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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Action of phosphorus compounds on fire-retardancy of cellulosic materials: A review (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 54-58 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Owing to their low cost phosphorus fire-retardants find vast application in making fire-retardant cellulosic compostions. They have been used both as a physical additive as well as part of the polymer structure. Acid forming phosphorus compounds are generally effective in cotton and other cellulosic. Acidic retardants produce char via a dehydration process and this brings about the final fire-retardancy in phosphate-containing composition. High efficiency of phosphorus fire retardants in polyurethane foam has also been suggested to be the result of stable char formation. The char affects the flammability in the three following ways: reduction of flammable fuel, insulation by the char and coating by the non-volatile thermally stable phosphorous acids which screen the hot carbon from the oxygen. Nitrogen-phosphorus synergism in cellulose in controversial and evidence indicates that it is non existent in polymers.
    Additional Material: 2 Tab.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060203
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  • 2
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    Lightweight fire protection of steel framed buildings: Comments on russian experience in use of light weight fire protection coverings for steel frame buildingsFrom: Fire Resistance of Building Structures (Ognestoykost' stroitel' nykh Konstruktsiy) Collected Papers, Vol. 2, pp. 85-91. All Union Scientific Research Institute for Fire Protection, Moscow (1974). (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 51-53 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In recent year, increased attention, linked to the use of new structural design criteria and materials, has been given to maintaining the integrity of buildings and structures exposed to fire. Structures are now designed using lighter structural shapes and consequently differ from earlier, more traditional buildings, in terms of their resistance to the effects of the high temperature of fire. Contemporary structures are less expensive. Advance in building construction technology also result in faster erection.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060202
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  • 3
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    The thermo-oxidative decomposition, ignition and burning of flame-retarded polystyrenes (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 59-64 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The theromo-oxidative decomposition, flash ignition and burning of high-impact polystyrene containing the flame-retardant system decabromodiphenyl oxide + antimony trioxide was investigated using the Setchkin apparatus combined with mass spectrometry. The time dependences of the release rate of the main products into the gas phase during decomposition and burning showed that the flame-retardants markedly influence these processes. It was found that the retardants used exhibit an acceleration of the polymer degradation and that the efficiency of inhibition in the gas phase depends on the atomic ratio antimony: bromine.
    Additional Material: 5 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060204
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  • 4
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    How well are we measuring smoke?Note This paper is a contribution of the National Bureau of Standards and is not subject to copyright. (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 65-67 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Estimates of the errors in light extinction measurements of smoke resulting from forward scattered light entering the detector and from the spectral width of the light source are presented. It is shown for specific examples that each of these effects can lead to an error of about 25% in typical applications. A potential method for calibrating extinction instruments is described.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060205
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  • 5
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    Development of an improved radiant heat source for fire testing (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 68-71 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The development, construction, and testing of a gas-fired radiant heat source for use as part of a fire test method is described. The unit has been shown capable of operation over extended periods at surface temperatures yielding radiance corresponding to that of a black body at 935 °C. This permits a 60% increase of specimen irradiance over that possible with a burner previously used, without modifying the specimen-burner configuration factor. One such application of this burner allows operation with specimen irradiance levels at 5 W cm-2 or for short periods at levels approaching 7 W cm-2 at higher temperatures. This performance is achieved while maintaining effective spatial separation between specimen and heat source. This assists in avoiding imposition of vitiated air near the surface of a burning specimen. Some performance data are provided on its behavior when supplied with natural gas. The unit can burn propane but only with a significant reduction of thermal output.
    Additional Material: 7 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060206
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  • 6
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    The Delphi method - a complement to research (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 76-79 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In making fire safety decisions the designer often finds that some input variables concerning his problems are chance variables. As detailed statistical data are rarely available the designer must rely largely on his expert judgment. With the application of the Delphi method such decisions can be optimized and formalized. The essence of the Delphi method is described and its use illustrated through an example related to the assessment of fire resistance requirements.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060208
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  • 7
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    Toxic gas tests in perspective (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 72-75 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A study of the 1979 UK fire statistics and the Annual Report of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys shows that only 1 death per 1000 is attributable to toxic gases from combustion. However, of the ‘deaths by violence’ it rises to 30 (3%). As 37% of all fires in occupied buildings were confined to the first item ignited and 53% to the area of origin it is postulated that such fires (and the consequent deaths) largely concerned substances which will burn on their own. From experience these are largely materials with limiting oxygen indices below 22 or 22-28 for restricted burning only. Those with limiting oxygen indices 〉28 cannot on their own sustain combustion. These considerations suggest the mode in which toxic gas tests should be conducted, i.e., horizontally or vertically and vertically only for the first two groups, respectively, and in the presence of a fire sustainer for the limiting oxygen index 〉28 group. Wood in the form of a wooden crib is suggested as suitable. To this end some experiments are described with PVC placed on top of a No. 5 crib (PSA). These latter show that, making the best assumption possible from the existing data, the wood contributes about 63% to the toxicity and the PVC 37%. On the large scale, other work has shown that wooden cribs alone will give lethal concentrations of carbon monoxide for significant periods. Thus difficult-to-burn substances need to evolve gases of exceptional toxicity for their contribution to be worth considering.
