palm.A Cool Look at a Hot Issue The Political Economy of Urban Schools by Martin T. Katzman.Destruction of a Thesis The Culture of Poverty: A Critique, edited by Eleanor Burke Leacock.Time for a Truce Earthkeeping: The War with Nature and a Proposal for Peace by Gordon Harrison.Government Spending Public Expenditure by Jesse Burkhead and Jerry Miner.Transport Troubles Bureaucrats in Collision: Case Studies in Area Transportation Planning by Melvin R. Levin and Norman A. Abend.

Notes: The publication of the CIR's long-awaited report on disclosure of information seems to have been greeted with an embarrassing silence. Little comment has been heard from the news media, Parliament, trade unions or employers' associations. This may reflect concern with more pressing issues in industrial relations, such as, for example, the search for a prices and incomes policy, but the nature of the report itself may also explain why it created scarcely a ripple in public consciousness. Far from being a clear guide to decision and action, it is merely a collection of very general recommendations which will create little controversy because they are so unexceptional.

Notes: In this article the authors report the results of small group discussions with some 415 first-line supervisors in the mining industry. The results are compared with those from a number of earlier studies of mining. Changes which have affected the supervisory position are described, and the role of behavioural research in industry is discussed in relation to both organizational analysis and to training.

Notes: Jamaica is no stranger to compulsory arbitration. Its Public Utility Undertakings and Public Services Arbitration Law (popularly known as the Essential Services Law) has been on the statute book since 1952, providing for compulsory arbitration in essential industries. During the period under review in this paper (1952–69) some 79 cases were heard. Additionally, a number of cases involved court litigation and/or illegal direct action by groups of employees or employers. The Jamaican experience has been full. This paper will seek to present and analyse what has happened in the field of compulsory arbitration in Jamaica and draw appropriate conclusions as to the relevance of the findings for other societies.

Notes: The analysis is predominantly undertaken within the framework of the theoretical model of March and Simon [1]; additional factors being inserted where necessary. March and Simon discuss the factors affecting labour turnover in terms of the influences affecting two components: (a) the perceived desirability or undesirability of leaving the employer; and (b) the perceived ease or difficulty of movement from the employer [1, pp. 93–106]. All the factors discussed by March and Simon have been extracted from the text and are shown in diagrammatic form in Figures 1 and 2 along with several additional factors. The procedure adopted in the analysis is as follows: (1) to state March and Simon's hypotheses with regard to specific factors affecting labour turnover; (2) to discuss these hypotheses in the light of relevant research studies; (3) to discuss further variables omitted by March and Simon in the light of relevant research studies; and (4) to discuss the limitations of many of the studies discussed.

Notes: For trade union bargainers one of the infallible laws of political economy is that wages lag behind prices. This means that in an inflationary era the real value of the wage to which their members are entitled will be eroded, and some compensation will have to be made for this at the next round of wage negotiations. Therefore, changes in the cost of living since the last settlement will be regarded by trade unions as one of the most important factors to be taken into account in arriving at a new settlement. This is implicit in the statement made by the TUC in 1971 that “it requires pay increases of at least 10 per cent simply to restore the real disposable pay of a union's previous settlement 12 months earlier”. Economists, on the other hand, argue that once an inflation is under way, then economic agents will develop an inflationary psychology—that is, they will expect it to continue and will adjust their behaviour accordingly. If this is correct, trade union bargainers will attempt to anticipate inflation by trying to fix the money wage at a higher level than they would aim for if the price level were more stable.

Notes: Book reviews in this article: LABOUR IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY: The Migration of Workers in the United Kingdom and the European Community by W. R. Böhning LABOUR IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY: Labor Movements in the Common Market Countries by Marguerite Bouvard LABOUR IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY: Employment Conditions in Europe by Margaret Stewart TRANSNATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS: Proceedings of a Symposium held at Geneva by the International Institute for Labour Studies by Hans Günter MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS AND BRITISH LABOUR: REVIEW OF ATTITUDES AND RESPONSES by John Gennard INDUSTRIAL CONFLICT—A COMPARATIVE LEGAL SURVEY by B. Aaron and K. W. Wedderburn WORKERS PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT IN BRITAIN by R. O. Clarke, D. J. Fatchett and B. C. Roberts DO TRADE UNIONS CAUSE INFLATION? by D. Jackson, H. A. Turner and F. Wilkinson HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS by D. Torrington ORGANISATIONS IN THEORY AND PRACTICE by Cyril Sofer THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WORK by Michael Argyle