ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: Geochemistry is a science that is based on an understanding of chemical processes in the earth. One of the principal tools available to the chemist for understanding systems at equilibrium is thermodynamics. The awareness and application of thermodynamic techniques has increased at a very fast pace in geosciences; in fact, one may be so bold as to say that thermodynamics in geology has reached the "mature" stage, although much future thermodynamic research is certainly needed. However, the natural processes in the earth are often sluggish enough that a particular system may not reach equilibrium. This observation is being supported constantly by new experimental and field data available to the geochemist e.g. the non-applicability of the phase rule in some assemblages, the compositional inhomogeneities of mineral grains, the partial reaction rims surrounding original minerals, the lack of isotopic equilibration or the absence of minerals (e.g. dolomite), which should be present according to thermodynamics. The need to apply kinetics has produced a large number of papers dealing with kinetics in geochemistry. As an initial response to this growing field, a conference on geochemical transport and kinetics was conducted at Airlie House, VA, in 1973, sponsored by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The papers there dealt with several kinetic topics including diffusion, exsolution, metasomatism and metamorphic layering. Since 1973 the number of kinetic papers has continued to increase greatly. Therefore, the time is ripe for a Short Course in Kinetics, which brings together the fundamentals needed to explain field observations using kinetic data. It is hoped that this book may serve, not only as a reference for researchers dealing with the rates of geochemical processes, but also as a text in courses on geochemical kinetics. One of us has found this need of a text in teaching a graduate course on geochemical kinetics at Harvard and at Penn State during the past several years. Finally, it is our hope that the book may itself further even more research into the rates of geochemical processes and into the quantification of geochemical observations. The book is organized with a rough temperature gradient in mind, i.e. low temperature kinetics at the beginning and igneous kinetics at the end (no prejudices are intended with this scheme!). However, the topics in each chapter are general enough that they can be applied often to any geochemical domain: sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous. The theory of kinetics operates at two complementary levels: the phenomenological and the atomistic. The former relies on macroscopic variables (e.g. temperature or concentrations) to describe the rates of reactions or the rates of transport; the latter relates the rates to the basic forces operating between the particular atomic or molecular species of any system. This book deals with both descriptions of the kinetics of geochemical processes. Chapter one sets the framework for the phenomenological theory of reaction rates. If any geochemical reaction is to be described quantitatively, the rate law must be experimentally obtained in a kinetically sound manner and the reaction mechanism must be understood. This applies to heterogeneous fluid-rock reactions such as those occurring during metamorphism, hydrothermal alteration or weathering as well as to homogeneous reactions. Chapter 2 extends the theory to the global kinetics of geochemical cycles. This enables the kinetic concepts of stability and feedback to be applied to the cycling of elements in the many reservoirs of the earth. Chapter 3 applies the phenomenological treatment of chapter 1 to diagenesis and weathering. The rate of dissolution of minerals as well as the chemical evolution of pore waters are discussed. The atomistic basis of rates of reaction, transition state theory, is introduced in Chapter 4. Transition state theory can be applied to relate the rate constants of geochemical reactions to the atomic processes taking place. This includes not only homogeneous reactions but also reactions that occur at the surface of minerals. Chapter 5 discusses the theory of irreversible thermodynamics and its application to petrology. The use of the second law of thermodynamics along with the expressions for the rate of entropy production in a system have been used successfully since 1935 to describe kinetic phenomena. The chapter applies the concepts to the growth of minerals during metamorphism as well as to the formation of differentiated layers (banding) in petrology. Chapter 6 describes the phenomenological theory of diffusion both in aqueous solutions and in minerals. In particular, the multicomponent nature of diffusion and its consequence in natural systems is elaborated. Chapter 7 provides the atomistic basis for the rates of reactions in minerals. Understanding of the rates of diffusion, conduction, order-disorder reactions or exsolution in minerals depends on proper description of the defects in the various mineral structures. Chapter 8 provides the kinetic theory of crystal nucleation and growth. While many of the concepts in the chapter can be applied to aqueous systems, the emphasis is on igneous processes occurring during crystallization of a melt. To fully understand both the mineral composition as well as the texture of igneous rocks, the processes whereby new crystals form and grow must be quantified by using kinetic theory. Due to space and time limitations (kinetics!) some topics have not been covered in detail. In particular, the mathematical solution of diffusion or conduction equations is discussed very well by Crank in his book, Mathematics of Diffusion, and so is not covered to a great extent here. The treatment of fluid flow (e.g. convection) is also not covered in the text.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction ; The Shape of Ocean Basins ; The Evolution of Ocean Basins ; The Structure and Formation of Oceanic Lithosphere ; Hydrothermal Circulation in Oceanic Crust ; Palaeoceanography and Sea-Level Changes ; The Broader Picture ; The Stratigraphic Column