    Additional Material: 1 Tab.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060207
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  • 8
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    Modeling of NBS mattress tests with the harvard mark V fire simulation (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 80-95 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: NBS burned eleven mattresses made up with bedding in two different rooms, typical of a residential bedroom and a nursing home patient room, respectively. Seven of the mattresses flamed and burned vigorously, the other four were of a construction or so heavily flame-inhibited that they only smoldered. The burning behavior of the seven that flamed was modeled with the Harvard Mark V fire simulation. The experimental burn behavior for tests conducted in one room was well reproduced using only total weight of combustible, surface area and heat of combustion. Smoke production values were found to have little effect on the predicted behavior except for the smoke production itself. Fires in a second room, whose ventilation was intentionally restricted by the configuration of the adjoining space, could not be as well reproduced by the present, single-room fire model. During this study several changes were made to the simulation. The most significant change was the inclusion of mixing of the hot exiting fire gases with the cold incoming air. As a part of this, the inter-layer radiation exchange was reformulated to include the effect of smoke contamination of the lower layer. The reformulation of the radiation model has a marked effect on the predicted upper layer gas temperatures, generally improving the quality of the simulation.
    Additional Material: 18 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060209
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  • 9
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    Erratum (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 98-98 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060211
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  • 10
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    Toxicity of polyurethane-derived oxidative thermal decomposition productsAbbreviations: GSH = reduced glutathione; MDA = 4,4′-diaminodiphenylmethane; MDI = 4,4′diphenylmethane diisocyanate; NADPH = reduced nicotinamide-adenine; dinucleotide phosphate; UDP = uridine-5′-diphosphate (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 96-98 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Additional Material: 4 Tab.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060210
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  • 11
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    Masthead (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060301
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  • 12
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    Fire test behaviour of various crystal types of melamine phosphate in intumescent formulations (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 119-121 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Melamine orthophosphate crystals vary in shape and formula according to their method of production. The types vary widely in their behaviour when incorporated into an epoxy resin intumescent coating for trials in a small scale fire test. Heat treatment of melamine phosphate crystals at 210 °C, a process designed to reduce their solubility, profoundly affects the performance of any crystal type in a fire test. In such cases crystal shape alone appears to determine performance, whereas the shape, formula, and state of agglomeration affect performance in coatings produced with untreated melamine phosphate. Small plates of side 20 μm heat treated at 210 °C, are the preferred type for optimum performance and weathering characteristics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060304
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  • 13
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    A fire test device suitable for small-scale testing of fire retardant coatings (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 111-118 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A fire test device suitable for small-scale, comparative testing as a first step in investigating the performance of fire retardant materials is described. The procedure developed is not intended to predict the performance of a given material in a real fire, since the local conditions can be extremely variable. However, the parameters in the device can be varied over a wide range to screen the performance of various materials in given situation. Typical results for an intumescent mastic consisting of epoxy resin, hardener and melamine phosphate are quoted, together with appropriate calibration curves. A method of estimating the thermal resistance of the developing char is also discussed.
    Additional Material: 13 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060303
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  • 14
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    High temperature oxygen index studies of halogenated polyester thermosets containing antimony and molybdenum oxides (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 122-126 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A study has been made of the effect of antimony and molybdenum oxides on the temperature-critical oxygen index relationship of halogenated polyester thermosets. The polyesters were prepared from maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride and propylene glycol, using either tetrachlorophthalic anhydride, tetrabromophthalic anhydride or chlorendic anhydride as the halogen source. Marked differences were observed in the effect of the two oxides. The critical oxygen index values of the halogenated polyesters containing maoybdenum (VI)oxide decreased with increase in timperature, which is in accordance with what is normally found for organic polymers, with and without additives. In contrast to this, the critical oxygen index values of the formulations containing antimony(II)oxide increased with increased with increase in temperature to reach a maximum value at around 100-150 °C. These results indicate that antimony(II)oxide is a better flame retardant than molybdenum(VI)oxide, since not only is it superior at the primary ignition stage but it shows enhanced activity at the higher temperatures which would be experienced by polymeric material in the early stages of a fire. It is concluded that higher temperature critical oxygen index studies provide a better guide to the flame retardant activity of additives than do ambient critical oxygen index determinations alone.
    Additional Material: 4 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060305
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  • 15
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    Some properties of hardened cement paste and reinforcing bars upon cooling from elevated temperatures (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 29-35 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The post-cooling properties of reinforced concrete constituents are of great relevance in the assessment of a structure for re-use after fire. The expansive rehydration of dissociated calcium hydroxide on post-cooling exposure to air can cause a total loss in strength if cement paste specimens are heated to and maintained at 400°C or above. The use of cement replacement agents can mitigate this effect. The strength and ductility of hot-rolled mild steel and cold twisted steel on gradual cooling or quenching from various temperatures can be correlated with microstructural phenomena. There is a significant increase in strength and loss of ductility when both types of steel are quenched from temperatures above 723°C. Some practical implications of these properties are described, using examples of fire-damaged structures.
