ALBERT

Description: Since global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) for determining the absolute geolocation do not reach into the ocean, underwater robots typically obtain a GNSS position at the water surface and then use a combination of different sensors for estimating their pose while diving, including inertial navigation, acoustic doppler velocity logs, ultra short baseline localization systems and pressure sensors. When re-navigating to the same seafloor location after several days, months or years, e.g. for coastal monitoring, the absolute uncertainty of such systems can be in the range of meters for shallow water, and tens of meters for deeper waters in practice. To enable absolute relocalization in marine data science applications that require absolute seafloor positions in the range of centimeter precision, in this contribution we suggest to equip the monitoring area with visual markers that can be detected reliably even in case they are partially overgrown or partially buried by sediment, which can happen quickly in coastal waters. Inspired by patterns successful in camera calibration, we create robust markers that exhibit features at different scales, in order to allow detection, identification and pose estimation from different cameras and various altitudes as visibility (and therefore the maximum possible survey altitude) in coastal waters can vary significantly across seasons, tides and weather. The low frequency content of the marker resembles a human-readable digit, in order to allow easy identification by scientists. We present early results including promising initial tests in coastal waters.

Description: While offshore groundwater has been utilized by coastal communities as far back as 1000 BC, only in the past 10 years has the global volume of fresh-to-brackish water hosted in offshore aquifers been truly appreciated. There are vast quantities (~300–500 × 103 km3) of offshore freshened groundwater sequestered in continental shelf sediments under water depths of less than 60 m within 110 km of the coastline. New marine geophysical methods now make it possible to map and quantify low salinity offshore groundwater bodies. To date, these offshore resources have not been developed. Offshore freshened groundwater could be produced if wells are located close to the shoreline and coastal desalination plants.

Description: Underwater images are challenging for correspondence search algorithms, which are traditionally designed based on images captured in air and under uniform illumination. In water however, medium interactions have a much higher impact on the light propagation. Absorption and scattering cause wavelength- and distance-dependent color distortion, blurring and contrast reductions. For deeper or turbid waters, artificial illumination is required that usually moves rigidly with the camera and thus increases the appearance differences of the same seafloor spot in different images. Correspondence search, e.g. using image features, is however a core task in underwater visual navigation employed in seafloor surveys and is also required for 3D reconstruction, image retrieval and object detection. For underwater images, it has to be robust against the challenging imaging conditions to avoid decreased accuracy or even failure of computer vision algorithms. However, explicitly taking underwater nuisances into account during the feature extraction and matching process is challenging. On the other hand, learned feature extraction models achieved high performance in many in-air problems in recent years. Hence we investigate, how such a learned robust feature model, D2Net, can be applied to the underwater environment and particularly look into the issue of cross domain transfer learning as a strategy to deal with the lack of annotated underwater training data.

Description: Fish food is an inevitable item in human consumption with healthy sourceof good quality proteins and fat. Aqua industry can help to improve food security,livelihoods for the poorest and to meet the world’s food demands. But producingmore seafood that is at affordable cost with rich nutrition is challenging for aquaindustry. Many factors affect the productivity of aqua industry; one such an impor-tant constraint is bacterial diseases. Hence, Aqua industry, a booming businesssector, immensely requires continued research with scientific and technical devel-opments, and innovations. Study of bacterialfish disease is one such thrust areawhich requires intense research to understand the causes and control bacterialdiseases infish. The appearance and development of afish disease is the result ofthe interaction among pathogen, host and environment. An insight into bacterialfishdiseases, clinical symptoms and treatment may help to manage the bacterial diseasesand so can make aqua industry a more profitablefield. This chapter deals withdifferent aspects of the most threatening bacterial diseases, occurring in farmedfishes and also in wildfishes, which are results infish loss and economic lossworldwide. A wide range of gram positive and gram-negative bacteria causingbacterial diseases, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, vaccines and the natureof water habitat are also discussed in this chapter.

Description: The Digital Earth project aimed for the integration of data science and Earth science. Here, we reflect on the main lessons learned that include the need for interdisciplinary collaboration, thinking out of the box, the concept of ‘thinking in workflows’ and models for the sustainable implementation of scientific software, data infrastructure and policies.

Description: Digital Earth is a project funded by the German Helmholtz Association with all centers of the research field Earth and Environment involved. The main goal of the Digital Earth project is to develop and bundle data science methods in extendable and maintainable scientific workflows that enable natural scientists in collaboration with data scientists to achieve a deeper understanding of the Earth system. This has been achieved by developing solutions for data analysis and exploration with visual and computational approaches with data obtained in a SMART monitoring approach and modeling studies, accompanied by a continuous evaluation of the collaboration processes. In this chapter, the history, setup, and focus of the Digital Earth project are described.

Description: The Digital Earth project aims at a strong interrelation between Data and Earth Science and a step-change in implementing data science methods within Earth science research. During the project, the progress of interdisciplinary collaboration and adoption of data science methods has been measured and assessed with the goal to trace the success of the project. This chapter provides the set-up of this evaluation and the results from two online questionnaires that were held after the start and before the end of the project.

Description: Diversity within marine microbiomes spans the three domains of life: microbial eukaryotes (i.e., protists), bacteria, and archaea. Although protists were the first microbes observed by microscopy, it took the advent of molecular techniques to begin to resolve their complex and reticulate evolutionary history. Symbioses between microbial entities have been key in this journey, and such interactions continue to shape the ecology of marine microbiomes. Nowadays, photosynthetic marine protists are appreciated for their activities as primary producers, rivalling land plant contributions in the global carbon cycle. Predatory protists are known for consuming prokaryotes and other protists, with some combining metabolisms into a mixotrophic lifestyle. Still, much must be learned about specific interactions and lifestyles, especially for uncultured groups recognized just by environmental sequences. With respect to the fate of protists in food webs, there are many paths to consider. Despite being in early stages of identifying interactions, whether mutualistic or death-inducing infections by parasites and viruses, knowledge is advancing rapidly via methods for interrogation in nature without culturing. Here, we review marine protists, their evolutionary histories, diversity, ecological roles, and lifestyles in all layers of the ocean, with reference to how views have shifted over time through extensive investigation.

Description: Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) will be necessary to fulfil the hundreds of pledges to reach net-zero by 2050. As with any industry, standard methodologies and certification are crucial to guarantee successful and reliable activities. However, buyers and policymakers currently face challenges in evaluating the ecosystem of CDR certification. The issue is not with CDR, nor with individual certifications – some of which may be very robust – but with the lack of transparency in the overall ecosystem. To bring some clarity, we present a snapshot of the CDR certification and standards ecosystem for the year 2021–2022. We find a complex ecosystem with at least 30 standard developing organizations proposing at least 125 standard methodologies for carbon removal from 23 different CDR activities and selling 27 different versions of certification instruments in voluntary and compliance markets. This exercise reveals many more existing standards for nature-based than for engineering-based activities and more diversity from standards serving the voluntary rather than the compliance market. It also highlights a proliferation of standards for the same activity, and a plethora of activities without standards. The process revealed ambiguity on what constitutes carbon removal, with many standards certifying activities that remove CO2 already in the environment as well as activities that avoid or reduce new emissions by sequestering the carbon into reservoirs. This mapping highlights key gaps and potential starting points for reforms to strengthen the CDR certification industry; it also underscores the need for independent oversight.

Description: Data-driven science has turned into a fourth fundamental paradigm of performing research. Earth System Science, following a holistic approach in unraveling the complex network of processes and interactions shaping system Earth, particularly profits from embracing data-driven approaches next to observation and modeling. At the end, increasing digitalization of Earth sciences will lead to cultural transformation towards a Digital Earth Culture.

Description: A comprehensive study of the Earth system and its related processes requires a holistic examination and understanding of multidimensional data acquired with a large number of different sensors or produced by various models. To this end, the Digital Earth project developed a set of software solutions to study environmental data sets using visual approaches. In the following chapter, we present three data visualization products developed to deal with the challenges of the analysis and exploration of environmental data.

Description: Reliable data are the base of all scientific analyses, interpretations and conclusions. Evaluating data in a smart way speeds up the process of interpretation and conclusion and highlights where, when and how additionally acquired data in the field will support knowledge gain. An extended SMART monitoring concept is introduced which includes SMART sensors, DataFlows, MetaData and Sampling approaches and tools. In the course of the Digital Earth project, the meaning of SMART monitoring has significantly evolved. It stands for a combination of hard- and software tools enhancing the traditional monitoring approach where a SMART monitoring DataFlow is processed and analyzed sequentially on the way from the sensor to a repository into an integrated analysis approach. The measured values itself, its metadata, and the status of the sensor, and additional auxiliary data can be made available in real time and analyzed to enhance the sensor output concerning accuracy and precision. Although several parts of the four tools are known, technically feasible and sometimes applied in Earth science studies, there is a large discrepancy between knowledge and our derived ambitions and what is feasible and commonly done in the reality and in the field.

Description: Millions of tons of plastic waste are released into the marine environment every year. While they steadily accumulate, synthetic polymers provide a habitat for microorganisms. This denominated Plastisphere has been studied in detail over the past ten years. So have the enzymes responsible for microbial degradation, which are unfortunately lacking for most sorts of plastics. Therefore, the BMBF-funded project PLASTISEA is focusing on bioprospecting the marine treasure trove for novel plastic acting enzymes.

Description: Many of the socio-economic and environmental challenges of the 21st century like the growing energy and food demand, rising sea levels and temperatures put stress on marine ecosystems and coastal populations. This requires a significant strengthening of our monitoring capacities for processes in the water column, at the seafloor and in the subsurface. However, present-day seafloor instruments and the required infrastructure to operate these are expensive and inaccessible. We envision a future Internet of Underwater Things, composed of small and cheap but intelligent underwater nodes. Each node will be equipped with sensing, communication, and computing capabilities. Building on distributed event detection and cross-domain data fusion, such an Internet of Underwater Things will enable new applications. In this paper, we argue that to make this vision a reality, we need new methodologies for resource-efficient and distributed cross-domain data fusion. Resource-efficient, distributed neural networks will serve as data-analytics pipelines to derive highly aggregated patterns of interest from raw data. These will serve as (1) a common base in time and space for fusion of heterogeneous data, and (2) be sufficiently small to be transmitted efficiently in resource-constrained settings.

Description: Die Messung submariner Bodendeformationen an den Flanken von Inselvulkanen hilft dabei, ihre Stabilität und die Gefahr von Hangrutschungen einzuschätzen, ist aber inherent schwierig für Gebiete, die unter Wasser liegen. Wiederholte Seismik- oder Fächerecholot-Vermessungen können größere Gebiete abdecken, aber Auflösung und Lokalisierung sind bestimmten Grenzen unterworfen. Optische Daten andererseits sind besser aufgelöst, aber limitiert in ihrer räumlichen Abdeckung, und Meeresbodengeodäsie wiederum liefert nur punktuelle Information. In diesem Artikel schlagen wir vor, verschiedene Arten von Fernerkundungsdaten zusammenzubringen und auch mit bestehenden statischen und dynamischen Modellen zu verschneiden. Aufgrund ihrer verschiedenen Modalitäten, Unsicherheiten und Skalierungen ist dies jedoch schwierig und bedarf einer Fusion. Zusammen mit anderen Aspekten (Erdbeben, Strömungen etc.) sollen die fusionierten Daten und Modelle langfristig neue Einblicke in das dynamische System des sich verändernden Meeresbodens, die dafür verantwortlichen Faktoren sowie die Auswirkungen instabiler submariner Hänge auf andere Meeressysteme bieten.

Description: The prediction of a spatial variable is of particular importance when analyzing spatial data. The main objective of this study is to evaluate and compare the performance of several prediction-based methods in spatial prediction through a simulation study. The studied methods include ordinary Kriging (OK), along with several neural network methods including Multi-Layer Perceptron network (MLP), Ensemble Neural Networks (ENN), and Radial Basis Function (RBF) network. We simulated several spatial datasets with three different scenarios due to changes in data stationarity and isotropy. The performance of methods was evaluated using the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Concordance Correlation Coefficient (CCC) indexes. Although the results of the simulation study revealed that the performance of the neural network in spatial prediction is weaker than the Kriging method, but it can still be a good competitor for Kriging.

Description: A central promise of cross-domain fusion (CDF) is the provision of a “bigger picture” that integrates different disciplines and may span very different levels of detail. We present a number of settings that call for this bigger picture, with a particular focus on how information from several domains can be made easily accessible and visualizable for different stakeholders. We propose harnessing an approach that is now well established in interactive maps, which we refer to as the “Google maps approach” (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA, USA), which combines effective filtering with intuitive user interaction. We expect this approach to be applicable to a range of CDF settings.

