ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: An account of the results of the 2 March 1987 earthquake in the eastern Bay of Plenty and the aftermath's effects on the people and places on the Rangitaiki Plains

Description / Table of Contents: The book gives a general overview of recent approaches to debris flows. Problems of both occurrences and dynamics of debris flow are treated, taking into account new results from theoretical and experimental research and field observations. Finally, the functioning of the main control devices are reconsidered in the light of the state of the art.

Description / Table of Contents: This book focuses on the experimental determination of the physical properties of silicate melts and magmas close to glass transition. Abundant new data are presented. The same type of measurement is performed on a range of melts to test the effect of composition on physical properties; and a range of different techniques are used to determine the same physical properties to illustrate the relationships between the relaxation of the melt structure and the relaxation of its physical properties. This book is of interest to experimental researchers in the discussion of data obtained from both a materials science and a geoscientific point of view.

Description / Table of Contents: This book deals with the application of fractal and nonlinear time-series analysis to seismicity and earthquakes within the framework of earthquake prediction research. Emphasis is on theoretical foundations as well as practical implementation and pitfalls to enable readers to conduct their own analyses. The theoretical parts include introductions to fractals and multifractals, the relation between fractal dimension and entropy, the Hurst phenomenon, basic ideas of low-dimensional chaotic dynamics and a roadmap of nonlinear time-series analysis. Practical implementation is discussed in each case and synthetic data sets are analyzed. Fractal methods are applied to landslide and seismicity patterns in space and time, nonlinear analysis is carried out for radon and strain data as well as earthquake intervals. Due to the comprehensive coverage of theoretical background and step-by-step applications, readers of all levels will benefit from this book.

Description / Table of Contents: "Our changing climate is the fourth in a series of publication on climate and global change intended for public education. The documents are a collaborative effort of the UCAR Joint Office for Science Support and NOAA Office of Global Programs, for the purpose of raising the level of public awareness of issues dealing with global environmental change."