    Additional Material: 7 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160105
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  • 16
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    Oxygen index: Correlations to other fire tests (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 159-167 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An investigation has been carried out of the limiting oxygen index (LOI) test. A review of the literature shows that, although there is abundant information on the test, it is not clear that its results correlate well with those of any other test, or indeed with those of real fires. Theoretical considerations indicate that the test could be improved by using it with bottom ignition rather than with the standard top ignition. A number of materials were tested in the cone calorimeter and in the LOI, and various correlations were attempted. In general, correlations between some of the cone calorimeter properties measured and the inverse of the LOI made sense. These correlations were not, however, sufficiently sensitive, even when investigating small effects on a single base polymer system, to justify using the LOI as a proxy for the cone in any way. The LOI is likely to continue to be used extensively. This work suggests that quality control and, possibly, mechanistic or other flame-retardant additive studies, are its only applications where the results can be justified.
    Additional Material: 9 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160402
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  • 17
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    Ignition and flame propagation of electric cables in a laboratory-scale gallery fire test (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 181-186 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The authors have conducted a laboratory-scale gallery fire test on eight different samples of electric cable in a horizontal airflow. The number of speciments and the distances between them on the trestle were varied for each test. As a result, it was found that both ignitability and flame-propagation properties depended on the distance between the specimens as well as on their number. Such flammability properties obtained for each cable sample were also found to be considerably consistent with the critical oxygen index. In addition, it is proposed that the flammability should be classified largely into five categories in this laboratory-scale gallery fire test for fire-retardance evaluation of solid combustible materials such as electric cables.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160404
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  • 18
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    Fire performance of fire-retardant wood fiberboard ceiling tile (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 187-196 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Wood fiberboard-based, cellulose ceiling tiles have been used for many years. While various fire-retardant technologies have been developed to reduce the surface flammability of these products to acceptable levels, questions of their suitability for use due to their intrinsic fuel value and the impact of attachment methods used on fire performance have been raised from time to time. This paper reviews the history of these products from a fire-performance perspective and presents materials property data on surface flamespread, thermal conductivity and ignition phenomena. In addition, large-scale room fire test results are presented including compartment tests conducted on a variety of assemblies (including those installed with mastic construction adhesives) according to ASTM E 603 - Standard Guide for Room Fire Experiments.
    Additional Material: 10 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160405
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  • 19
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    An experimental facility for determination of steady flame spread rate of materials employing the Quasi-stationary flame front technique (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 169-180 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An experimental facility based on the Quasi-stationary Flame Front Technique for determination of steady flame spread rate of materials at discrete levels of external radiant heat flux was developed. The method employs an external radiant heat source in front of which an element of a specimen of the material is positioned at a location corresponding to the desired level of external radiant heat flux. A specimen movement assembly, which can be operated manually, was designed for moving the specimen towards the stationary external radiant heat source such that the flame front could be maintained quasi-stationary. The experimental technique employed is simple in operation yet is capable of yielding reliable flame fornt displacement-time data. In the paper the design considerations of the experimental facility, details of its components, calibration and typical experimental results obtained are presented.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160403
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  • 20
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    News (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 207-208 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160407
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  • 21
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    Burning rate of solid wood measured in a heat release rate calorimeter (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 197-206 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Burning rate is a key factor in modeling fire growth and fire endurance of wood structures. This study investigated the burning rate of selected wood materials as determined by heat release, mass, loss and charring rates. Thick samples of redwood, southern pine, red oak and basswood were tested in a heat release rate calorimeter. Results on ignitability and average heat release, mass loss and charring rates are reported for a heat flux range between 15 and 55 kw m-2. In this range, burning rate increased linearly with heat flux. Burning rate was very species dependent. Heat release rate was related to mass loss by effective heat of combustion, which also increased with heat flux. Charring rate was related to mass loss rate and original wood density. Important char property data such as yield, density and contraction are reported. A simplified calculation method is proposed for calculating mass loss rate and charring rate based on heat release rate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160406
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  • 22
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    The thermal behaviour of lignins modified by chlorophosphazenes (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 7-9 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The thermal behaviour in air of lignins modified by chlorophosphazenes as well as that of the raw materials of lignins has been investigated using thermogravimetry (TG), derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) and differential thermal analysis (DTA). The thermogravimetry and derivative thermogravimetry studies of lignins modified by chlorophosphazenes have shown their thermal resistance to be relatively higher than that of the intital raw materials of lignins in concrete kraft lignin and sodium ligninosulfonate. The differential thermal studies have demonstrated that the thermal degradation of products investigated takes place via exothermic processes. The lignins modified by chlorophosphazenes have been shown to be thermal and flame-resistant materials.
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    Determination of hydrogen cyanide in thermal degradation products of polymeric materials (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 13-15 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Thermal degradation products of nitrogen-containing polymeric materials were analysed for hydrogen cyanide. A spectrophotometric method was used for the determination of cyanides using the formation of a characteristic absorption peak of cyanonickel(II) ion in the ultraviolet spectral region. Pyrolysis and thermooxidation products were studied and conclusions on the reproducibility of the degradation process were drawn. The effect of temperature on the quantity of hydrogen cyanide formed was studied as well.