Description: Consistently high data quality is essential for the development of novel loss functions and architectures in the field of deep learning. The existence of such data and labels is usually presumed, while acquiring high-quality datasets is still a major issue in many cases. Subjective annotations by annotators often lead to ambiguous labels in real-world datasets. We propose a data-centric approach to relabel such ambiguous labels instead of implementing the handling of this issue in a neural network. A hard classification is by definition not enough to capture the real-world ambiguity of the data. Therefore, we propose our method “Data-Centric Classification & Clustering (DC3)” which combines semi-supervised classification and clustering. It automatically estimates the ambiguity of an image and performs a classification or clustering depending on that ambiguity. DC3 is general in nature so that it can be used in addition to many Semi-Supervised Learning (SSL) algorithms. On average, our approach yields a 7.6% better F1-Score for classifications and a 7.9% lower inner distance of clusters across multiple evaluated SSL algorithms and datasets. Most importantly, we give a proof-of-concept that the classifications and clusterings from DC3 are beneficial as proposals for the manual refinement of such ambiguous labels. Overall, a combination of SSL with our method DC3 can lead to better handling of ambiguous labels during the annotation process. (Source code is available at https://github.com/Emprime/dc3).

Description: The gas hydrate system off Mauritania is characterized by the undulating landward termination of a gas hydrate-related bottom simulating reflector (BSR). Some of the most landward sections of this BSR reach up to within 6 m of the seafloor. This suggests a shallow sulphate-methane-interface over an unusually large area. We attribute this to the presence of large amounts of methane due to the efficient burial of organic matter in a high-productivity oceanographic region, and the efficient channelling of methane along permeable turbidite beds towards the feather edge of the gas hydrate stability zone. This is consistent with the observation of steps in the BSR, where it cross-cuts other inferred permeable horizons. The high thermal conductivity of a salt dome in the southern part of the study area distorts the subsurface temperature field, giving the base of the hydrate stability zone a concave-down shape. Within this anticline of the BSR, high amplitudes and a horizontal reflection that crosses the sedimentary strata indicate the entrapment of free gas. We interpret this as a direct indication of a reduced hydraulic permeability of the hydrate-bearing sediment.

Description: Spectacular advances have been made in the field of machine vision over the past decade. While this discipline is traditionally driven by geometric models, neural networks have proven to be superior in some applications and have significantly expanded the limits of what is possible. At the same time, conventional graphic models describe the relationship between images and the associated scene with textures and light in a physically realistic manner and are an important part of photogrammetry. Differential renderers combine these approaches by enabling gradient-based optimization in fixed structures of a graphics pipeline and thus adapt the learning process of neural networks. This fusion of formalized knowledge and machine learning motivates the idea of a modular differentiable renderer in which physical and statistical models can be recombined depending on the use case. We therefore present Gemini Connector: an initiative for the modular development and combination of differentiable physical models and neural networks. We examine opportunities and problems and motivate the idea with the extension of a differentiable rendering pipeline to include models of underwater optics for the analysis of deep sea images. Finally, we discuss use cases, especially within the Cross-Domain Fusion initiative.

Description: Interactive exploration of Earth system simulations may have great potential to improve the scientific modeling process. It will allow monitoring of the state of the simulation via dashboards presenting real-time diagnostics within a digital twin world. We present the state of the art for Earth system modeling in this context. Cross-domain data handling and fusion will make it possible to integrate model and observation data in the context of digital twins of the ocean. Domain-driven modularization of monolithic Earth system models allows one to recover interfaces for such a cross-domain fusion. Reverse engineering with static and dynamic analysis enables modularization of Earth system models. The modularization does not only help with restructuring existing Earth system models, it also makes it possible to integrate additional scientific domains into the interactive simulation environment.

Description: Well-constrained and widely distributed bottom simulating reflectors in various geological settings across both passive and active margins make the area offshore southwestern Taiwan an excellent location to study gas hydrate dynamics and fluid flow systems. Seismic data reveal the presence of subsurface fluid flow systems and ubiquitous free gas and gas hydrates. This article aims to summarize and map the different types of seismic observations related to the gas hydrate system. The spatial distribution of seismic indicators for gas accumulation, fluid migration, and the presence of gas hydrates suggests that topographic highs on both passive and active margins are sites of particularly efficient free gas accumulation and gas hydrate formation. Seismic indicators observed in fold and thrust structures suggest that the fluid system in the active margin is structurally controlled and that the highest gas hydrate saturation levels are found in the cores of thrust anticlines on the lower slope of the active margin area.

Description: This article reviews extensive geophysical survey data, ocean drilling results and long-term seafloor monitoring that constrain the distribution and concentration of gas hydrates within the accretionary prism of the northern Cascadia subduction margin, located offshore Vancouver Island in Canada. Seismic surveys and geologic studies conducted since the 1980s have mapped the bottom simulating reflector (BSR), detected gas hydrate occurrence and estimated gas hydrate and free gas concentrations. Additional constraints were obtained from seafloor-towed, controlled-source electromagnetic surveying. A component of these studies has been the examination of low-temperature seafloor vents and seeps that emit gas and fluids into the ocean. These features are identified seismically as chimney-like zones of reduced acoustic reflectivity within the sediment stratigraphy, functioning as conduits for gas and fluid migration from below the BSR to the seafloor. Gas hydrates have been recovered from the seafloor and from sediment cores at vent sites, mostly in massive (nodular) form and as a vein-like fracture filling. The Ocean Networks Canada cabled NEPTUNE observatory has gathered extensive continuous, long-term observations on gas hydrate dynamics at the seafloor and in boreholes at two nodes on the continental slope featuring high gas hydrate concentrations. Measurements taken at the observatory include a time-series of gas bubble emission rates, changes in the near-seafloor electromagnetic structure and seafloor compliance linked to gas hydrate formation and dissociation. Two Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) expeditions collected cores, measured downhole properties and deployed downhole instruments within the central accretionary prism. At IODP Site U1364, pore pressures are being monitored above and below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone at a slope setting using an “Advanced Circulation Obviation Retrofit Kit” (A-CORK). Downhole pore pressures, temperatures and electrical resistivities also are being monitored at IODP Site U1416 using the “Simple Cabled Instrument for Measuring Parameters In Situ” (SCIMPI) tool at a vent site from near-seafloor to just above the base of the gas hydrate stability zone.

Description: Uncertainties concerning deep-seabed mining relate to the expected impacts on the abyssal benthic and pelagic environment and its ecosystems but also include geopolitical, economic, societal and cultural uncertainty. The uncertain impacts from mining lead to anxiety and a low societal acceptance for the activity and are not the same for everybody at the same time. Hence, uncertainty is an important element of the risk involved in deep-seabed mining. This chapter describes the different risks involved, develops a methodology for risk assessment for the exploitation of marine mineral resources that takes into consideration the state of knowledge and evolving research on deep-sea ecosystems, and informs on possible environmental threshold values in relation to deep-seabed mining operations.

Description: This article presents the first evidence of bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) on the continental margin of the western Indian Ocean, offshore Tanzania. The analysis of 2D and 3D seismic reflection data revealed two different types of BSRs. The Type 1 BSR, identified in water depths of 2250–2370 m west of the Seagap fault, shows a continuous reflection that mimics the seafloor, has a reverse polarity with respect to the seafloor and crosscuts the stratigraphy. Type 2 BSRs have been identified on the slope of the Tanzanian margin in water depths less than 1500 m. They are represented by a phase-reversed reflection that mimics the seafloor topography, revealing lateral variations in amplitude that are expressed as changes from high to moderate brightness. Modelling results show that gas hydrates of microbial origin (100% CH4) are stable in a minimum water depth of 740 m and a bottom water temperature of 9 °C, thus indicating a possible microbial origin for the type 2 BSRs. The thickest gas hydrate stability zone is observed within the Kerimbas Graben at water depths of up to 3621 m, with values ranging from 321.4–383.4 m for geothermal gradients of 5.4 °C/100 m and 6.4 °C/100 m, respectively. We suggest that the type 1 BSR may have a thermogenic gas source, as the observed BSR depths are deeper than the calculated base of the gas hydrate stability zone for 100% methane. The interpreted faults that crosscut the stratigraphy may have facilitated gas transport from deeper source rocks.

Description: The Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCZ) is a vast deep-sea region harboring a highly diverse benthic fauna, which will be affected by potential future deep-sea mining of metal-rich polymetallic nodules. Despite the need for conservation plans and monitoring strategies in this context, the majority of taxonomic groups remain scientifically undescribed. However, molecular rapid assessment methods such as DNA barcoding and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) provide the potential to accelerate specimen identification and biodiversity assessment significantly in the deep-sea areas. In this study, we successfully applied both methods to investigate the diversity of meiobenthic copepods in the eastern CCZ, including the first application of MALDI-TOF MS for the identification of these deep-sea organisms. Comparing several different species delimitation tools for both datasets, we found that biodiversity values were very similar, with Pielou’s evenness varying between 0.97 and 0.99 in all datasets. Still, direct comparisons of species clusters revealed differences between all techniques and methods, which are likely caused by the high number of rare species being represented by only one specimen, despite our extensive dataset of more than 2000 specimens. Hence, we regard our study as a first approach toward setting up a reference library for mass spectrometry data of the CCZ in combination with DNA barcodes. We conclude that proteome fingerprinting, as well as the more established DNA barcoding, can be seen as a valuable tool for rapid biodiversity assessments in the future, even when no reference information is available.

Description: Algae are the oldest representatives of the plant world with reserves exceeding hundreds of millions of tons in the world's oceans. Currently, a growing interest is placed toward the use of algae as feedstocks for obtaining numerous natural products. Algae are a rich source of polyphenols that possess intriguing structural diversity. Among the algal polyphenols, phlorotannins, which are unique to brown seaweeds, and have immense value as potent modulators of biochemical processes linked to chronic diseases. In algae, flavonoids remain under-explored compared to other categories of polyphenols. Both phlorotannins and flavonoids are inclusive of compounds indicating a wide structural diversity. The present paper reviews the literature on the ecological significance, biosynthesis, structural diversity, and bioactivity of seaweed phlorotannins and flavonoids. The potential implementation of these chemical entities in functional foods, cosmeceuticals, medicaments, and as templates in drug design are described in detail, and perspectives are provided to tackle what are perceived to be the most momentous challenges related to the utilization of phlorotannins and flavonoids. Moving beyond: industrial biotechnology applications, metabolic engineering, total synthesis, biomimetic synthesis, and chemical derivatization of phlorotannins and flavonoids could broaden the research perspectives contributing to the health and economic up-gradation.

Description: Deep-sea decapod crustaceans (Crustacea: Decapoda) collected during nine research cruises to the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the NE Pacific Ocean and the Peru Basin in the SE Pacific Ocean were studied comprehensively using an integrative taxonomic approach. The abyssal seafloors of both areas are rich in economically interesting polymetallic nodules. All specimens were morphologically identified and genetically analysed using a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). Eight species were collected, comprising three anomurans, three carideans, one dendrobranchiate, and one brachyuran, from water depths ranging between 4089 and 4511 m. COI sequences for representatives of the genera Parapagurus Smith, 1879, Ethusina SI Smith, 1884, and Bathystylodactylus Hanamura & Takeda, 1996 are provided for the first time. The molecular barcodes of the species provided herein will be valuable for the full taxonomic assignment of sequences produced in future metabarcoding and eDNA monitoring work. The new records extend the geographical distributional ranges or fill geographical gaps of the species reported, although none of the species is endemic to polymetallic nodule areas. This study is part of a taxonomic series aiming to describe the biodiversity of areas targeted for future deep-sea mining.

Description: Climate change arguably constitutes one of the greatest risks to the long-term health of the world’s environment. In 2015, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) highlighted that the Earth’s climate system has consistently been warming since the 1950s and that a “large fraction of anthropogenic climate change resulting from CO2 emissions is irreversible on a multi-century to millennial time scale, except in the case of a large net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere over a sustained period”. Initial responses to climate change revolved around States attempting to reduce, rather than remove, greenhouse gas emissions. However, as the global economy expands, greenhouse gas emissions have continued to rise and cooperative arrangements aimed at reducing emissions have had limited, if any, impact. If recent predictions are to be believed, the remaining “carbon budget” needed to prevent average global temperatures from increasing by more than 1.5 °C may be exhausted by 2030. Climate Analytics estimates that the current Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) made by States under the Paris Agreement indicate that average global temperatures will rise by 2.8 °C by 2100—almost double the stipulated efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels mentioned in Article 2(1)(a) of the Paris Agreement. The recent IPCC Special Report on 1.5 °C Global Warming concludes that without “increased and urgent mitigation ambition in the coming years, leading to a sharp decline in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, global warming will [cause] irreversible loss of the most fragile ecosystems and crisis after crisis for the most vulnerable people and societies”.