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Ch. 1: Plate tectonics ; Ch. 2: The Earth's crust ; Ch. 3: Tectonic settings ; Ch. 4: The Earth's mantle and core ; Ch. 5: Crustal and mantle evolution ; Ch. 6: The atmosphere, oceans, climates, and life ; Ch. 7: Comparative planetary evolution

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction ; The Effects of Taxation ; Tax Incidence ; Distortions and Welfare Losses ; Optimal Taxation ; Indirect Taxation ; Direct Taxation ; Mixed Taxation ; The Taxation of Capital ; Criticisms of Optimal Taxation ; Some Current Debates ; Low-Income Support ; The Consumption Tax ; Environmental Taxation ; App. A: Some Basic Microeconomics ; App. B: Optimal Control

Description / Table of Contents: Very Long Baseline Inferometry (VLBI) can be divided into two main areas of application. The first is geodesy which is covered in detail in this work, and astrometry, or radio astronomy, which receives briefer treatment.VLBI is an acronym for Very Long Baseline Inferometry, and can be roughly divided into two areas of application. The first area is in geodesy, which is covered in considerable detail in this book. The second area is in astrometry, or radio astronomy, which is only briefly treated in the book. Many people probably relate geodesy and land surveying more with geology and geography than with space-based measuring techniques; and at least through the first half of the 20th century, geodesy was largely based on knowledge in these fields. Surveyors were generally considered as technicians or craftsmen. Modern GPS (global positioning systems) is probably best known for its use in automobile navigation, but such space-based measuring systems have made tremendous advances in the field of geodesy as well. The most notable results obtained by VLBI so far has been the global-scale measuring of the movements of the tectonic plates which cover the surface of the earth. Details of this achievement are discussed in the book, but the primary focus of the material covered here remains an investigation of how VLBI can conduct these measurements with such high level of precision.The book also explains how various aspects of system hardware, software and data analysis techniques can be effectively combined to yield a measurement accuracy that is four orders in magnitude better than conventional surveying techniques. VLBI requires knowledge in many areas of science and engineering.

Description / Table of Contents: "This volume provides an overview of (1) the physical and chemical foundations of dating methods and (2) the applications of dating methods in the geological sciences, biology, and archaeology, in almost 200 articles from over 200 international authors. It will serve as the most comprehensive treatise on widely accepted dating methods in the earth sciences and related fields."--

Description / Table of Contents: Chapter 1. An Outline Map of Anticipation -- Chapter 2. Understanding the Future -- Chapter 3 Wholes -- Chapter 4 Time -- Chapter 5. Emergence -- Chapter 6. Systems -- Chapter 7. Complexity -- Chapter  8. The Modeling Relation -- Chapter 9. The Discipline of Anticipation