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    An analysis of smoldering fires in closed compartments and their hazard due to carbon monoxide (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 99-110 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A review was made of smoldering fire experiments conducted in closed rooms and buildings. The results were summarized by tabulating maximum levels of CO, the time integral of CO concentration (‘dose’), CO2, temperature rise and oxygen consumption. A hazard time based on the attainment of a CO dose equal to 4.5% CO-minutes and the time for transition to flaming were also tabulated. The likelihood of reaching a critical CO condition during smoldering seems to be comparable with the likelihood of having transition to flaming occur. A theoretical model, requiring inputs of CO production rate and energy release rate, was executed and compared with available data. The theoretical results for CO concentration as a function of time were in good agreement with the experimental data. The model offers a means of extrapolating test data to compartments of various size in order to assess the general hazard of CO due to smoldering.
    Additional Material: 10 Ill.
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    Combustion product toxicity: Dependence on the mode of product generation (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 161-162 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Additional Material: 1 Tab.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060309
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    Smoke measurements: An assessment of correlations between laboratory and full-scale experiments (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 145-160 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An extensive review is presented demonstrating the nature of comparison between full-scale fire smoke data and test method results for materials. These correlations are presented in terms of consistent parameters established through a development of the governing equations for smoke concentration and light attenuation. Visibility data limited to light transmission through smoke are also presented. The complex dependence of smoke production on many parameters acting in fire growth limits the success of simple correlation methods. Recommendations are made for further research to establish a sound basis for correlations, and the prediction of smoke obscuration due to fire.
    Additional Material: 13 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060308
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    Some stochastic properties of fire plumes (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 127-134 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Reaction to fire tests are the main criteria used by legislators of fire regulations to determine the suitability of different materials for use in building construction. These do not always give reliable results, particularly when applied to new man-made materials. Part of the explanation for this is the lack of detailed understanding of the heat and mass transfer processes occurring in fire. This is in part due to a lack of measurements of the fluctuating property field in the source plume. In this paper measurements of the probability density functions, spectra and mean square fluctuations of temperature together with the probability of combustion are reported for a stimulated fire plume. The results are consistent with the model of a fire comprising a series of narrow flame fronts oscillating at the flame flicker frequency (which for this system is 3 Hz). The effects of thermal inertia in thermocouples on the determination of mean and fluctuating gas temperature have been examined using the treatment of Ballantyne, Boon and Moss. The high-frequency limitations of thermocouple and electrostatic probes have been discussed in the context of trubulent filed measurements in fires.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060306
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    A mathematical model for estimating available safe egress time in fires (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 135-144 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A mathematical Model for estimating the time available for safe egress from a fire is formulated. The model simulates the conditions which develop during the course of an enclosure fire. Since life safety considerations are primary, the simulation model which is adopted focuses attention only on phenomena which develop between the times of fire ignition and onset of hazardous conditions. This allows significant simplifications in modeling which may not be otherwise justified. Using computed variables of a simulated fire scenario of interest, times of fire detection and onset of hazard which are deduced from realistic detection and hazard criteria would be estimated. The Available Safe Egress Time (ASET) would be defined as the length of the time interval which separates these two events. Quantitative specifications for a variety of detection and hazard criteria are identified. Results of exercising the model are presented, and ASET estimates are obtained for a wide variety of realistic fire scenarios. A comparison between experimental results of a multi-room fire test and prediction of the single-room model suggest that the model has potential utility in providing practical simulations of multi-room fire environments.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060307
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    Masthead (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992) 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160101
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    Full-scale/Bench-Scale correlations of wall and ceiling linings (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 15-22 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A complete testing and classification system requires both small- and large-scale test methods. In this article such a system in outlined employing the Cone Calorimeter and the Room/corner Test for testing on a small and a large scale, respectively. Translation models are also described allowing the Room/corner test to be predicted by Cone Calorimeter results only. A proposal for a classification system for wall and ceiling linings is also given together with actual and predicted test results.
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    Wall fire close to an horizontal surface: Numerical modelling and experimental validation (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 1-13 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: In order to contribute to a better understanding of natural fire configurations, three different experimental arrangements were considered. They simulated, at laboratory scale, three simple room fire situations.1-3 First, we tested a gas-fueled porous burner simulating a wall fire. Then an insulated floor was placed close to it. Finally the wall and the floor burnt simultaneously. Velocity and turbulence measurements were performed using a two-component laser-doppler velocimetry (LDV) system operating in the forward-scatter mode. Mean gas temperatures were obtained with a 200 μm butt-welded chromel-alumel thermocouple, located 2 mm downstream of the velocity measurement control volume. Simultaneous measurements of two velocity components proved to be very useful, especially in the characterization of the flame structure and of the entertainment process. A simple field model describing strongly buoyant diffusion flames is proposed in search of computational economy and a basic understanding of the phenomena involved. Our aim is to analyse the suitability of such a simple model for the description of the mean properties of the flow. This work showed the interaction between the burning wall, the floor and the pool fire, and especially the role played by the large-scale structures characteristic of entertainment and mixing processes in free fires.