Description: Climate change alters species distributions by shifting their fundamental niche in space through time. Such effects may be exacerbated by increased inter-specific competition if climate alters species dominance where competitor ranges overlap. This study used census data, telemetry and stable isotopes to examine the population and foraging ecology of a pair of Arctic and temperate congeners across an extensive zone of sympatry in Iceland, where sea temperatures varied substantially. The abundance of Arctic Brünnich’s guillemot Uria lomvia declined with sea temperature. Accessibility of refugia in cold water currents or fjords helped support higher numbers and reduce rates of population decline. Competition with temperate Common guillemots Uria aalge did not affect abundance, but similarities in foraging ecology were sufficient to cause competition when resources are limiting. Continued warming is likely to lead to further declines of Brünnich’s guillemot, with implications for conservation status and ecosystem services

Description: In addition to being a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, biological invasions also have profound impacts on economies and human wellbeing. However, the threats posed by invasive species often do not receive adequate attention and lack targeted management. In part, this may result from different or even ambivalent perceptions of invasive species which have a dual effect for stakeholders—being simultaneously a benefit and a burden. For these species, literature that synthesizes best practice is very limited, and analyses providing a comprehensive understanding of their economics are generally lacking. This has resulted in a critical gap in our understanding of the underlying trade-offs surrounding management efforts and approaches. Here, we explore qualitative trends in the literature for invasive species with dual effects, drawing from both the recently compiled InvaCost database and international case studies. The few invasive species with dual roles in InvaCost provide evidence for a temporal increase in reporting of costs, but with benefits relatively sporadically reported alongside costs. We discuss methods, management, assessment and policy frameworks dedicated to these species, along with lessons learned, complexities and persisting knowledge gaps. Our analysis points at the need to enhance scientific understanding of those species through inter- and cross-disciplinary efforts that can help advance their management.

Description: Interannual sea surface temperature (SST) variations in the tropical Atlantic Ocean lead to anomalous atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns with important ecological and socioeconomic consequences for the semiarid regions of sub-Saharan Africa and northeast Brazil. This interannual SST variability is characterized by three modes: an Atlantic meridional mode featuring an anomalous cross-equatorial SST gradient that peaks in boreal spring; an Atlantic zonal mode (Atlantic Nino mode) with SST anomalies in the eastern equatorial Atlantic cold tongue region that peaks in boreal summer; and a second zonal mode of variability with eastern equatorial SST anomalies peaking in boreal winter. Here we investigate the extent to which there is any seasonality in the relationship between equatorial warm water recharge and the development of eastern equatorial Atlantic SST anomalies. Seasonally stratified cross-correlation analysis between eastern equatorial Atlantic SST anomalies and equatorial heat content anomalies (evaluated using warm water volume and sea surface height) indicate that while equatorial heat content changes do occasionally play a role in the development of boreal summer Atlantic zonal mode events, they contribute more consistently to Atlantic Nino II, boreal winter events. Event and composite analysis of ocean adjustment with a shallow water model suggest that the warm water volume anomalies originate mainly from the off-equatorial northwestern Atlantic, in agreement with previous studies linking them to anomalous wind stress curl associated with the Atlantic meridional mode.

Description: A new box model is employed to simulate the oxygen-dependent cycling of nutrients in the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Model results and data for the present state of the OMZ indicate that dissolved iron is the limiting nutrient for primary production and is provided by the release of dissolved ferrous iron from shelf and slope sediments. Most of the removal of reactive nitrogen occurs by anaerobic oxidation of ammonium where ammonium is delivered by aerobic organic nitrogen degradation. Model experiments simulating the effects of ocean deoxygenation and warming show that the productivity of the Peruvian OMZ will increase due to the enhanced release of dissolved iron from shelf and slope sediments. A positive feedback loop rooted in the oxygen-dependent benthic iron release amplifies, both, the productivity rise and oxygen decline in ambient bottom waters. Hence, a 1% decline in oxygen supply reduces oxygen concentrations in sub-surface waters of the continental margin by 22%. The trend towards enhanced productivity and amplified deoxygenation will continue until further phytoplankton growth is limited by the loss of reactive nitrogen. Under nitrogen-limitation, the redox state of the OMZ is stabilized by negative feedbacks. A further increase in productivity and transition to sulfidic conditions is only possible if the rate of nitrogen fixation increases drastically under anoxic conditions. Such a transition would lead to a wide-spread accumulation of toxic sulfide with detrimental consequences for fishery yields in the Peruvian OMZ that currently provides a significant fraction of the global fish catch.

Description: Wetlands are amongst the world’s most important ecosystems, providing direct and indirect benefits to local communities. However, wetlands worldwide continue to be degraded due to unsustainable use and improper resource management. In this paper, we assess the perceptions, importance, management and utilisation of wetlands among local community members using a household questionnaire and field observations within the seven Thulamela municipality wetlands, Vhembe Biosphere Reserve in South Africa. Seven wetlands were chosen for the study, with 140 household respondents randomly selected for a questionnaire survey. The study indicated that wetlands were beneficial in supporting local communities through resource provisioning. The unemployment rate and household respondents’ income were the main contributors to increased wetland dependency and utilisation. We found that urban and rural developments, unregulated use and extensive agricultural practices (i.e., cultivation, livestock grazing) have resulted in wetland degradation. We observed that the local communities around the wetlands were interested in the benefits they receive from wetlands when compared to their conservation. Furthermore, the study observed poor wetland co-management or collaboration among the local stakeholders. This has resulted in a lack of openly known, active platforms to discuss wetlands management issues. These results highlight that centralized, top–down approaches to wetland use are insufficient for maintaining and managing wetland ecosystems, posing a challenge to sustainable wetland management. Therefore, there is a need to develop a shared understanding through bottom-up approaches to wetland management nested within national regulatory frameworks, ideally combined with awareness building and knowledge sharing on ecological benefits and management of wetlands.

Description: This world atlas presents a comprehensive overview of the gas-hydrate systems of our planet with contributions from esteemed international researchers from academia, governmental institutions and hydrocarbon industries. The book illustrates, describes and discusses gas hydrate systems, their geophysical evidence and their future prospects for climate change and continental margin geohazards from passive to active margins. This includes passive volcanic to non-volcanic margins including glaciated and non-glaciated margins from high to low latitudes. Shallow submarine gas hydrates allow a glimpse into the past from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to modern environmental conditions to predict potential changes in future stability conditions while deep submarine gas hydrates remained more stable. This demonstrates their potential for rapid reactions for some gas hydrate provinces to a warming world, as well as helping to identify future prospects for environmental research. Three-dimensional and high-resolution seismic imaging technologies provide new insights into fluid flow systems in continental margins, enabling the identification of gas and gas escape routes to the seabed within gas hydrate environments, where seabed habitats may flourish. The volume contains a method section detailing the seismic imaging and logging while drilling techniques used to characterize gas hydrates and related dynamic processes in the sub seabed. This book is unique, as it goes well beyond the geophysical monograph series of natural gas hydrates and textbooks on marine geophysics. It also emphasizes the potential for gas hydrate research across a variety of disciplines. Observations of bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) in 2D and 3D seismic reflection data combined with velocity analysis, electromagnetic investigations and gas-hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) modelling, provide the necessary insights for academic interests and hydrocarbon industries to understand the potential extent and volume of gas hydrates in a wide range of tectonic settings of continental margins. Gas hydrates control the largest and most dynamic reservoir of global carbon. Especially 4D, 3D seismic but also 2D seismic data provide compelling sub-seabed images of their dynamical behavior. Sub-seabed imaging techniques increase our understanding of the controlling mechanisms for the distribution and migration of gas before it enters the gas-hydrate stability zone. As methane hydrate stability depends mainly on pressure, temperature, gas composition and pore water chemistry, gas hydrates are usually found in ocean margin settings where water depth is more than 300 m and gas migrates upward from deeper geological formations. This highly dynamic environment may precondition the stability of continental slopes as evidenced by geohazards and gas expelled from the sea floor. This book provides new insights into variations in the character and existence of gas hydrates and BSRs in various geological environments, as well as their dynamics. The potentially dynamic behavior of this natural carbon system in a warming world, its current and future impacts on a variety of Earth environments can now be adequately evaluated by using the information provided in the world atlas.

Description: Widespread indications of free and hydrate gas accumulations and mud volcanoes were imaged using multichannel seismic reflection, chirp sub-bottom profiler, multibeam bathymetry, and deep-towed side-scan sonar data collected along the Southwestern Black Sea margin, offshore Akçakoca. These indications are typically associated with sedimentary ridges along the continental slope and rise, particularly with the “Ereğli Plateau” (850–1350 m water depth), where 20 mud volcanoes were found. Two types of bottom-simulating reflections (BSR) were identified, both mimicking the seafloor relief: Type-1 crosscuts the sedimentary reflections with amplitudes similar to the surrounding strata, while Type-2 shows higher amplitudes that terminate against the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. These types were observed over large portions of the continental rise, indicating the base of gas hydrate accumulations. Analyses of the BSR depth indicate that thermogenic gas is possibly present in the gas hydrates. A fault-driven hypothetical model was then developed to describe the formation of gas hydrate and mud volcanoes and the effect of submarine fluid flow in the area. According to this model, Type-1 BSRs form through biogenic gas accumulations. The presence of fault regions with Type-2 BSRs suggests active fluid transfer between permeable and impermeable units, where the fault surfaces act as possible conduits for thermogenic gases produced in the deeper sediments and transported into the shallower subsurface where then thermogenic biogenic gases coexist.

Description: Salinity is a common stressor restricting the distribution of various decapod crustaceans. The interactive effects of such regional stressors with global climate change drivers are important to be considered when aiming to realistically predict the potential of a species’ dispersal and further spread into new habitats. Within species, their larval stages commonly determine a species tolerance and with this their potential to invade and successfully develop a sustaining population. This laboratory study investigated the combined effect of salinity (6 levels, 10–25) and temperature (19 and 23 °C) on larval survival, development to megalopa, and feeding (in Zoea I, III, and V) of the decapod Hemigrapsus takanoi. Larval development and survival to megalopa were generally favored by increasing salinity. While no larva developed to the megalopa stage at 23 °C and a salinity of 16, in 19 °C some larvae could successfully develop under a salinity as low as 16. All larval stages fed generally more with increasing salinity and temperature, but there was no interaction between the two factors. The results revealed that the H. takanoi population from Kiel Fjord (southwestern Baltic Sea) is capable of completing its larval development under the current Kiel Fjord environmental conditions. The geographical spread of this H. takanoi population into the wider Baltic Proper may, however, be restricted mainly due to the inability to establish and maintain a self-sustaining population under lower salinity conditions. Furthermore, the projected desalination of the Baltic Sea together with rising temperatures due to global warming and heat waves in summer may likely exert additional stress to this existing population, unless H. takanoi adapts at appropriate rates.

Description: Maio Island (Cabo Verde Archipelago) is composed of uplifted Early Mesozoic MORB-type pillow lavas and deep-sea sediments, unconformably overlain and intruded by Miocene igneous rocks. Combined structural analyses and 40Ar–39Ar dating were used to constrain the Miocene evolution of Maio. Structures and ages of uplifted Mesozoic sequences and crosscutting Miocene dykes showed that numerous intrusive events were associated with the intense growth of an igneous core complex in the middle to upper crust, causing semi-circular doming and partial disruption of the Mesozoic strata. Two nosean nephelinite dykes cut the Valanginian Batalha Formation and yielded phlogopite 40Ar–39Ar ages of 10.405 ± 0.033 Ma and 10.570 ± 0.053 Ma (2σ errors). A nosean nephelinite dyke that cuts the overlying Valanginian to Early Aptian Morro Formation yielded an age of 9.273 ± 0.020 Ma. Combined with existing K–Ar and 40Ar–39Ar ages, this confirmed a main period of island growth between ~ 16 and 8.7 Ma. We re-interpreted extensive polymict conglomerates, which occur below the Late Miocene Monte Penoso Formation, as landslide deposits. A nephelinite lava clast yielded a phlogopite 40Ar–39Ar age of 8.666 ± 0.0274 Ma, which represents a maximum age for these landslides and thus confined a period of large-scale flank collapses and erosion to between 8.7 and 6.7 Ma. Flank collapses and further mass wasting during this period may have rejuvenated the igneous activity, i.e., resulting in the formation of the Tortonian/Messinian Monte Penoso and Malhada Pedra Formations, due to decompression-induced melting at upper mantle depths. Such interaction between flank collapses and rejuvenated volcanism may be a key to better understand ocean island evolution worldwide.