Description / Table of Contents: This book presents the theory of anticipation, and establishes anticipation of the future as a legitimate topic of research. It examines anticipatory behavior, i.e. a behavior that ‘uses’ the future in its actual decisional process. The book shows that anticipation violates neither the ontological order of time nor causation. It explores the question of how different kinds of systems anticipate, and examines the risks and uses of such anticipatory practices.   The book first summarizes the research on anticipation conducted within a range of different disciplines, and describes the connection between the anticipatory point of view and futures studies. Following that, its chapters on Wholes, Time and Emergence, make explicit the ontological framework within which anticipation finds its place. It then goes on to discuss Systems, Complexity, and the Modeling Relation, and provides the scientific background supporting anticipation. It restricts formal technicalities to one chapter, and presents those technicalities twice, in formal and plain words to advance understanding. The final chapter shows that all the threads presented in the previous chapters naturally converge toward what has come to be called “Discipline of Anticipation”

Description / Table of Contents: In many geological epochs, glacial sediments are widespread. This type of sedimentation results from the interaction between atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere under temperatures ranging from 0 to -80. Two types of glacial sediments exists: those from sea-ice and those from icebergs. Both types can be subdivided into various subfacies. Most widespread in the Northern Hemisphere is the Siberian subfacies, characterized by silt and clay and often misinterpreted as sediments of temperate zones. This reference book for researchers working on this kind of sediments provides a complete overview of the various glacial deposits in the ocean. (AUT)

Description / Table of Contents: 1. Introduction -- 2. General physical and chemical models of the Earth's lower mantle -- 3. Lower-mantle mineral associations -- 4. Ultramafic lower-mantle mineral associations -- 5. Mafic lower-mantle mineral associations -- 6. Carbonatitic lower-mantle mineral associations -- 7. Diamond in the lower mantle -- 8. Role of spin crossover and other physiochemical transformations in the lower mantle -- 9. Dʺ layer : transition from the lower mantle to the Earth's core -- 10. Seismic heterogeneities and their nature in the lower mantle -- Conclusions

Description / Table of Contents: This book on multiscale seismic tomography, written by one of the leaders in the field, is suitable for undergraduate and graduate students, researchers, and professionals in Earth and planetary sciences who need to broaden their horizons about seismotectonics, volcanism, and interior structure and dynamics of the Earth and Moon. It describes the state-of-the-art in seismic tomography, with emphasis on the new findings obtained by applying tomographic methods in local, regional, and global scales for understanding the generating mechanism of large and great earthquakes such as the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake (Mw 9.0), crustal and upper mantle structure, origin of active arc volcanoes and intraplate volcanoes including hotspots, heterogeneous structure of subduction zones, fate of subducting slabs, origin of mantle plumes, mantle convection, and deep Earth dynamics. The first lunar tomography and its implications for the mechanism of deep moonquakes and lunar evolution are also introduced

Description / Table of Contents: The science and politics of tears -- A cognitive approach to international relations -- Methodology: new and established tools to explore subjectivity -- The central arguments -- The cognitive triangl e: cost, identity and justice -- The relevance of structure -- Science in climate change negotiations -- Agency and hope -- A guide to the book -- The promise of a cognitive approach -- What is cognition? -- Theories of mental representation -- Building blocks of cognitive theory -- Cognition and emotion -- Linking individual and collective cognition -- Linking cognition and social-material realities -- Cognition and international politics -- Cognition and climate change -- Climate change: a cognitive challenge SUI generis? -- Special problem characteristics -- Cognitive responses to special problem characteristics -- Limits of a cognitive approach -- A cognitive framework for political analysis -- Methods and tools for cognitive social science -- Participant selection -- The selection process -- Cognitive-affective mapping -- The nature and limitations of cognitive-affective maps -- Q method -- The process of doing q -- Application -- Synergies -- Four cognitive-affective lessons for global climate change politics -- The cognitive triangle: threat, identity, and justice -- Threat perceptions -- Collective identities -- Notions of justice -- Linking the corners of the triangle -- The third image in global climate negotiations -- Global power structures -- The two-level game -- Realism's eternal wisdom? -- Does science matter when you negotiate the climate? -- The science-policy disconnect -- The goal of climate governance -- Dealing with complexity -- Time, the future and a dearth of imagination -- Agency and hope : key ingredients for changing the world -- Defining agency -- Agency and national interests -- Agency and time -- Agency and hope -- Six belief systems : more alike than not? -- General observations -- General data patterns -- Six factors -- Factor a: multilateralism champions -- Factor b: un skeptics -- Factor c: utilizing the market -- Factor d: the power of individuals -- Factor e: climate justice -- Factor f: spotlight on the west -- Comparative assessment -- A practitioner's guide -- Understand, analyze and strategize -- Meaning-making -- The big picture -- Strengthen your agency -- Tackle science -- Engage your national scientific community -- Marry science and politics -- Pay attention to climate tipping points -- Time and the future -- Thoughts that make the future -- Cognition in global climate politics -- The nature of cognition -- The nature of political belief systems -- Special problem characteristics of climate change -- Other cognitive challenges -- Six belief systems -- Negotiation process, political strategy and science communication -- The science and politics of tears -- Notes -- References -- Appendix -- Index