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    Effect of condensed-phase and gas-phase flame retardants on the ignition behaviour of cotton fabric (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 23-28 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of some well-known flame retardants on the ignition behaviour of cotton fabric. Two types of flame retardants acting in different phases (e.g. condensed phase and gas phase) were used. At low add-on of the retardant acting in the condensed phase the ignition behaviour of the cotton is different from that treated with retardant acting in the gas phase. The condensed-phase retardant caused cotton to burn more rapidly than untreated fabrics. This was attributed to the fact that small add-on of the retardant makes the fuel for the flame available at a lower temperature. However, in the presence of sufficient amounts of retardant, the decomposition of cellulose becomes more directed towards the dehydration mechanism and thus the concentration of the flammable gases is insufficient to reach the flammability limits required. When gas-phase flame retardants were used, a linear dependency of ignition time on the concentration of additive was found. This is explained in terms of the dilution effect of this retardant on the fuel produced from the decomposing fabric.
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    News (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 105-105 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: No Absract.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160208
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    Communication: High-performance liquid chromatography to identify melamine in order to differentiate between combustion modified and traditional polyurethane foam (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 101-103 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A high-performance liquid chromatography method is described for the identification and quantification of melamine in polyurethane foam. A trial of this method has been undertaken and the results show a correlation between the presence of combustion-modifying chemicals in the polyurethane foam and its compliance with the Furniture and Furnishings (Fire) (Safety) Regulations 1988. This method provides a rapid means of screening materials and supplements the British Standard flame test.
    Additional Material: 1 Ill.
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    Temperature distribution in a nailed gypsum-stud joint exposed to fire (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 95-99 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Performance of wood-stud walls depends on the integrity of nailed connections between the sheathing and the framing members. The performance of nailed connections has been studied at room temperature, but the effects of intense thermal loads, such as those from fire, are still poorly understood. This study examines the temperature distribution within nailed joints exposed to fire; this information is essential in modeling strength and stiffness of connections in wall systems. The finite-element method was used to determine the effects of wood density, nail size, and type of gypsum board on temperature distribution within a set of connections. Temperature distributions were verified in nailed joints exposed in fire tests conducted in accordance with ASTM E119-88. The principal path of heat flow through the connection was along the nail, rather than directly through the interface between gypsum board and wood. Wood species, type of gypsum board, and nail length did not change temperature distribution significantly.
    Additional Material: 6 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160206
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    Masthead (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992) 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160301
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    Optical measurement of smoke (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 135-139 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The optical density of smoke liberated by burning seven samples of materials and six commercial plastic products was studied using different light sources in a modified NBS smoke chamber. Materials included plywood, PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate), PF (phenolformaldehyde), PE (polythene), PC (polycarbonate), PP (polypropene) and POM (acetal). The plastic products were a polyvinylchloride pipe, an unplasticized polyvinylchloride pipe, a telephone casing, an insulator, an electrical fitting and floor tiles. Light sources used were a helium-neon laser, a mercury lamp, a sodium lamp and a tungsten filament lamp. The errors in optical measurement of smoke due to a forward-scattering effect and the frequency of light beam were investigated.
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    Smoke results from a set of over 100 carpets in the NBS smoke chamber: Statistical analysis and investigation of affecting factors (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 127-133 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A large set of carpets was tested vertically in the NBS smoke chamber (ASTM E662), in two ways: along the length and along the width of their grain pattern. The set comprised 104 carpets. The results were analyzed in order to investigate the potential effect of carpet grain direction on the results obtained. It was shown that there is no statistically significant difference between the orientation of the carpet (width or length). Moreover, the degree of agreement was the same whatever the result of the test. Several other variables were found to have an effect. The most important of these is the sample weight, but others are carpet construction, yarn type and backing material. It was found that the testing mode (flaming or non-flaming) did not appear to affect the results of this set of samples in a statistically significant way.
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    Survey of fire testing of electrical cables (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 107-118 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The National Electrical Code (NEC) is the document which regulates electrical cables in the United States. It addresses two fire properties only for which it requires testing: flame spread and smoke obscuration. Thus, a hierarchy of tests exists which cables need to pass to be allowed in occupancies regulated by the NEC. On a flame spread basis they are, in increasing severity: UL VW-1, UL 1581, UL 1666 and UL 910. For smoke obscuration only one test is mentioned in the NEC: UL 910. The /LS category (limited smoke) introduced in NEC '90, as a voluntary label, will probably be addressed in NEC '93 under the new standard UL 1685, a modification of UL 1581. Rate of heat release is measured for cables only for R&D purposes. However, it is by now well established that rate of heat release is the one most important fire property to assess fire hazard. Cable flame spread tests (except for VW-1) have all been modified, in non-standard ways, to measure rate of heat release, which gives much more useful results than char-length determinations. Moreover, small-scale RHR test instruments (cone calorimeter, OSU calorimeter) have also been used extensively to test cables. The results of such tests have been correlated with those of UL 1581 (and of similar cable tray tests) in several cases, with excellent outcome. Work is underway to develop algorithms to predict largescale cable test results from small-scale compound tests. This area of research is very promising, and, once completed, would decrease product development costs considerably and allow faster introduction of advanced materials into the market. However, such work can only be completed by using rate of heat release techniques in both large- and small-scale tests.