Description: Human activities are changing the Arctic environment at an unprecedented rate resulting in rapid warming, freshening, sea ice retreat and ocean acidification of the Arctic Ocean. Trace gases such as nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) play important roles in both the atmospheric reactivity and radiative budget of the Arctic and thus have a high potential to influence the region's climate. However, little is known about how these rapid physical and chemical changes will impact the emissions of major climate-relevant trace gases from the Arctic Ocean. The combined consequences of these stressors present a complex combination of environmental changes which might impact on trace gas production and their subsequent release to the Arctic atmosphere. Here we present our current understanding of nitrous oxide and methane cycling in the Arctic Ocean and its relevance for regional and global atmosphere and climate and offer our thoughts on how this might change over coming decades.

Description: The rate of biological invasions is growing unprecedentedly, threatening ecological and socioeconomic systems worldwide. Quantitative understandings of invasion temporal trajectories are essential to discern current and future economic impacts of invaders, and then to inform future management strategies. Here, we examine the temporal trends of cumulative invasion costs by developing and testing a novel mathematical model with a population dynamical approach based on logistic growth. This model characterises temporal cost developments into four curve types (I–IV), each with distinct mathematical and qualitative properties, allowing for the parameterization of maximum cumulative costs, carrying capacities and growth rates. We test our model using damage cost data for eight genera (Rattus, Aedes, Canis, Oryctolagus, Sturnus, Ceratitis, Sus and Lymantria) extracted from the InvaCost database—which is the most up-to-date and comprehensive global compilation of economic cost estimates associated with invasive alien species. We find fundamental differences in the temporal dynamics of damage costs among genera, indicating they depend on invasion duration, species ecology and impacted sectors of economic activity. The fitted cost curves indicate a lack of broadscale support for saturation between invader density and impact, including for Canis, Oryctolagus and Lymantria, whereby costs continue to increase with no sign of saturation. For other taxa, predicted saturations may arise from data availability issues resulting from an underreporting of costs in many invaded regions. Overall, this population dynamical approach can produce cost trajectories for additional existing and emerging species, and can estimate the ecological parameters governing the linkage between population dynamics and cost dynamics.

Description: Biological invasions are one of the top drivers of the ongoing biodiversity crisis. An underestimated consequence of invasions is the enormity of their economic impacts. Knowledge gaps regarding economic costs produced by invasive alien species (IAS) are pervasive, particularly for emerging economies such as India—the fastest growing economy worldwide. To investigate, highlight and bridge this gap, we synthesised data on the economic costs of IAS in India. Specifically, we examine how IAS costs are distributed spatially, environmentally, sectorally, taxonomically, temporally, and across introduction pathways; and discuss how Indian IAS costs vary with socioeconomic indicators. We found that IAS have cost the Indian economy between at least US$ 127.3 billion to 182.6 billion (Indian Rupees ₹ 8.3 trillion to 11.9 trillion) over 1960–2020, and these costs have increased with time. Despite these massive recorded costs, most were not assigned to specific regions, environments, sectors, cost types and causal IAS, and these knowledge gaps are more pronounced in India than in the rest of the world. When costs were specifically assigned, maximum costs were incurred in West, South and North India, by invasive alien insects in semi-aquatic ecosystems; they were incurred mainly by the public and social welfare sector, and were associated with damages and losses rather than management expenses. Our findings indicate that the reported economic costs grossly underestimate the actual costs, especially considering the expected costs given India’s population size, gross domestic product and high numbers of IAS without reported costs. This cost analysis improves our knowledge of the negative economic impacts of biological invasions in India and the burden they can represent for its development. We hope this study motivates policymakers to address socio-ecological issues in India and launch a national biological invasion research programme, especially since economic growth will be accompanied by greater impacts of global change.

Description: Global studies imply that cephalopods have benefited from climate change. However, in most areas, species-specific long-term cephalopod data sets do not exist to support this implication and to analyse the response of cephalopods to environmental changes. Our results illustrate that historical studies, in combination with recent data sets, can fill this gap, enabling descriptions of ecological changes over a long time. We show substantial changes in the cephalopod biodiversity of the North Sea at species level over the past 100 years. Some species, which seemed to migrate into the North Sea only for spawning or foraging in the nineteenth century, occur permanently in the North Sea nowadays. This applies, for example, to the loliginids Loligo forbesii and Alloteuthis subulata. The ommastrephids Todaropsis eblanae and Illex coindetii, now constantly present as well, had been described only as accidental migrants 100 years ago.

Description: Marine sponges (phylum Porifera) form symbioses with diverse microbial communities that can be transmitted between generations through their developmental stages. Here, we integrate embryology and microbiology to review how symbiotic microorganisms are transmitted in this early-diverging lineage. We describe that vertical transmission is widespread but not universal, that microbes are vertically transmitted during a select developmental window, and that properties of the developmental microbiome depends on whether a species is a high or low microbial abundance sponge. Reproduction, development, and symbiosis are thus deeply rooted, but why these partnerships form remains the central and elusive tenet of these developmental symbioses.

Description: Over the last decade, field investigations, laboratory experiments, geophysical exploration and petrological, geochemical and numerical modelling have provided insight into the mechanisms of phreatic and hydrothermal eruptions. These eruptions are driven by sudden flashing of ground- or hydrothermal water to steam and are strongly influenced by the interaction of host rock and hydrothermal system. Aquifers hosted in volcanic edifices, calderas and rift environments can be primed for instability by alteration processes affecting rock permeability and/or strength, while magmatic fluid injection(s), earthquakes or other subtle triggers can promote explosive failure. Gas emission, ground deformation and seismicity may provide short- to medium-term forerunner signals of these eruptions, yet a definition of universal precursors remains a key challenge. Looking forward in the next 10 years, improved warning and hazard assessment will require integration of field and experimental data with models combining case studies, as well as development of new monitoring methods integrated by machine learning approaches.

Description: Background: Spliceosomal introns are parts of primary transcripts that are removed by RNA splicing. Although introns apparently do not contribute to the function of the mature transcript, in vertebrates they comprise the majority of the transcribed region increasing the metabolic cost of transcription. The persistence of long introns across evolutionary time suggests functional roles that can offset this metabolic cost. The teleosts comprise one of the largest vertebrate clades. They have unusually compact and variable genome sizes and provide a suitable system for analysing intron evolution. Results: We have analysed intron lengths in 172 vertebrate genomes and show that teleost intron lengths are relatively short, highly variable and bimodally distributed. Introns that were long in teleosts were also found to be long in mammals and were more likely to be found in regulatory genes and to contain conserved sequences. Our results argue that intron length has decreased in parallel in a non-random manner throughout teleost evolution and represent a deviation from the ancestral state. Conclusion: Our observations indicate an accelerated rate of intron size evolution in the teleosts and that teleost introns can be divided into two classes by their length. Teleost intron sizes have evolved primarily as a side-effect of genome size evolution and small genomes are dominated by short introns (〈256 base pairs). However, a non-random subset of introns has resisted this process across the teleosts and these are more likely have functional roles in all vertebrate clades.

Description: Sponges are interesting animal models for regeneration studies, since even from dissociated cells, they are able to regenerate completely. In particular, explants are model systems that can be applied to many sponge species, since small fragments of sponges can regenerate all elements of the adult, including the oscula and the ability to pump water. The morphological aspects of regeneration in sponges are relatively well known, but the molecular machinery is only now starting to be elucidated for some sponge species. Here, we have used an explant system of the demosponge Halichondria panicea to understand the molecular machinery deployed during regeneration of the aquiferous system. We sequenced the transcriptomes of four replicates of the 5–day explant without an osculum (NOE), four replicates of the 17–18–day explant with a single osculum and pumping activity (PE) and also four replicates of field–collected individuals with regular pumping activity (PA), and performed differential gene expression analysis. We also described the morphology of NOE and PE samples using light and electron microscopy. Our results showed a highly disorganised mesohyl and disarranged aquiferous system in NOE that is coupled with upregulated pathways of ciliogenesis, organisation of the ECM, and cell proliferation and survival. Once the osculum is formed, genes involved in “response to stimulus in other organisms” were upregulated. Interestingly, the main molecular machinery of vasculogenesis described in vertebrates was activated during the regeneration of the aquiferous system. Notably, vasculogenesis markers were upregulated when the tissue was disorganised and about to start forming canals (NOE) and angiogenic stimulators and ECM remodelling machineries were differentially expressed once the aquiferous system was in place (PE and PA). Our results are fundamental to better understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the aquiferous system in sponges, and its similarities with the early onset of blood-vessel formation in animal evolution.

Description: New U‒Pb (LA-ICP-MS) geochronological data have been obtained on accessory zircons from granodiorites and on detrital zircons from stream-sediment samples from the Shipunsky massif in the Eastern Kamchatka region. The age of accessory zircons from amphibole–biotite granodiorites has been estimated at 49–44 Ma. Detrital zircons have the Late Paleocene–Early Eocene age from ~57 to ~49 Ma. Based on the geological and geochronological data, the massif was formed in two stages: a gabbroid intrusion (56‒51 Ma) and the quartz diorite-granodiorite intrusion (49‒44 Ma). In terms of the petrographic and geochemical characteristics of the Upper Cretaceous–Eocene volcanic rocks in the Shipunsky Peninsula and granitoids in the Shipunsky massif, they were formed in the suprasubduction setting. The Shipunsky granitoids belong to the I-type granites. The Shipunsky massif was formed as a part of the Kronotsky intraoceanic paleoarc during the Paleocene–Eocene in two stages. The southern segment of the Kronotsky paleoarc collided with the Kamchatka continental margin and the deformed rocks of this massif were brought to the surface.

Description: Purpose: The objective of this study was to provide insights into the most recent responses of sediments to climate change and their capability to sequester atmospheric carbon (C). Methods: Three sediment cores were collected, one from the western Black Sea, and two from the southern Adriatic Sea. Cores were extruded and sectioned into 1 cm or 0.5 cm intervals. Sections were frozen, weighed, freeze-dried, and then weighed again to obtain dry weights. Freeze-dried samples were dated by using lead 210 (210Pb) and cesium 137/ americium 241 (137Cs/241Am). Organic and inorganic C were determined by combustion. Particle size distribution was determined using a Beckman Coulter particle size analyzer (LS 13,320; Beckman Coulter Inc.). Mineralogical analyses were carried out by a Philips X’Pert powder diffractometer. Results: Sedimentation and organic and inorganic C accumulation rates increased with time in both the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The increase in accumulation rates continued after the global introduction in the early 1970s of controls on the release of phosphorus (P) into the environment and despite the reduced sediment yield of major rivers (Po and Danube). Therefore, the increased accumulation of organic and inorganic C in the sediments cannot be assigned only to nutrient availability. Instead, we suggest that the increase in organic C is the consequence of the increase in atmospheric C, which has made more carbon dioxide (CO2) available to phytoplankton, thus enabling more efficient photosynthesis. This process known as CO2 fertilization may increase the organic C accumulation in sediments. Simultaneously, the increase of sea temperatures decreases the calcite solubility resulting in increases of the inorganic C accumulation. Conclusion: Our results suggest that long-term, general increases in accumulation rates of organic and inorganic C in sediments are the consequence of increases in atmospheric C. This shows that coastal sediments play an important role in C uptake and thus in regulating the Earth’s climate.

Description: Biological invasions are increasing worldwide, damaging ecosystems and socioeconomic sectors. Two decades ago, the “100 of the world’s worst” invasive alien species list was established by the IUCN to improve communications , identifying particularly damaging ‘flagship’ invaders globally (hereafter, worst). Whilst this list has bolstered invader awareness, whether worst species are especially economically damaging and how they compare to other invaders (hereafter, other) remain unknown. Here, we quantify invasion costs using the most comprehensive global database compiling them (InvaCost). We compare these costs between worst and other species against sectorial, taxonomic and regional descriptors, and examine temporal cost trends. Only 60 of the 100 worst species had invasion costs considered as highly reliable and actually observed estimates (median: US$ 43 million). On average, these costs were significantly higher than the 463 other invasive species recorded in InvaCost (median: US$ 0.53 million), although some other species had higher costs than most worst species. Damages to the environment from the worst species dominated, whereas other species largely impacted agriculture. Disproportionately highest worst species costs were incurred in North America, whilst costs were more evenly distributed for other species; animal invasions were always costliest. Proportional management expenditures were low for the other species, and surprisingly, over twice as low for the worst species. Temporally, costs increased more for the worst than other taxa; however, management spending has remained very low for both groups. Nonetheless, since 40 species had no robust and/or reported costs, the “true” cost of “some of the world’s worst” 100 invasive species still remains unknown.