Description / Table of Contents: Part I. Introductory chapters -- Introduction: Scientific and political drivers for the Paris Agreement / Andreas Fischlin, Maria Ivanova -- Foundations for the Paris Agreement / Joanna Depledge, Andrew Higham -- Negotiating history of the Paris Agreement / Jane Bulmer, Meinhard Doelle, and Daniel Klein -- Central concepts in the Paris Agreement and how they evolved / Lavanya Rajamani and Emmanuel Guérin -- Legal form of the Paris Agreement and nature of its obligations / Ralph Bodle and Sebastian Oberthür -- Part II. Analysis of the provisions of the agreement -- Contextual provisions (Preamble and Article 1) / María Pía Carazo-- Objective (Article 2.1) / Halldór Thorgeirsson -- Guiding principles and general obligation (Article 2.2 and Article 3) / Lavanya Rajamani -- Mitigation (Article 4) / Harald Winkler -- Conserving and enhancing sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, including forests (Article 5) / Antonio G M La Viña and Alaya de Leon -- Voluntary cooperation (Article 6) / Andrew Howard -- Adaptation (Article 7) / Irene Suárez Pérez and Angela Churie Kallhauge -- Loss and damage (Article 8) / Linda Siegele -- Climate finance (Article 9) / Jorge Gastelumendi and Inka Gnittke -- Technology development and transfer (Article 10) / Heleen de Conick and Ambuj Sagar -- Capacity-building (Article 11) / Crispin d'Auvergne and Matti Nummelin -- Education, training, public awareness participation and access to information (Article 12) / Jeniffer Hanna Collado -- Transparency (Article 13) / Yamide Dagnet and Kelly Levin -- Global stocktake (Article 14) / Jürgen Friedrich -- Facilitating implementation and promoting compliance (Article 15) / Yamide Dagnet and Eliza Northrop -- Institutional arrangements and final clauses (Articles 16-29) / Christina Voigt -- Part III. Concluding reflections -- Assessment of strengths and weaknesses / Meinhard Doelle -- Implications for public international law : initial considerations / María Pía Carazo -- Epilogue: Making the transition from an international agreement to a new epoch of human prosperity in one generation / Andrew Higham

Description / Table of Contents: The most important climate agreement in history, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change represents the commitment of the nations of the world to address and curb climate change. Signed in December 2015, it will come into force on the 4th November, and efforts toward fulfilling its ambitious goals are already under way. The Paris Climate Agreement: Commentary and Analysis combines a comprehensive legal appraisal and critique of the new Agreement with a practical and structured commentary to all its Articles. Part I discusses the general context for the Paris Agreement, detailing the scientific, political, and social drivers behind it, providing an overview of the pre-existing regime, and tracking the history of the negotiations. It examines the evolution of key concepts such as common but differentiated responsibilities, and analyses the legal form of the Agreement and the nature of its provisions. Part II comprises individual chapters on each Article of the Agreement, with detailed commentary of the provisions which highlights central aspects from the negotiating history and the legal nature of the obligations. It describes the institutional arrangements and considerations for national implementation, providing practical advice and prospects for future development. Part III reflects on the Paris Agreement as a whole: its strengths and weaknesses, its potential for further development, and its relationship with other areas of public international law and governance. The book is an invaluable resource for academics and practitioners, policy makers, and actors in the private sector and civil society, as they negotiate the implementation of the Agreement in domestic law and policy