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    Improved fire safety of composites for naval applications (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 119-125 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This study is based on the use of integral, hybrid thermal barrier to protect the core of the composite structure. Thermal barrier treatments evaluated in this study include ceramic fabric, ceramic coating, intumescent coating, hybrid of ceramic and intumescent coating, silicone foam, and phenolic skin. The composite systems evaluated in combination with thermal barrier treatments included glass/vinyl ester, graphite/epoxy, graphite/bismaleimide, and graphite/phenolic. All configurations were tested for flammability characteristics. These included smoke density and combustion gas generation (ASTM E-662), residual flexural strength (ASTM D-790), heat release rate, and ignitability (ASTM E-1354). ASTM E-662 test method covers the determination of specific optical density of smoke generated by solid materials. ASTM D-790 test method covers the determination of flexural properties of composite materials in the form of rectangular bars. ASTM E-1354 (cone calorimeter) covers the measurement of the response of materials exposed to controlled levels of radiant heating with or without an external ignitor, and is used to determine the ignitability, heat release rates, mass loss rates, effective heat of combustion, and visible smoke development. Without any fire barrier treatments, all composite systems evaluated in this study failed to meet ignitability and peak heat release requirements of MIL-STD-2031 (SH) at radiant heat fluxes of 75 and 100 kW m-2, respectively. Intumescent coating and a hybrid system consisting of intumescent coating over ceramic coating were the most effective fire barrier treatments for composite systems evaluated in this study. Using either of these treatments, all composite systems met the ignitability requirements of 90 and 60 at 75 and 100 kW m-2, respectively. Except for glass/vinyl ester, all systems also met the peak and average heat release requirements of MIL-STD-2031 (SH) at radiant heat fluxes of 25, 75, and 100 kW m-2, respectively.
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    Masthead (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982) 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060101
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    Synergistic action of Sb2O3 with bromine-containing flame retardant in polyolefins: 3 - The relationship between certain combustion variables (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 1-6 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The combustion of polypropylene flame-retarded by the synergistic action between Sb2O3 and bromine-containing flame retardants has been studied. From the relationship between a number of the variables, a parameter quantatively reflecting the flame retardant effect has been found. With the addition of flame retardant, the rate of weight loss, the CO and CO2 emission rates and heat release all decrease while smoke density increases. These effects were considered to depend on the concentration of HBr gas in the pyrolysates released into the gas phase (i.e., dWHBr/dW, HBr flux ensity), and the following equations were obtained: \documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$$ \frac{1}{W_0}\left(\frac{\rm d{W}}{\rm d{t}}\right)_{\max} \propto\left(\frac{\rm d{W_{HBr}}}{\rm d{W}}\right)^{-0.64}\quad\quad {\rm and}\quad\quad\eta^{\rm *} =\frac{W_{\rm[C], CO + CO_2}}{W_{0[\rm C]}}\,\propto \left(\frac{\rm d{W_{HBr}}}{\rm d{W}}\right)^{-0.37} $$\end{document} η*(dW/dt)max, which approximately corresponds to the oxidation velocity of pyrolized hydrocarbon, is inversely proportional to the HBr flux density. As the conversion of CO to CO2 was almost independent of the amount of flame retardants added, the flame retardant effect of bromine-containing flame retardants was considered to be a retardant effect of the initial oxidation reaction at the gas liquid interface. Moreover, η* is almost proportional to the combustion efficiency η, which was obtained from the heat release measured in the flaming region. The heat release is therefore considered to be governed by the HBr flux density.
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    The role of nitrogen in nitrogen-phosphorus synergism (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 10-12 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Thermal analysis and limiting oxygen index flammability tests were used for elucidation of details in phosphorous-nitrogen synergism in cotton modified with methylol phosphonopropionamide and subsequently hydrolyzed by acid. The results indicate that not all the phosphorus incorporated into the material is effective for flame retardancy purposes in the condensed phase. The comparison of modified and acid hydrolyzed cotton has shown the important influence of nitrogen in the structure of the flame retardant. A simplified theory of nitrogen-phosphorus synergism, considering this influence, is proposed.
    Additional Material: 4 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060104
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    Fire safety of soft furnishings - an overview (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 16-22 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The fire risk posed by soft furnishings such as bedding materials and upholstered furniture and the strategies being developed to reduce the number of fire-related casualities are reviewed from a Canadian point of view. Statistics from Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom indicate that a substantial reduction in the number of fire deaths would be possible if the ability of assemblies of materials to resist ignition by smokers' materials, such as cigarettes and matches, could be improved. The post-ignition performance of furnishings that results in generation of heat, smoke and toxic gases is also important from a safety point of view. A need exists for both full-scale and small-scale fire tests, and for mathematical modelling for present and future control strategies.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060106
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    An investigation of the variation of oxygen index of materials with changes in pressure (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 23-26 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An apparatus has been designed and a procedure adopted for studing the oxygen index of materials over a range of pressures. It has been found that the oxygen index falls with increase in pressure so that materials become more flammable, the effect being more marked with the less flammable materials. An empirical method has been devised for predicting the oxygen index at varying pressures.