Description: Dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and carbon monoxide (CO) are climate-relevant trace gases that play key roles in the radiative budget of the Arctic atmosphere. Under global warming, Arctic sea ice retreats at an unprecedented rate, altering light penetration and biological communities, and potentially affect DMS and CO cycling in the Arctic Ocean. This could have socio-economic implications in and beyond the Arctic region. However, little is known about CO production pathways and emissions in this region and the future development of DMS and CO cycling. Here we summarize the current understanding and assess potential future changes of DMS and CO cycling in relation to changes in sea ice coverage, light penetration, bacterial and microalgal communities, pH and physical properties. We suggest that production of DMS and CO might increase with ice melting, increasing light availability and shifting phytoplankton community. Among others, policy measures should facilitate large-scale process studies, coordinated long term observations and modelling efforts to improve our current understanding of the cycling and emissions of DMS and CO in the Arctic Ocean and of global consequences.

Description: Climate change and deoxygenation are affecting fish stocks on a global scale, but disentangling the impacts of these stressors from the effects of overfishing is a challenge. This study was conducted to distinguish between climate change and mismanagement as possible causes for the drastic decline in spawning stock size and reproductive success in cod (Gadus morhua) and herring (Clupea harengus) in the Western Baltic Sea, when compared with the good or satisfactory status and reproductive success of the other commercial species in the area. Available data on water temperature, wind speed, and plankton bloom during the spawning season did not reveal conclusive correlations between years with good and bad reproductive success of cod or herring. Notably, the other commercial species in the area have very similar life history traits suggesting similar resilience against stress caused by climate change or fishing. The study concludes that severe, sustained overfishing plus inappropriate size selectivity of the main fishing gears have caused the decline in spawning stock biomass of cod and herring to levels that are known to have a high probability of impaired reproductive success. It is pointed out that allowed catches were regulated by management and adhered to by the fishers, meaning that unregulated fishing did not occur. Thus, mismanagement (quotas that were too high and gears that selected too small sizes) and not climate change appears to be the primary cause of the bad status of cod and herring in the Western Baltic Sea.

Description: Ecological and socioeconomic impacts from biological invasions are rapidly escalating worldwide. While effective management underpins impact mitigation, such actions are often delayed, insufficient or entirely absent. Presently, management delays emanate from a lack of monetary rationale to invest at early invasion stages, which precludes effective prevention and eradication. Here, we provide such rationale by developing a conceptual model to quantify the cost of inaction, i.e., the additional expenditure due to delayed management, under varying time delays and management efficiencies. Further, we apply the model to management and damage cost data from a relatively data-rich genus (Aedes mosquitoes). Our model demonstrates that rapid management interventions following invasion drastically minimise costs. We also identify key points in time that differentiate among scenarios of timely, delayed and severely delayed management intervention. Any management action during the severely delayed phase results in substantial losses (〉50% of the potential maximum loss). For Aedes spp., we estimate that the existing management delay of 55 years led to an additional total cost of approximately $ 4.57 billion (14% of the maximum cost), compared to a scenario with management action only seven years prior (〈 1% of the maximum cost). Moreover, we estimate that in the absence of management action, long-term losses would have accumulated to US$ 32.31 billion, or more than seven times the observed inaction cost. These results highlight the need for more timely management of invasive alien species—either pre-invasion, or as soon as possible after detection—by demonstrating how early investments rapidly reduce long-term economic impacts.

Description: Biological hard tissues are a rich source of design concepts for the generation of advanced materials. They represent the most important library of information on the evolution of life and its environmental conditions. Organisms produce soft and hard tissues in a bottom-up process, a construction principle that is intrinsic to biologically secreted materials. This process emerged early on in the geological record, with the onset of biological mineralization. The phylum Brachiopoda is a marine animal group that has an excellent and continuous fossil record from the early Cambrian to the Recent. Throughout this time interval, the Brachiopoda secreted phosphate and carbonate shells and populated many and highly diverse marine habitats. This required great flexibility in the adaptation of soft and hard tissues to the different marine environments and living conditions. This review presents, juxtaposes and discusses the main modes of mineral and biopolymer organization in Recent, carbonate shell-producing, brachiopods. We describe shell tissue characteristics for taxa of the orders Rhynchonellida, Terebratulida, Thecideida and Craniida. We highlight modes of calcite and organic matrix assembly at the macro-, micro-, and nano-scales based on results obtained by Electron Backscatter Diffraction, Atomic Force Microscopy, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy. We show variation in composite hard tissue organization for taxa with different lifestyles, visualize nanometer-scale calcite assemblies for rhynchonellide and terebratulide fibers, highlight thecideide shell microstructure, texture and chemistry characteristics, and discuss the feasibility to use thecideide shells as archives of proxies for paleoenvironment and paleoclimate reconstructions.

Description: Cloud-native applications constitute a recent trend for designing large-scale software systems. However, even though several cloud-native tools and patterns have emerged to support scalability, there is no commonly accepted method to empirically benchmark their scalability. In this study, we present a benchmarking method, allowing researchers and practitioners to conduct empirical scalability evaluations of cloud-native applications, frameworks, and deployment options. Our benchmarking method consists of scalability metrics, measurement methods, and an architecture for a scalability benchmarking tool, particularly suited for cloud-native applications. Following fundamental scalability definitions and established benchmarking best practices, we propose to quantify scalability by performing isolated experiments for different load and resource combinations, which asses whether specified service level objectives (SLOs) are achieved. To balance usability and reproducibility, our benchmarking method provides configuration options, controlling the trade-off between overall execution time and statistical grounding. We perform an extensive experimental evaluation of our method’s configuration options for the special case of event-driven microservices. For this purpose, we use benchmark implementations of the two stream processing frameworks Kafka Streams and Flink and run our experiments in two public clouds and one private cloud. We find that, independent of the cloud platform, it only takes a few repetitions (≤ 5) and short execution times (≤ 5 minutes) to assess whether SLOs are achieved. Combined with our findings from evaluating different search strategies, we conclude that our method allows to benchmark scalability in reasonable time.

Description: Mapping radon (222 Rn) distribution patterns in the coastal sea is a widely applied method for localizing and quantifying submarine groundwater discharge (SGD). While the literature reports a wide range of successful case studies, methodical problems that might occur in shallow wind-exposed coastal settings are generally neglected. This paper evaluates causes and effects that resulted in a failure of the radon approach at a distinct shallow wind-exposed location in the Baltic Sea. Based on a simple radon mass balance model, we discuss the effect of both wind speed and wind direction as causal for this failure. We show that at coastal settings, which are dominated by gentle submarine slopes and shallow waters, both parameters have severe impact on coastal radon distribution patterns, thus impeding their use for SGD investigation. In such cases, the radon approach needs necessarily to allow for the impact of wind speed and wind direction not only during but also prior to the field campaign.

Description: Contains various examples and applications of visual data exploration and computational approaches. Includes a framework and its application for the evaluation of the success of research projects Provides in depth examples of SMART monitoring and data FAIRness

Description: Wetlands physical and biological processes are fundamental to the distribution and structuring of organic matter in sediments. This study investigated spatial and temporal changes in organic matter sources in sediments within the Nylsvley Wetland, South Africa across two seasons, five sites and three wetland zones and identified pertinent contributors to sediment organic matter. Results showed distributions were uneven throughout the wetlands, with the seasonal zone having slightly high sediment organic matter in the cool-dry season and the permanent zone had high sediment organic matter in the hot-wet season, whereas the temporary zone had low SOM concentrations. Significant differences in nutrient concentrations were observed across wetland zones and seasons for Phosphorous, Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium, with the seasonal zone tending to be the most nutrient-rich in the cool-dry season, and with permanent zone nutrient levels rising substantially in the hot-wet season. Sediment δ13C differed significantly among wetland zones, whereas δ15N was statistically similar. Autochthonous plants were the main sources of organic matter in sediments overall across sites and zones. This study’s findings help to better understand the distribution of organic matter in wetland ecosystems and the role wetland zones play in the seasonal provisioning of allochthonous inputs.

Description: Sediment geotechnical properties are an important component of geohazard analyses and studies on submarine slope failures on continental margins. The northern Cascadia margin is a region of repeated subduction earthquakes and related geohazards including devastating tsunamis. Despite several drilling campaigns at this margin mostly for gas hydrate studies, sediment geotechnical properties are lacking to date. We therefore investigated a set of 20 half-round samples from four drill sites of Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expedition 311 along a margin-perpendicular transect. Samples were analysed for Atterberg properties (liquid limit, plasticity limit, plasticity index) and consolidation state (pre-consolidation stress, over-consolidation ratio, initial void ratio and compression index). Results of these parameters are in good agreement with similar studies at the southern Cascadia margin from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 204 and are regarded robust, despite the long time-span between sample recovery in 2005 and our analyses. Individual results are interpreted at each of the drill sites and reflect the overall tectonic state of the location within the accretionary prism. An interplay of site-specific tectonic forcing, including thrust faulting, uplift, folding, and erosion appears to govern the depth-dependent consolidation state of the sediments.

Description: During trip out of the drill string at the end of a drilling operation (logging while tripping) borehole temperatures can be measured without the need for additional operational time. A simple interpretation of the measured borehole temperatures is difficult due to the interfering influences of the drilling operations, mainly due to flushing the borehole during drilling. In this study, we present borehole temperature data from drilling campaigns with the sea floor drill rig MARUM-MeBo200 at the Danube Deep Sea Fan (Black Sea) and west of Taiwan (South China Sea). The temperature measurements were conducted with a PT1000 temperature sensor which is integrated in a memory acoustic borehole logging tool. We developed a modeling approach in order to simulate the drilling perturbations and subsequent evolution of the temperature field within the borehole. By fitting the model data to the measured time dependent temperature depth profiles, we estimated the undisturbed heat flux at the drill sites. This study shows that knowledge of the pattern of drilling operations with alternating phases of drilling/flushing and drill string handling is crucial for comparing temperatures measured during logging while tripping and simulated temperatures.

Description: Seaweed bioinvasions increasingly affect coastal environments around the world, which increases the need for predictive models and mitigation strategies. The biotic interactions between seaweed invaders and invaded communities are often considered a key determinant of invasion success and failure and we here revise the current evidence that the capacity of seaweed invaders to deter enemies in newly reached environments correlates with their invasion success. Particularly efficient chemical defences have been described for several of the more problematic seaweed invaders during the last decades. However, confirmed cases in which seaweed invaders confronted un-adapted enemies in newly gained environments with deterrents that were absent from these environments prior to the invasion (so-called “novel weapons”) are scarce, although an increasing number of invasive and non-invasive seaweeds are screened for defence compounds. More evidence exists that seaweeds may adapt defence intensities to changing pressure by biological enemies in newly invaded habitats. However, most of this evidence of shifting defence was gathered with only one particular model seaweed, the Asia-endemic red alga Agarophyton vermiculophyllum, which is particularly accessible for direct comparisons of native and non-native populations in common garden experiments. A. vermiculophyllum interacts with consumers, epibionts and bacterial pathogens and in most of these interactions, non-native populations have rather gained than lost defensive capacity relative to native conspecifics. The increases in the few examined cases were due to an increased production of broad-spectrum deterrents and the relative scarcity of specialized deterrents perhaps reflects the circumstance that seaweed consumers and epibionts are overwhelmingly generalists.

Description: Biological invasions are one of the main threats to biodiversity within protected areas (PAs) worldwide. Meanwhile, the resilience of PAs to invasions remains largely unknown. Consequently, providing a better understanding of how they are impacted by invasions is critical for informing policy responses and optimally allocating resources to prevention and control strategies. Here we use the InvaCost database to address this gap from three perspectives: (i) characterizing the total reported costs of invasive alien species (IAS) in PAs; (ii) comparing mean observed costs of IAS in PAs and non-PAs; and (iii) evaluating factors affecting mean observed costs of IAS in PAs. Our results first show that, overall, the reported economic costs of IAS in PAs amounted to US$ 22.24 billion between 1975 and 2020, of which US$ 930.61 million were observed costs (already incurred) and US$ 21.31 billion were potential costs (extrapolated or predicted). Expectedly, most of the observed costs were reported for management (73%) but damages were still much higher than expected for PAs (24%); in addition, the vast majority of management costs were reported for reactive, post-invasion actions (84% of management costs, focused on eradication and control). Second, differences between costs in PAs and non-PAs varied among continents and environments. We found significantly higher IAS costs in terrestrial PA environments compared to non-PAs, while regionally, Europe incurred higher costs in PAs and Africa and Temperate Asia incurred higher costs in non-PAs. Third, characterization of drivers of IAS costs within PAs showed an effect of environments (higher costs in terrestrial environments), continents (higher in Africa and South America), taxa (higher in invertebrates and vertebrates than plants) and Human Development Index (higher in more developed countries). Globally, our findings indicate that, counterintuitively, PAs are subject to very high costs from biological invasions. This highlights the need for more resources to be invested in the management of IAS to achieve the role of PAs in ensuring the long term conservation of nature. Accordingly, more spatially-balanced and integrative studies involving both scientists and stakeholders are required.