Description / Table of Contents: "An examination of shifting global power dynamics in climate change politics, and how this affects our ability to achieve equitable and sustainable climate outcomes."--

Description / Table of Contents: "An examination of shifting global power dynamics in climate change politics, and how this affects our ability to achieve equitable and sustainable climate outcomes."--

Description / Table of Contents: This report provides a new detailed quantitative assessment of the consequences of climate change on economic growth through to 2060 and beyond. It focuses on how climate change affects different drivers of growth, including labour productivity and capital supply, in different sectors across the world. The sectoral and regional analysis shows that while the impacts of climate change spread across all sectors and all regions, the largest negative consequences are projected to be found in the health and agricultural sectors, with damages especially strong in Africa and Asia.

Description / Table of Contents: Cover -- Title -- Copyright -- CONTENTS -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- PART I FROM CUNEIFORM TO CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION -- 1 Finance and Writing -- 2 Finance and Urbanism -- 3 Financial Architecture -- 4 Mesopotamian Twilight -- 5 Athenian Finance -- 6 Monetary Revolution -- 7 Roman Finance -- PART II THE FINANCIAL LEGACY OF CHINA -- 8 China's First Financial World -- 9 Unity and Bureaucracy -- 10 Financial Divergence -- PART III THE EUROPEAN CRUCIBLE -- 11 The Temple and Finance -- 12 Venice -- 13 Fibonacci and Finance -- 14 Immortal Bonds

Description / Table of Contents: 15 The Discovery of Chance -- 16 Efficient Markets -- 17 Europe, Inc. -- 18 Corporations and Exploration -- 19 A Projecting Age -- 20 A Bubble in France -- 21 According to Hoyle -- 22 Securitization and Debt -- PART IV THE EMERGENCE OF GLOBAL MARKETS -- 23 Marx and Markets -- 24 China's Financiers -- 25 The Russian Bear -- 26 Keynes to the Rescue -- 27 The New Financial World -- 28 Re-Engineering the Future -- 29 Post-War Theory -- Conclusion -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Illustration Credits -- Index

Description / Table of Contents: Intro -- Title Page -- Table of Contents -- List of contributors -- Acknowledgments -- Foreword -- The organization of life on land: biomes -- Mountains as cradles of biodiversity -- Our influence on the future -- Biography -- Biography of Editors -- Glossary -- About the Companion Website -- 1 Mountains, Climate and Biodiversity: an Introduction -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 What are Mountains? -- 1.3 The Physiography of Mountains and Patterns of Biodiversity -- 1.4 Plate Tectonics, Mountain Building and the Biological (R)evolution -- 1.5 Mountains, Climate and Biodiversity: A Short Overview -- 1.6 Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part I: Mountains, Relief and Climate -- 2 Simple Concepts Underlying the Structure, Support and Growth of Mountain Ranges, High Plateaus and Other High Terrain -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Support of High Terrain: Isostasy -- 2.3 Plate Tectonics and High Terrain -- 2.4 The Growth of Mountain Ranges and High Plateaus -- 2.5 Destruction of Mountain Ranges and Other High Terrain -- 2.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 3 An Overview of Dynamic Topography: The Influence of Mantle Circulation on Surface Topography and Landscape -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 What is Dynamic Topography? -- 3.3 Residual Topography -- 3.4 Modeling of Mantle Flow -- 3.5 Interaction of Dynamic Topography with the Landscape -- 3.6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 4 Mountain Relief, Climate and Surface Processes -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Relationships Between Climate, Erosion and Relief: Models and Concepts -- 4.3 Measuring (Changes in) Erosion Rates in Mountain Belts -- 4.4 Reconstructing Relief Change in Mountain Belts -- 4.5 Discussion: Is There a Climatic Control on MountainâBelt Erosion and Relief? -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Dating mountain Building: Exhumation and Surface Uplift -- 5.1 Introduction