    Additional Material: 6 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060107
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    Normalized heat load: A key parameter in fire safety design (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 27-31 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: It is demonstrated that he normalized heat load is a suitable parameter for ranking various enclosure fires on a ‘potential for destruction’ scale. This parameter is convertible to the familiar fire resistance.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060108
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    Inorganic elements in the tracheas of fire fatalities (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 32-37 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Concentrations of elements were determined in tracheal specimeans of fatal fire casualties and of non-fire fatalities. Elevated concentrations of antimony, bromine, zinc, chromium, cobalt, iron, lead, cadmium and gold found in the group exposed to the fire environment were associated with deposition of soot. The presence of raised concentrations of antimony in fatalities was found to occur in association with increased content of carboxyhaemoglobin in blood and was greatest in fires involving major destruction of property. A relationship between the increased concentration of this element and the use of antimony containing fire-retardants in construction materials could not be demonstrated.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060109
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    Detection and measurement of hazardous gases. Heinemann Educational Books, London, and Exeter, New Hampshire, USA, 1981. £25.00. ISBN: 0-435-71030-3 (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. i 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060112
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    News (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. i 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060113
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  • 50
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    Oxidation and stabilization of hydrocarbon polymers: Relationships, new aspects and unsolved problems (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 42-50 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Oxidation processes involved in processing, atmospheric ageing and the pre-burning stages of hydrocarbon polymers are outlined. Open problems based on up-to-date knowledge of the mechanisms of oxidation and stabilization processes are considered. Stabilizers used to assist processing and long-term stability are transformed during their service-time. Some of the products thus formed, as well as the products of polymer oxidation, should be considered as inherent impurities of polymers and play an active role in the degradation. Because of safety consideration, some of the products have to be protected also against catastrophic oxidation, i.e. burning. Significant changes in the mechanisms of degradation take place in the pre-burning step in the phases of high temperature oxidation and oxidative pyrolysis. Fuller understanding of the mutual relationships in the mixtures of antioxidants and/or light stabilizers with flame-retardants in lacking.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060111
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    Textile flammability testing: Appropriate levels for moisture content of specimens (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. 38-41 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: This study was performed to establish the appropriate moisture level for textile flammability test specimens. Three investigations were carried out: into the effect of the level of humidity in dwellings; into the moisture content of garments worn at various distances from the body; and into the effect of relatively short exposures to heat on the moisture content of fabrics (simulating the case of a person standing in front of an open fire or space heater). The moisture content of ambient air in dwellings was found to be primarily governed by the moisture content of the air outside and can be quite low, ten to twenty percent, especially in winter (unless, of course, humidifying equipment is used). The moisture content of garment parts which are at some distance from the body (e.g., the loosely fitting parts of skirts) is governed by the relative humidity of the room. Closely fitting parts are more likely to be exposed to ignition sources than closely fitting parts. Fabric specimens exposed at a short distance from an electric space heater had moisture contents similar to specimens which has been oven-dried and cooled in a desiccator. The results of these studies indicate that oven-drying is a reasonable conditioning requirement for testing the flammability of apparel and home furnishing fabrics.
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    Masthead (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060201
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    Diary (1982)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 6 (1982), S. i 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810060114
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    A cone calorimeter for controlled-atmosphere studies (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 37-43 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Many fires occur in ambient atmospheric conditions. To investigate certain types of fires, however, it is necessary to consider combustion where the oxidizer is not 21% oxygen/79% nitrogen. The Cone Calorimeter (ASTM E 1354, ISO DIS 5660) has recently become the tool of choice for studying the fire properties of products and materials. Its standard use involves burning specimens with room air being drawn in for combustion. To facilitate studying fires involving different atmospheres, a special version of the Cone Calorimeter was designed. This unit allows controlled combustion atmospheres to be created by the use of bottled or piped gases. To make such operation feasible, a large number of design details of the standard calorimeter had to be modified. This paper describes the background for these changes and provides an explanation of how the controlled-atmospheres unit is operated.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160106
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    Masthead (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160201
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    Note: Effect of some zinc chelates on the flammability and thermal behaviour of polypropylene (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 45-51 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Some zinc chelates were prepared according to conventional methods, and were mixed with polypropylene in the presence and absence of a halogenated compound (Cereclor 70). The effect of these chelates on the flammability and thermal behaviour of polypropylene was studied by measuring the limiting oxygen index values and by the use of thermal analysis. This results showed that these chelates are ineffective in reducing the flammability of polypropylene but their effectiveness is enhanced to varying extents by the addition of Cereclor.