Description: Tertiary subvolcanic basic rocks are found as sills, dykes, and stocks in the southern flanks of the Central Alborz Magmatic Belt, north of Tehran. The rocks can be divided into two subvolcanic rock groups based on their geographic locations: (1) the western Kiga group and (2) an eastern group. The eastern group range from micromonzogabbro/diorite to microgabbro, whereas the Kiga group consists of micromozodiorite to micromonzogabbro. Mineral compositions, whole-rock major and trace elements show that these rocks have calc-alkaline affinities. The eastern group extends to higher MgO (4–10wt%) than the Kiga group (MgO= 4–5 wt%). With decreasing MgO, the contents of SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, and P2O5 increase and the contents of CaO and compatible trace elements (e.g., Co, Ni, Cr) decrease, consistent with olivine and clinopyroxene fractionation. At a given MgO, the Kiga rocks have higher FeOt, K2O, and P2O5 and extend to higher overall highly to moderately incompatible elements (Rb, Ba, Th, U, Nb, Ta, LREE, Sr, and Zr) and lower Al2O3 and Na2O. The depletion in Nb and Ta but enrichments in Rb, Ba, Th, U, K, Pb, and Sr, compared to N-MORB as well as high Th/Yb (at a given Nb/Yb or Ta/Yb), indicates a subduction zone origin for both subvolcanic groups of rocks. The initial Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of the subvolcanic rocks vary from 0.7048 to 0.7064 and 0.5126 to 0.5128, respectively. Furthermore, εNd (50 Ma) values (+0.64 to +5.19) associated with the two-stage model ages (0.42 to 0.78 Ga) of the samples infer a contribution of Cadomian-enriched lithospheric mantle in their source for this melt. The most evolved sample from the Kiga group has the lowest 143Nd/144Nd and highest 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios. The isotope correlations could be explained by upper crustal assimilation/contamination by the more evolved samples or reflect source differences (i.e., higher amount of subducted sediments) in the Kiga source. In conclusion, we interpret that the subvolcanic rocks have formed in an active continental margin.

Description: Ecosystem-based management requires understanding of food webs. Consequently, assessment of food web status is mandatory according to the European Union’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) for EU Member States. However, how to best monitor and assess food webs in practise has proven a challenging question. Here, we review and assess the current status of food web indicators and food web models, and discuss whether the models can help addressing current shortcomings of indicator-based food web assessments, using the Baltic Sea as an example region. We show that although the MSFD food web assessment was designed to use food web indicators alone, they are currently poorly fit for the purpose, because they lack interconnectivity of trophic guilds. We then argue that the multiple food web models published for this region have a high potential to provide additional coherence to the definition of good environmental status, the evaluation of uncertainties, and estimates for unsampled indicator values, but we also identify current limitations that stand in the way of more formal implementation of this approach. We close with a discussion of which current models have the best capacity for this purpose in the Baltic Sea, and of the way forward towards the combination of measurable indicators and modelling approaches in food web assessments.

Description: Interactive computer simulations and hands-on experiments are important teaching methods in modern science education. Especially for the communication of complex current topics with social relevance (socioscientific issues), suitable methods in science education are of great importance. However, previous studies could not sufficiently clarify the educational advantages and disadvantages of both methods and often lack adequate comparability. This paper presents two studies of direct comparisons of hands-on experiments and interactive computer simulations as learning tools in science education for secondary school students in two different learning locations (Study I: school; Study II: student laboratory). Using a simple experimental research design with type of learning location as between-subjects factor (NStudy I = 443, NStudy II = 367), these studies compare working on computer simulations versus experiments in terms of knowledge achievement, development of situational interest and cognitive load. Independent of the learning location, the results showed higher learning success for students working on computer simulations than while working on experiments, despite higher cognitive load. However, working on experiments promoted situational interest more than computer simulations (especially the epistemic and value-related component). We stated that simulations might be particularly suitable for teaching complex topics. The findings reviewed in this paper moreover imply that working with one method may complement and supplement the weaknesses of the other. We conclude that that the most effective way to communicate complex current research topics might be a combination of both methods. These conclusions derive a contribution to successful modern science education in school and out-of-school learning contexts

Description: Background: Elucidating the spatial structure of host-associated microbial communities is essential for understanding taxon-taxon interactions within the microbiota and between microbiota and host. Macroalgae are colonized by complex microbial communities, suggesting intimate symbioses that likely play key roles in both macroalgal and bacterial biology, yet little is known about the spatial organization of microbes associated with macroalgae. Canopy-forming kelp are ecologically significant, fixing teragrams of carbon per year in coastal kelp forest ecosystems. We characterized the micron-scale spatial organization of bacterial communities on blades of the kelp Nereocystis luetkeana using fluorescence in situ hybridization and spectral imaging with a probe set combining phylum-, class-, and genus-level probes to localize and identify 〉 90% of the microbial community. Results: We show that kelp blades host a dense microbial biofilm composed of disparate microbial taxa in close contact with one another. The biofilm is spatially differentiated, with clustered cells of the dominant symbiont Granulosicoccus sp. (Gammaproteobacteria) close to the kelp surface and filamentous Bacteroidetes and Alphaproteobacteria relatively more abundant near the biofilm-seawater interface. A community rich in Bacteroidetes colonized the interior of kelp tissues. Microbial cell density increased markedly along the length of the kelp blade, from sparse microbial colonization of newly produced tissues at the meristematic base of the blade to an abundant microbial biofilm on older tissues at the blade tip. Kelp from a declining population hosted fewer microbial cells compared to kelp from a stable population. Conclusions: Imaging revealed close association, at micrometer scales, of different microbial taxa with one another and with the host. This spatial organization creates the conditions necessary for metabolic exchange among microbes and between host and microbiota, such as provisioning of organic carbon to the microbiota and impacts of microbial nitrogen metabolisms on host kelp. The biofilm coating the surface of the kelp blade is well-positioned to mediate interactions between the host and surrounding organisms and to modulate the chemistry of the surrounding water column. The high density of microbial cells on kelp blades (10(5)-10(7) cells/cm(2)), combined with the immense surface area of kelp forests, indicates that biogeochemical functions of the kelp microbiome may play an important role in coastal ecosystems.

Description: Similar to their tropical counterparts, cold-water corals (CWCs) are able to build large three-dimensional reef structures. These unique ecosystems are at risk due to ongoing climate change. In particular, ocean warming, ocean acidification and changes in the hydrological cycle may jeopardize the existence of CWCs. In order to predict how CWCs and their reefs or mounds will develop in the near future one important strategy is to study past fossil CWC mounds and especially shallow CWC ecosystems as they experience a greater environmental variability compared to other deep-water CWC ecosystems. We present results from a CWC mound off southern Norway. A sediment core drilled from this relatively shallow (~ 100 m) CWC mound exposes in full detail hydrographical changes during the late Holocene, which were crucial for mound build-up. We applied computed tomography, 230Th/U dating, and foraminiferal geochemical proxy reconstructions of bottom-water-temperature (Mg/Ca-based BWT), δ18O for seawater density, and the combination of both to infer salinity changes. Our results demonstrate that the CWC mound formed in the late Holocene between 4 kiloannum (ka) and 1.5 ka with an average aggradation rate of 104 cm/kiloyears (kyr), which is significantly lower than other Holocene Norwegian mounds. The reconstructed BWTMg/Ca and seawater density exhibit large variations throughout the entire period of mound formation, but are strikingly similar to modern in situ observations in the nearby Tisler Reef. We argue that BWT does not exert a primary control on CWC mound formation. Instead, strong salinity and seawater density variation throughout the entire mound sequence appears to be controlled by the interplay between the Atlantic Water (AW) inflow and the overlying, outflowing Baltic-Sea water. CWC growth and mound formation in the NE Skagerrak was supported by strong current flow, oxygen replenishment, the presence of a strong boundary layer and larval dispersal through the AW, but possibly inhibited by the influence of fresh Baltic Water during the late Holocene. Our study therefore highlights that modern shallow Norwegian CWC reefs may be particularly endangered due to changes in water-column stratification associated with increasing net precipitation caused by climate change.

Description: Despite an increasing awareness of disease impacts on both cultivated and native seaweed populations, the development of marine probiotics has been limited and predominately focused on farmed animals. Bleaching (loss of thallus pigmentation) is one of the most prevalent diseases observed in marine macroalgae. Endemic probiotic bacteria have been characterized to prevent bleaching disease in red macroalgae Agarophyton vermiculophyllum and Delisea pulchra; however, the extent to which probiotic strains provide cross-protection to non-endemic hosts and the influence of native microbiota remain unknown. Using A. vermiculophyllum as a model, we demonstrate that co-inoculation with the pathogen Pseudoalteromonas arctica G-MAN6 and D. pulchra probiotic strain Phaeobacter sp. BS52 or Pseudoalteromonas sp. PB2-1 reduced the disease risks compared to the pathogen only treatment. Moreover, non-endemic probiotics outperformed the endemic probiotic strain Ralstonia sp. G-NY6 in the presence of the host natural microbiota. This study highlights how the native microbiota can impact the effectiveness of marine probiotics and illustrates the potential of harnessing probiotics that can function across different hosts to mitigate the impact of emerging marine diseases.

Description: Most parts of the Earth’s surface are situated in the deep ocean. To explore this visually rather adversarial environment with cameras, they have to be protected by pressure housings. These housings, in turn, need interfaces to the world, enduring extreme pressures within the water column. Commonly, a flat window or a half-sphere of glass, called flat-port or dome-port, respectively is used to implement such kind of interface. Hence, multi-media interfaces, between water, glass and air are introduced, entailing refraction effects in the images taken through them. To obtain unbiased 3D measurements and to yield a geometrically faithful reconstruction of the scene, it is mandatory to deal with the effects in a proper manner. Hence, we propose an optical digital twin of an underwater environment, which has been geometrically verified to resemble a real water lab tank that features the two most common optical interfaces. It can be used to develop, evaluate, train, test and tune refractive algorithms. Alongside this paper, we publish the model for further extension, jointly with code to dynamically generate samples from the dataset. Finally, we also publish a pre-rendered dataset ready for use at https://git.geomar.de/david-nakath/geodt.

Description: Visual systems are receiving increasing attention in underwater applications. While the photogrammetric and computer vision literature so far has largely targeted shallow water applications, recently also deep sea mapping research has come into focus. The majority of the seafloor, and of Earth’s surface, is located in the deep ocean below 200 m depth, and is still largely uncharted. Here, on top of general image quality degradation caused by water absorption and scattering, additional artificial illumination of the survey areas is mandatory that otherwise reside in permanent darkness as no sunlight reaches so deep. This creates unintended non-uniform lighting patterns in the images and non-isotropic scattering effects close to the camera. If not compensated properly, such effects dominate seafloor mosaics and can obscure the actual seafloor structures. Moreover, cameras must be protected from the high water pressure, e.g. by housings with thick glass ports, which can lead to refractive distortions in images. Additionally, no satellite navigation is available to support localization. All these issues render deep sea visual mapping a challenging task and most of the developed methods and strategies cannot be directly transferred to the seafloor in several kilometers depth. In this survey we provide a state of the art review of deep ocean mapping, starting from existing systems and challenges, discussing shallow and deep water models and corresponding solutions. Finally, we identify open issues for future lines of research.

Description: In küstennahen Gewässern ist es von Vorteil, satellitengestützte optische Messungen des Meeres mit visuellen und sensorischen Beobachtungen von Tauchrobotern zu fusionieren. Obwohl Satelliten nur wenige Meter tief in Gewässer hineinschauen können, ist es möglich, generelle Wassereigenschaften oder den Bodenbewuchs von Küstengewässern zu bestimmen. Visuelle und sensorische Tauchroboterbeobachtungen sind hierzu komplementär und können auch tiefere Gewässer erreichen. Das mitgeführte künstliche Licht wird jedoch stark gestreut und erfordert andere Messmodelle. Zusätzlich sind die räumlichen und spektralen Auflösungen der Beobachtungen oftmals sehr unterschiedlich. Wir analysieren hier die damit verbundenen Problematiken und skizzieren Wege, wie die Fusion der grundverschiedenen Messungen dennoch gelingen könnte.