Description / Table of Contents: 5.2 Mountain Building -- 5.3 Studying LongâTerm Exhumation with LowâTemperature Thermochronology -- 5.4 Studying ShortâTerm Erosion from Terrestrial Cosmogenic Nuclide Analysis -- 5.5 Numeric Modeling of Thermal Histories and Exhumation -- 5.6 Case Study: Merida Andes of Venezuela -- 5.7 Case Study: East African Rift System -- 5.8 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Stable Isotope Paleoaltimetry: Paleotopography as a Key Element in the Evolution of Landscapes and Life -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes in Precipitation -- 6.3 Paleoaltimetry: Determining Surface Uplift -- 6.4 Modeling Approaches to Determining Stable Isotopes in Precipitation Patterns -- 6.5 Examples of Stable Isotope Paleoaltimetry -- 6.6 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Phytopaleoaltimetry: Using Plant Fossils to Measure Past Land Surface Elevation -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Plants and Climate -- 7.3 Lapse Rates and Enthalpy -- 7.4 Conclusion -- References -- 8 Cenozoic Mountain Building and Climate Evolution -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Mountain and Climate Interactions -- 8.3 Paleoaltimetry Approaches -- 8.4 Surface Uplift and Climate Change -- 8.5 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Paleoclimate -- 9.1 Earthâs Climate System: Lessons from the Past -- 9.2 Early Earthâs climates -- 9.3 Hothouse climates of the Mesozoic and Paleogene -- 9.4 The GreenhouseâIcehouse Transition of the Cenozoic -- 9.5 Quaternary Ice Age Cycles and Rapid Climate Change -- 9.6 The Holocene -- 9.7 Conclusion -- References -- Part II: When Biology Meets Mountain Building -- 10 Mountain Geodiversity: Characteristics, Values and Climate Change -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Geodiversity and the Definition of Mountains -- 10.3 Mountain Geodiversity at a Global Scale -- 10.4 Mountain Geodiversity at Regional to Local Scales -- 10.5 Values of Mountain Geodiversity

Description / Table of Contents: 10.6 Mountain Geodiversity and Climate Change -- 10.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 11 Geodiversity Mapping in Alpine Areas -- 11.1 Geodiversity Mapping -- 11.2 Geological and Geomorphological Overview of Vorarlberg -- 11.3 IndexâBased Geodiversity Mapping of Vorarlberg -- 11.4 FineâScale Geodiversity: The Au West Case Study -- 11.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 12 Historical Connectivity and Mountain Biodiversity -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 The Flickering Connectivity System -- 12.3 Components of the FCS -- 12.4 Perspectives on Paleogeographic Reconstructions and Historical Connectivity -- 12.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 13 The Environmental Heterogeneity of Mountains at a Fine Scale in a Changing World -- 13.1 The Mosaic of Environmental Heterogeneity at a Fine Scale -- 13.2 Drivers of Isolation at a Fine Scale -- 13.3 Adaptation and Diversification at a Fine Scale -- 13.4 Heterogeneous Microhabitats as a Field Laboratory to Study Reactions to Climate Change -- 13.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 14 Mountains, Climate and Mammals -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Mammal Diversity Across Continents -- 14.3 Topographic Diversity Gradients at the Regional Scale -- 14.4 Topographic Diversity Gradients in Deep Time -- 14.5 Mammals that Drive the Topographic Diversity Gradient -- 14.6 Biogeographic Processes in Topographically Complex Regions -- 14.7 Effects of Modern Climate Change on Montane Diversity -- 14.8 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 15 Inferring Macroevolutionary Dynamics in Mountain Systems from Fossils -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Geological and Evolutionary Dynamics -- 15.3 Case Study: Rodent Diversification in North America -- 15.4 PyRate Analytical Framework -- 15.5 Preservation Rates and Model Selection