    Additional Material: 13 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160107
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    PC-Based product-selection systems to enhance fire safety in construction (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 53-60 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Growing use of PCs in offices has been accompanied by increasing dependence on these systems to accomplish construction/specification and CAD-based design tasks. The combination of product performance and characteristic data with PC-based data storage and retrieval techniques is a newly developed example of this. Storage techniques utilized range from floppy disks on single systems through those loaded to hard disks or ROM systems, such as compact disks containing hundreds of megabytes of information. The combination of artificial intelligence techniques to aid the specifier are particularly useful where complex code-mandated fire performance requirements exist. Using through penetration fire-stopping technology as an example illustrates how such technology can assist architects, designers and specifiers. Computer workstations - both PCs and Macs - are increasingly finding their way into the design and specification work implicit in constructing buildings. Because of the growing complexity of requirements for fire performance of these structures, use of computer-based systems to aid in choosing the right components to maintain fire safety levels makes good sense. Coupling artificial intelligence approaches - i.e. quasi-expert systems - to selection of such products with viewing of drawings can reduce design professionals' work loads and provide increased advantages for designers, specifiers, enforcement officials and product manufacturers and marketers.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160202
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    Surface radiant-energy balance for structural thermal analysis (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 61-66 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The development of computer programs to model the effects of fire on structures has led to an increase in the variety of problems to which they are applied. Programs which provide the thermal analysis for such problems must determine the energy exchange between the structure and the fire environment, and this paper addresses the radiation aspect of this exchange. The radiant energy exchange of a surface exposed to any fire environment is considered in relation to equations used in such programs. With the aid of a simple model an alternative generalized expression is derived, which takes a simple form. Two equations, typical of those used in such programs, are compared with this generalized form and their shortcomings discussed. It is proposed that the expression derived in this work should be the preferred choice.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160203
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    Recent developments in understanding the toxicity of PTFE thermal decomposition products (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 67-75 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Fluropolymers, especially polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), have good fire-resistance properties, but their application is limited by concerns over the toxicity of their thermal decomposition products. In experiments using a tube furnace system similar to the DIN 53 436 method, the 30-minute (+ 14 days observation) LC50 in mass loss terms was found to be 2.9 mgI-1 (Standard Error 0.40) under non-flaming conditions, approximately ten times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to upper respiratory tract and airway irritation, and was consistent with the known effects of carbonyl fluoride and hydrogen fluoride. When decomposed in the NBS cup furnace test under-non-flaming conditions, PTFE evolved extreme-toxicity products with an LC50 of approximately 0.05 mgI-1 (mass loss), approximately 1000 times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to deep lung irritation and oedema. Investigations of the range of conditions under which the extreme toxicity of PTFE products occurs in both small-scale (200-litre) and intermediate-scale (6 m3) experiments have shown that the highest toxicity occurs when PTFE is decomposed under non-flaming conditions over a temperature range of 400-650°C, and when the primary decomposition products are subjected to continuous secondary heating. At higher or lower temperatures, when the sample is flaming, when decomposition products from wood are also present in the chamber, when secondary heating is curtailed, or when the molecule contains hydrogen as well as fluorine, the toxicity of the products is greatly reduced, tending towards the region of ten times the potency of most other materials. Extreme toxicity is associated with a particulate, but the particulate atmosphere is not always extremely toxic, the potency decreasing as the fumes age.
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    Analysis and interpretation of the plumbing materials file of the NYS combustion toxicity data bank (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 77-94 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: New York State's Building and Fire Prevention Code includes a requirement that combustible materials used in electrical, plumbing and finishing systems be tested by the University of Pittsburgh protocol and that particular data from that testing be reported on standard forms to the Office of Fire Prevention and Control. The plumbing file in this data bank contains data on 41 products, excluding minor usages. In this paper, these data plus the data on Douglas fir are reported and analyzed. LC50 was found to have significant correlations with indices of thermal instability, of rate of mass loss, and of corrosive irritants. The most parsimonious model developed with stepwise regression correlated LC50 with three factors: %wt loss per degree of temperature rise, temperature at the beginning of rapid weight loss-temperature at which 1% of the sample weight was lost, and temperature at the end of rapid weight loss-temperature at which 1% of the sample weight was lost. LC50 was weakly correlated with maximum CO concentration and in the ‘wrong’ direction (high CO concentrations were associated with low toxicity). Log LC50 was significantly correlated with Log COmax, but also in the ‘wrong’ direction. LC50 was correlated with minimum oxygen concentration with a small R-squared and also in the ‘wrong’ direction. The question of the relevance of these test results to smoke exposures in real fires is discussed.
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    Communication: On the correlation of flash points (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 153-154 
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    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160307
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    An appraisal of standard methods for determination of flame spread behaviour of materials (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 141-151 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Salient features of the standard apparatuses and the methodology adopted by various countries for determination of flame spread behaviour of materials are analysed and discussed with a view to obtain a perspective of the performance of these apparatuses. This study was undertaken to investigate the possible reasons for anamolies in the results obtained using these apparatuses. A need is established for development of a new technique for direct determination of flame spread rate of materials under steady-state conditions which has the potential of overcoming the inherent limitations of the existing apparatuses.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160306
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    Masthead (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160401
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    Note: Fire-retardant treatment of roofing thatch (1992)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Fire and Materials 16 (1992), S. 155-158 
    Details
    ISSN: 0308-0501
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The double salt calcium phosphate-calcium sulphate monohydrate, hereafter referred to as fertilizer, was used to impregnate some grass commonly used for roofing houses. It was found that this treatment significantly changed the thermal characteristics of the material. Reasons are adduced to explain these observations.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160308
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