Description: Glacio-eustatic cycles lead to changes in sedimentation on all types of continental margins. There is, however, a paucity of sedimentation rate data over eustatic sea-level cycles in active subduction zones. During International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 375, coring of the upper ∼110 m of the northern Hikurangi Trough Site U1520 recovered a turbidite-dominated succession deposited during the last ∼45 kyrs (Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1–3). We present an age model integrating radiocarbon dates, tephrochronology, and δ18O stratigraphy, to evaluate the bed recurrence interval (RI) and sediment accumulation rate (SAR). Our analyses indicate mean bed RI varies from ∼322 yrs in MIS1, ∼49 yrs in MIS2, and ∼231 yrs in MIS3. Large (6-fold) and abrupt variations in SAR are recorded across MIS transitions, with rates of up to ∼10 m/kyr occurring during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and 〈1 m/kyr during MIS1 and 3. The pronounced variability in SAR, with extremely high rates during the LGM, even for a subduction zone, are the result of changes in regional sediment supply associated with climate-driven changes in terrestrial catchment erosion, and critical thresholds of eustatic sea-level change altering the degree of sediment bypassing the continental shelf and slope via submarine canyon systems.

Description: In its Sixth Assessment Report Cycle (AR6), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) aims to strengthen the communication of its products. As the only mandatory part of IPCC reports specifically targeting a lay audience, the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) provide an opportunity for broader communication of key IPCC topics. AR6 has released three Special Reports that include FAQs, varying in number and structure, as well as the approach taken to develop them. Using these Special Report FAQs, in this essay, we take stock of current efforts to co-develop IPCC FAQs and provide recommendations to strengthen the impact of these highly useful yet currently under-utilised resources. Building on evidence from a user survey, text analysis and social media statistics, we find that bringing together IPCC authors and communication specialists to jointly develop the text and graphics increases the accessibility and usefulness of the FAQs. Efforts made for informative visuals additionally increase their impact on social media. To maximise the potential and impact of the IPCC FAQs, we recommend involving communication experts from the beginning of the drafting process to share responsibility, which requires sufficient resources to be allocated to the FAQs. We also suggest developing common FAQ guidelines across Working Groups so future assessment reports can ensure all FAQs are an effective and useful tool for IPCC communication. We also hope that other scientific institutions and projects that wish to summarise scientific content for diverse audiences can benefit from our lessons learned.

Description: This paper discusses the challenges of applying a data analytics pipeline for a large volume of data as can be found in natural and life sciences. To address this challenge, we attempt to elaborate an approach for an improved detection of outliers. We discuss an approach for outlier quantification for bathymetric data. As a use case, we selected ocean science (multibeam) data to calculate the outlierness for each data point. The benefit of outlier quantification is a more accurate estimation of which outliers should be removed or further analyzed. To shed light on the subject, this paper is structured as follows: first, a summary of related works on outlier detection is provided. The usefulness for a structured approach of outlier quantification is then discussed using multibeam data. This is followed by a presentation of the challenges for a suitable solution, and the paper concludes with a summary.

Description: For the past 50 years, gas hydrates have been regarded by scientists as part of the hydrocarbon reserves, particularly at governmental institutions. A better understanding of the processes controlling the distribution and dynamics of gas hydrates in nature, especially their sensitivity to changes in gas composition, pressure and temperature, requires both theoretical knowledge of their stability and dynamic behavior and knowledge of how gas hydrates form and where they occur in the sediment. Geophysical data, geochemical data and thermodynamic models indicate that both the rate of response and the total integrated response to climate change in the ocean depend on the location and forms in which hydrates are distributed. Thus, mapping gas hydrates by indirect geophysical methods or through dedicated drilling campaigns is fundamental to all research involving gas hydrates. This includes studies of their role in climate change, their consequences for slope stability, their role at the base of the food web for benthic ecosystems and their potential as a future energy resource. Here we provide a brief introduction to the occurrence of gas hydrates on Earth, and how this information may assist in detecting them on other planetary bodies.

Description: New Zealand’s large offshore region is dominated by the collision of the Pacific and Australian Plates. Gas hydrates have been identified in three areas: the Hikurangi Margin, the Taranaki and Northland Basins, and the Fiordland-Puysegur Margin. The Hikurangi Margin subduction margin to the east of the North Island stands out, displaying numerous indications of highly-concentrated gas hydrate occurrences. This subduction zone constitutes an environment with high fluid flow and rapidly changing pressure–temperature conditions, leading to anomalies such as the occurrence of double-bottom simulating reflections (BSRs). The Taranaki and Northland Basins west of the North Island is New Zealand’s most prominent petroleum province. So far, however, only limited evidence for hydrate occurrence has been found there. BSRs have also been detected south of the South Island along the Fiordland-Puysegur Margin, an incipient subduction zone. It is likely that gas hydrates are present elsewhere along New Zealand’s vast continental margins.

Description: This paper represents a continuation of taxonomic publications on the benthic fauna of polymetallic nodule fields in the eastern Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) using material collected during baseline environmental survey work targeting two exploration contract areas (“UK-1” and “OMS”) and one Area of Particular Environmental Interest, “APEI-6.” Families Poecilochaetidae Hannerz, 1956 and Spionidae Grube, 1850 of the annelid suborder Spioniformia were studied here. Taxonomic data are presented for 25 species from 98 records as identified by a combination of morphological and genetic approaches. Although sub-optimal morphological condition can prevent new species being formally described, it is essential that morphological, molecular, and voucher data are made available for future surveys. Descriptions of two new species— Poecilochaetus brenkei sp. nov. and Laonice shulseae sp. nov.—increase the number of formally described new annelid species from the areas targeted in this study to 15 and CCZ-wide to 46. We also discuss the commonly reported “cosmopolitan” deep-sea spionid Aurospio dibranchiata Maciolek, 1981, which we show represents several genetically distinct species (three of these from CCZ area alone) but without reliable morphological characters to separate them. Molecular data provide evidence that 15 out of 25 species reported here have a wide distribution within the eastern CCZ and that Aurospio sp. “NHM_2186” and the known species Prionospio amarsupiata Neal & Altamira in Paterson et al. 2016 may be cosmopolitan. Lastly, the molecular data provide insights into relationships within Spioniformia, suggesting that both Poecilochaetidae and Trochochaetidae belong within Spionidae.

Description: The extent of our duties to mitigate climate change is commonly conceptualized in terms of temperature goals like the 1.5°C and the 2°C target and corresponding emissions budgets. While I do acknowledge the political advantages of any framework that is relatively easy to understand, I argue that this particular framework does not capture the true extent of our mitigation duties. Instead I argue for a more differentiated approach that is based on the well-known distinction between subsistence and luxury emissions. At the heart of this approach lies the argument that we have no budget of substantial, net-positive luxury emissions left. In a world in which dangerous climate change has begun, we must expect all further substantial, net-positive luxury emissions to cause harm. Since they lack the kind of justification needed for them to be nevertheless permissible, I conclude that we must stop emitting them with immediate effect. I also briefly discuss the difficult case of subsistence emissions and offer some first thoughts on the morality of a third category of emissions, what I call ‘transition emissions’.

Description: Landslide deposits offshore many volcanic islands provide evidence of catastrophic lateral collapses. These deposits span a larger volume range than their continental equivalents, and can generate devastating tsunamis. All historical volcanic-island lateral collapses have occurred in arc settings, and have been characterised by rapid failure and efficient tsunami generation. The varied morphology of their deposits is influenced both by lithological properties and the nature of the substrate. Many deposits show evidence of extensive seafloor erosion and transformation into debris flows, and the propagation of frontally-confined sediment deformation beyond and beneath the primary deposit. Mobilised volumes can far exceed that of the initial failure, and accurate deposit interpretation requires internal geophysical imaging and sampling. Around intraplate ocean-island volcanoes, multi-unit turbidites suggest that lateral collapses may occur in discrete stages; although this would reduce their overall tsunamigenic potential, the volumes of individual stages of collapse remain very large. Numerical models of both landslide and tsunami processes in ocean-island settings are difficult to test, and the smaller collapses that typify island arcs are an important focus of research due to their higher global frequency, availability of direct failure and tsunami observations, and a need to better understand the signals of incipient collapse to develop approaches for tsunami hazard mitigation.

Description: Since the sunlight only penetrates a few hundred meters into the ocean, deep-diving robots have to bring their own light sources for imaging the deep sea, e.g., to inspect hydrothermal vent fields. Such co-moving light sources mounted not very far from a camera introduce uneven illumination and dynamic patterns on seafloor structures but also illuminate particles in the water column and create scattered light in the illuminated volume in front of the camera. In this scenario, a key challenge for forward-looking robots inspecting vertical structures in complex terrain is to identify free space (water) for navigation. At the same time, visual SLAM and 3D reconstruction algorithms should only map rigid structures, but not get distracted by apparent patterns in the water, which often resulted in very noisy maps or 3D models with many artefacts. Both challenges, free space detection, and clean mapping could benefit from pre-segmenting the images before maneuvering or 3D reconstruction. We derive a training scheme that exploits depth maps of a reconstructed 3D model of a black smoker field in 1400 m water depth, resulting in a carefully selected, ground-truthed data set of 1000 images. Using this set, we compare the advantages and drawbacks of a classical Markov Random Field-based segmentation solution (graph cut) and a deep learning-based scheme (U-Net) to finding free space in forward-looking cameras in the deep ocean.

Description: Nowadays underwater vision systems are being widely applied in ocean research. However, the largest portion of the ocean - the deep sea - still remains mostly unexplored. Only relatively few image sets have been taken from the deep sea due to the physical limitations caused by technical challenges and enormous costs. Deep sea images are very different from the images taken in shallow waters and this area did not get much attention from the community. The shortage of deep sea images and the corresponding ground truth data for evaluation and training is becoming a bottleneck for the development of underwater computer vision methods. Thus, this paper presents a physical model-based image simulation solution, which uses an in-air texture and depth information as inputs, to generate underwater image sequences taken by robots in deep ocean scenarios. Different from shallow water conditions, artificial illumination plays a vital role in deep sea image formation as it strongly affects the scene appearance. Our radiometric image formation model considers both attenuation and scattering effects with co-moving spotlights in the dark. By detailed analysis and evaluation of the underwater image formation model, we propose a 3D lookup table structure in combination with a novel rendering strategy to improve simulation performance. This enables us to integrate an interactive deep sea robotic vision simulation in the Unmanned Underwater Vehicles simulator. To inspire further deep sea vision research by the community, we release the source code of our deep sea image converter to the public (https://www.geomar.de/en/omv-research/robotic-imaging-simulator).

Description: In deep water conditions, vision systems mounted on underwater robotic platforms require artificial light sources to illuminate the scene. The particular lighting configurations significantly influence the quality of the captured underwater images and can make their analysis much harder or easier. Nowadays, classical monolithic Xenon flashes are gradually being replaced by more flexible setups of multiple powerful LEDs. However, this raises the question of how to arrange these light sources, given different types of seawater and-depending-on different flying altitudes of the capture platforms. Hence, this paper presents a rendering based coarse-to-fine approach to optimize recent multi-light setups for underwater vehicles. It uses physical underwater light transport models and target ocean and mission parameters to simulate the underwater images as would be observed by a camera system with particular lighting setups. This paper proposes to systematically vary certain design parameters such as each LED’s orientation and analyses the rendered image properties (such as illuminated image area and light uniformity) to find optimal light configurations. We report first results on a real, ongoing AUV light design process for deep sea mission conditions.

Description: Traceability and reliable results are the two pillars of analytical methods; certified reference materials (CRMs) meet this requirement. ISO 17034:2016 credentials provide brief information on general requirements for the competence of Reference Material Producers (RMPs). The different types of CRMs have been produced in recent years for chemical analysis in food, water, soil, and sediment matrices in recent years. This review provides a detailed overview of the development of CRMs in the field of marine environment, as matrix CRMs play an important role in the field of environmental monitoring. COMAR database, EVISA database: materials, LGC standards, and JRC catalogs are very helpful online resources to find various types of CRMs according to the application requirements. Highlights - The classification of certified reference materials (CRMs) in the field of marine environment is presented; - General information about the production and characteristics of CRMs is discussed; - Examples of use of existing marine CRMs are described in detail; - Importance of CRMs for QA/QC and CRMs development for chemical analysis is presented; - The parameters that characterize the CRMs: representativeness, homogeneity, stability, and certified value are provided.

Description: Seagrass meadows deliver important ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, enhanced biodiversity, and contribution to climate change mitigation and adaption through carbon sequestration and coastal protection. Seagrasses, however, are facing the impacts of ocean warming and marine heatwaves, which are altering their ecological structure and function. Shifts in species composition, mass mortality events, and loss of ecosystem complexity after sudden extreme climate events are increasingly common, weakening the ecosystem services they provide. In the west coast of Australia, Shark Bay holds between 0.7 and 2.4% of global seagrass extent (〉4300 km2), but in the austral summer of 2010/2011, the Ningaloo El Niño marine heatwave resulted in the collapse of ~1300 km2 of seagrass ecosystem extent. The loss of the seagrass canopy resulted in the erosion and the likely remineralization of ancient carbon stocks into 2–4 Tg CO2-eq over 6 years following seagrass loss, increasing emissions from land-use change in Australia by 4–8% per annum. Seagrass collapse at Shark Bay also impacted marine food webs, including dugongs, dolphins, cormorants, fish communities, and invertebrates. With increasing recurrence and intensity of marine heatwaves, seagrass resilience is being compromised, underlining the need to implement conservation strategies. Such strategies must precede irreversible climate change-driven tipping points in ecosystem functioning and collapse and result from synchronized efforts involving science, policy, and stakeholders. Management should aim to maintain or enhance the resilience of seagrasses, and using propagation material from heatwave-resistant meadows to restore impacted regions arises as a challenging but promising solution against climate change threats. Although scientific evidence points to severe impacts of extreme climate events on seagrass ecosystems, the occurrence of seagrass assemblages across the planet and the capacity of humans to modify the environment sheds some light on the capability of seagrasses to adapt to changing ecological niches.

Description: Summary of Ilse Seibold's vita Ilse Seibold, née Usbeck, was born May 8, 1925 in Breslau, Silesia, and went to school in Halle/Saale during WW2. She started her studies of geology and paleontology at the University of Halle and at the Humboldt University in Berlin, and later at the University of Tübingen, where she received her doctorate as micropaleontologist in 1951 with Otto Schindewolf as her supervisor. She remained active as productive scientist over many decades. In 1952, she married Dr. Eugen Seibold, who in 1958 became professor at Kiel University, founded one of Europe's most important institutes for marine geology, and later became president of the German Science Foundation (DFG), and subsequently of the European Science Foundation (ESF). Being a scientist herself Ilse Seibold soon evolved to a deeply reflective insider of geological sciences. She followed her husband during his scientific career from his appointments in Tübingen, Bonn, Karlsruhe, Kiel, to Bonn and Strasbourg/Freiburg i.Br. She accompanied Eugen on his sabbatical leave at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, CA. She participated in countless international scientific meetings. Together with Eugen she published many papers that document her independence and autonomy as scientist. She gained deep insights into the origins of the geosciences and their historical evolution, up to the ideas of fine arts. We are happy that she documented in her publications a broad range of her scientific and distinguished-humane impressions.

Description: Global population projections foresee the biggest increase to occur in Africa with most of the available uncultivated land to ensure food security remaining on the continent. Simultaneously, greenhouse gas emissions are expected to rise due to ongoing land use change, industrialisation, and transport amongst other reasons with Africa becoming a major emitter of greenhouse gases globally. However, distinct knowledge on greenhouse gas emissions sources and sinks as well as their variability remains largely unknown caused by its vast size and diversity and an according lack of observations across the continent. Thus, an environmental research infrastructure—as being setup in other regions—is more needed than ever. Here, we present the results of a design study that developed a blueprint for establishing such an environmental research infrastructure in Africa. The blueprint comprises an inventory of already existing observations, the spatial disaggregation of locations that will enable to reduce the uncertainty in climate forcing’s in Africa and globally as well as an overall estimated cost for such an endeavour of about 550 M€ over the next 30 years. We further highlight the importance of the development of an e-infrastructure, the necessity for capacity development and the inclusion of all stakeholders to ensure African ownership.

Description: Sea ice conditions and navigability along four typical routes of the Northeast Passage (NEP) are analysed using remote-sensing data from 1979 to 2019. The influence of air temperature (Tair) and surface wind on the sea ice concentration (SIC) and the navigability of routes is determined. It is found that the annually averaged SICs of the different routes have decreased over the past 41 years. The fastest rate of decrease occurred in the Kara Sea (∼−1% per year), while the slowest rates of decrease occurred in the Laptev/East Siberian Sea (∼−0.42% per year). The number of navigable days for the Kara Sea has become ∼1–2 months longer than the Laptev/East Siberian Sea route as a result. The effect of Tair on SIC, quantified by ΔSIC/ΔTair in the routes through the eastern Kara Sea and Laptev/East Siberian Sea in 2010s was ∼−0.04/°C, two to three times that seen during the 1980s. Air temperature is becoming a significant driving force of melting ice in these routes. Surface winds are also a crucial factor for the navigability of the Vilkitsky Strait and Long Strait, as they drive ice drift, and affect the navigability of the Kara Strait by introducing warm air.

Description: Negative emissions technologies (NETs) are an essential part of most scenarios for achieving the Paris Agreement goal of limiting warming to below 2°C and for all scenarios that limit warming to 1.5 °C. The deployment of these technologies requires carbon accounting methods for a range of different purposes, such as determining the effectiveness of specific technologies or incentivising NETs. Although the need for carbon accounting methods is discussed within the literature on NETs, there does not appear to be a clear understanding of the range of different accounting challenges. Based on a systematic literature review this study identifies five distinct accounting issues related to NETs: 1. estimating total system-wide change in emissions/removals; 2. non-permanence; 3. non-equivalence of ‘no overshoot’ and ‘overshoot and removal’; 4. accounting for incentives for NETs; and 5. the temporal distribution of emissions/removals. Solutions to these accounting challenges are proposed, or alternatively, areas for further research and the development of solutions are highlighted. One key recommendation is that carbon accounting methods should follow a ‘reality principle’ to report emissions and removals when and where they actually occur, and an important overall conclusion is that it is essential to use the correct accounting method for its appropriate purpose. For example, consequential methods that take account of total system-wide changes in emissions/removals should be used if the purpose is to inform decisions on the deployment or incentivisation of NETs. Attributional methods, however, should be used if the purpose is to construct static descriptions of possible net zero worlds.

Description: Touch interaction has established a dominating role in the realisation of Human–Machine Interfaces. However, to be able to use touch effectively and efficiently, users have to comply with particular prerequisites. Due to age-related changes, such as the decline of tactile accuracy and speed, especially elderly users often struggle with the touch modality. Interfaces that adapt to specific user characteristics could be a promising solution to overcome this problem. Notwithstanding the advantages of adaptive systems, perceived changes in the user interface can reduce the system's predictability and transparency. The present study compares three approaches concerning the adaptation of touch button sizes: no adaptation and adaptation with visible and invisible feedback. Results show that especially elderly users substantially benefit from an adaptive approach. Furthermore, data shows that the type of adaptation supports different usage goals. While adaption with visual feedback enables a higher interaction speed, invisible adaptation leads to a higher degree of accuracy.

Description: Pyroxene crystals from recent Central Plateau tephras are used to deduce their formation conditions through two-pyroxene thermobarometry. Crystals return pseudo-pressures and pseudo-temperatures that are artefacts of uptake of antecrysts formed at a range of crustal levels by isobaric cooling of previously intruded magmas. MELTS modelling of tephra glass compositions shows that pseudo-PT conditions are reproduced at oxygen fugacities above the nickel-nickel oxide buffer (NNO+1, NNO+2), mid- to upper crustal pressures (100–400 MPa), and temperatures between c. 900°C and 〉1100°C. Modelled crystals from the deep crust (800 MPa) are restricted to clinopyroxenes. However, these display chemical equilibrium with shallow orthopyroxenes at higher pseudo-PT conditions than observed in Central Plateau pyroxenes. The data indicate uptake of high-temperature pyroxenes at mid- to shallow crustal levels into ascending andesitic melts and thus preclude the presence of long-lived crustal mush zones (〈1000°C) as a source for the crystal cargo of the Central Plateau tephras studied here. Further, the apparent absence of deep crustal pyroxene antecrysts does not preclude models of arc andesite genesis without a ‘deep crustal hot zone’ beneath the Central Plateau. Generation and ascent of primary andesites from a heterogeneous mantle wedge is therefore a possible scenario at the southern Hikurangi margin.

Description: Whakaari/White Island is a partially submerged, offshore andesite island volcano, located at the northern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Since the late 1960s, volcanic activity has alternated between quiescence, unrest, and eruption on short timescales. For this review we compiled extensive observational records, examined the rich scientific literature, and use newly acquired data, to understand the broad volcanic history and system dynamics. Based on recent bathymetry data, we propose a distinction exists between the Whakaari edifice and Te Paepae o Aotea/Volkner Rocks, which were previously considered to be part of the same edifice. Geochemical analyses of scoria samples from the island have been used to build a magma system model where dominantly andesitic-dacitic magma is periodically intruded by basalt. More dynamic processes are recorded in the hydrothermal system, where the location and activity of fumarolic features have been ephemeral and the crater lake has varied in scale over short time intervals. Eruptions of the dominantly andesitic magma have historically been small and range from phreatomagmatic through to magmatic, largely depositing ash and scoria to a restricted distance that is confined to the main crater floor. Phreatic eruptions are the most common eruption style, based on recently observed and monitored activity.

Description: Recently, the aeromagnetic survey with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for mineral exploration has become ubiquitous. They can fly at a lower speed, lower altitude, need fewer crew members, and are cost-effective compared to traditional manned aeromagnetic. With the development of drones, magnetometers were also developed, which reduced the cost, weight, size, and energy consumption of these sensors. One of these sensors is the magneto-inductive magnetometer. This study investigates the integration of the UAV with a magneto-inductive sensor. We have performed an aeromagnetic survey along with six profiles and compared them with the terrestrial magnetic survey using a proton precision magnetometer. We show that the magneto-inductive sensor can sense Earth’s magnetic field’s change up to less than 60 nT. These results show the promising potential of using the UAV equipped with the magneto-inductive sensor to prospect the magnetic ore deposits.

Description: Tephra deposits in Aotearoa New Zealand (ANZ) have been studied for 〉180 years. The now-global discipline of tephrochronology, which has some developmental roots in ANZ, forms the basis of a powerful chronostratigraphic correlational tool and age-equivalent dating method for geological, volcanological, palaeoenvironmental, and archaeological research in ANZ. Its utility is founded on the key principle that tephras or cryptotephras provide widespread isochrons in many different environments. In the first part of this article, we summarise the history of tephra studies in ANZ and then describe how tephras have been mapped, characterised, and correlated using field and laboratory-based methods. We document advances in geochemical fingerprinting of glass; tephra/cryptotephra detection and correlation by sediment-core scanning methods (e.g. X-radiography, CT imaging, XRF elemental analysis, magnetic susceptibility); statistical correlation methods; and dating of tephras/cryptotephras. We discuss the advent of ANZ cryptotephra studies (from mid-1970s) and their more-recent growth. The second part comprises examples of applications of tephrochronology in ANZ: climate-event stratigraphy (NZ-INTIMATE project); eruptive-event stratigraphy in the Auckland Volcanic Field; developments in the marine tephra record; advances in identifying, correlating, and dating old (pre-50 ka) tephras and weathered-tephra deposits; forming soils/paleosols on tephras; tephras and archaeology; Kopouatai bog tephrostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments; and volcanic-hazard assessments.

Description: There is a significant interest in the usage of algae in everyday diet because of their positive influence on the gastrointestinal system due to the presence of high amounts of dietary fibres, while the presence of ω-3 fatty acids contributes to the protection of cardiovascular system. Algal derived polysaccharides are found in the food products as stabilisers, thickening agents and emulsifiers. In the cosmetic industry, algae are used in sunscreen, anti-age, anti-cellulite, moisturising and skin whitening products. These products can be used for the development of cosmeceuticals which contain algal derived bioactive compounds and they can exert a pharmaceutical therapeutic benefit. However, these compounds also have potential for being isolated and used for development of novel drugs against diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and diabetes. Present review provides information about algal compounds incorporated into various food, cosmetic or medicinal products, as well as their potential for health improvement was evaluated.

Description: During World War I, an enormous amount of chemical and conventional munitions was fired. Many of these munitions did not explode and are still recovered in the soil of the regions where the war raged for several years. After the war, many of the remaining munitions were dumped in the sea as an easy way of removal. These unexploded and dumped munitions are still present so many years after the end of the war. The explosive material inside the munitions is more than 100 years old now. Samples were collected from some of these old munitions. These samples have been analyzed to determine their composition. The explosives typically used in World War I (TNT, DNT, DNB and picric acid) have been identified. It has been shown that the aged samples still contain their energy. They have not become more sensitive to friction or impact. For one the samples, it has been shown that it is still cap-sensitive and detonates normally. These results are important for any risk assessment involving old munitions.