Description / Table of Contents: Microorganisms cause mineral precipitation and dissolution and control the distribution of elements in diverse environments at and below the surface of the Earth. Conversely, mineralogical and geochemical factors exert important controls on microbial evolution and the structure of microbial communities. This was the rationale for the Short Course on Geomicrobiology presented by the Mineralogical Society of America on October 18 and 19, 1997, at the Alta Peruvian Lodge in Alta, Utah. Minerals have been known and honored since humans realized their essential contributions to the "terra firma" and stone tools thrust our species on the path of cultural evolution. Microbes are the oldest living creatures, probably inhabiting at least a few salubrious environments on the earth as early as 3.8 billion years ago. At this moment in history we are only beginning to appreciate the intimate juxtaposition and interdependence of minerals and microbes. We have been nudged into this position by the realization that our earth is finite, and the recognition of many global environmental problems that minerals and microbes contribute to, both positively and negatively. In addition, our globe may not be the only site in the solar system where 'life' arose, or may persist. What all of these concerns enunciate is that we as scientists only dimly comprehend our own dynamic "terrestrial halls." This short course and volume have been generated with great enthusiasm for grasping as much as possible of the whole panorama of possibilities that involve both the inorganic and biologic realms . Over 3600 mineral species have been defined and their relationships to each other and the environments in which they form have been documented. This vast data base, collected over the past several hundred years and constantly added to and upgraded, is a monument to the research efforts of many geoscientists focused on the inorganic realm. Much of this data has come from investigators intrigued by the novelty, beauty, and versatility of minerals, direct expressions of the chemistry and physics of geologic processes. We are now adding a new dimension to questions of mineral formation, dissolution, and distribution: what were, are, and will be the contributions of microbes to these basic components of the environment. Microbes have also been known for hundreds of years. However, their small size (0.5 to 5 µm in diameter) and the difficulties associated with identifying a species unless it was grown in the laboratory (cultured), precluded thorough analysis. The advent of molecular biology has only recently made it possible to evaluate microbial evolutionary relatedness (phylogeny) and physiological diversity. These techniques are now being applied to study of microbial populations in natural environments. It is becoming very clear that the surface of Earth is populated by far more species of microbes than there are types of minerals. We are now exploring every portion of the globe and finding the relationships under the rubric "geomicrobiology." The ocean deeps are characterized by a diversity of microorganisms, including those associated with manganese nodules. The profusion and concentration of minerals created at ocean ridges and vents matches the variety of microorganisms, large animals, and plants there. The snowy tops of mountain ranges and glaciers of Antarctica harbor not just ice but whole bacterial communities whose cellular types and activities need elucidation. The equatorial jungles and the deserts, with their enormous diversity of ecological niches, further challenge us. The diversity of geographic, geologic, and biologic environments, including some contributed by humans (e.g. mines, air-conditioning equipment), can now also be explored in detail. Modern studies use protocols developed to preserve or measure in situ chemical and physical characteristics. Electron microscopes allow direct characterization of mineral and biological morphology and internal structures. Spectroscopic techniques permit complimentary chemical analysis, including determination of oxidation states, with very high spatial resolution. Other studies quantitatively measure isotopic abudances. These data serve to distinguish biologically mediated, or biologically controlled formation of the mineral from an abiotic process and mechanism. Each ecological niche requires accurate characterization of the mineralogic and biologic entities in order for us to begin to understand the range of dynamic relationships. We can pose many questions. Is the mineral only a substrate, or is its occurrence and stability impacted by microbiologic activity and metabolic requirements? Which minerals are of microbiological rather than inorganic origin and what are the mechanisms by which organisms dictate the morphology and structure of the solid phase formed? How do organic metabolic products bind metals and change their form and distribution, with implications for metal toxicity and geochemical cycles? How do inorganic reactions such as mineral dissolution and precipitation impact microbial populations through control of their physical and chemical environments? Clearly, new and excitingly research areas exist for all varieties of scientists. Although published by the Mineralogical Society of America, the authors of this volume include microbiologists, molecular biologists, biochemists, biophysicists, bioengineers as well as biomineralogists. Here, they bring together their respective expertise and perspectives to provide disciplinary and interdisciplinary background needed to define and further explore the topic of geomicrobiology. The volume is organized so as to first introduce the nature, diversity, and metabolic impact of microorganisms and the types of solid phases they interact with. This is followed by a discussion of processes that occur at cell surfaces, interfaces between microbes and minerals, and within cells, and the resulting mineral precipitation, dissolution, and changes in aqueous geochemistry. The volume concludes with a discussion of the carbon cycle over geologic time. In detail: Nealson and Stahl acquaint us with the basic properties of prokaryotes, including their size and structure. They define the types and ranges of microorganisms and their metabolisms and describe their impacts on some important biogeochemical cycles. Barns and Nierzwicki-Bauer document the phylogenetic relationships and evolution of microorganisms, begging some fundamental questions that might be now just beyond our grasp: What was the 'last common ancestor'? The physiology, biochemistry and ecology of hyperthermophilic, and the many diverse geologically important microbial species from the lithosphere and hydrosphere, as well as some of the techniques employed, are presented. Banfield and Hamers describe and integrate the processes acting on minerals and at surfaces relevant to microorganisms, examining the factors that control mineralogy, mineral forms, and the stability of phases. Surface properties and reaction rates for dissolution, precipitation, and growth of important classes of minerals are discussed. The possible role of mineral surfaces in formation of prebiotic molecules needed to explain the origin of life is examined. Little, Wagner and Lewandowski describe biofilms, an essential interface between microbes and minerals. They demonstrate that these membranes, with their unique morphological and structural attributes, are sites where much activity related to dissolution and/or formation of minerals takes place. Biology makes it possible to move molecules and elements against a gradient. Many questions regarding the transfer of elements from minerals to microbes at this important heterogeneous interface remain. Fortin, Ferris and Beveridge review surface-mediated mineral development by bacteria. Fresh or oceanic waters, anaerobic or aerobic environments provide discretely different ecologies, bacterial entities, and resulting mineralogies. It is obvious from this presentation that investigators have just scratched the surface of microbial mineralization processes. Bazlinski and Moskowitz review the magnetic biominerals and provide insights into the environmental and biological significance of these few tens of nanometer-sized mineral products. The magnetosome chemistry and biochemistry is probably the best understood of any biologically precipitated mineral. Their formation and unique properties underscore the roles these biomaterials play in the rock magnetic record and in geochemical cycles. Tebo, Ghiorse, van Waasbergen, Siering and Caspi contribute data on the roles of Mnminerals and Mn(II) oxidation in geologic environments. Their chapter encompasses molecular genetic and biochemical investigations. Manganese oxides and oxyhydroxides are notoriously difficult to identify and the crystal chemistry of these phases is a research effort on its own. The prospect of learning how microbes utilize the multiple oxidation states of Mn (2+, 3+ and 4+) as a source of energy sharpens the motivation for interdisciplinary study. Manganese is also known as a cofactor in the production and activation of the enzymes that digest large biomolecules that must be the source of the smaller molecular species and ultimately the building blocks of C, N, 0, H required by all species. How have the mechanisms identified in the bacterial systems been transferred up the phylogenetic tree to plants and humans? This is an expanding and intriguing area for further investigation. DeVrind-de Jong and de Vrind address silicate and carbonate deposition by algae (eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms). This chapter documents the mechanisms of biomineralization of diatoms and coccoliths. These abundant aquatic organisms are responsible for huge volumes of siliceous sediments and calcium carbonate deposits world wide. The implications of algal biomineralization for climatic variation throughout much of the Earth's history may be quite significant. Stone leads us though a quantitative approach to evaluating reactions between organic molecules and cations. He considers available extracellular organic ligands and the roles these play in uptake of metals. He documents the basic chemical speciation and complexation for several elements, making metal to metal comparisons. Remaining challenges involve coordinating the organic and inorganic results of biologic activity. Following the discussion of biomineralization and interactions between organic compounds and cations, Silver discusses the strategies microorganisms have evolved to deal with toxic metal concentrations in solution. Beyond the fundamental biological significance, this has important implications for understanding microbial populations in contaminated environments. The impact on the geochemical form (speciation) and distribution of elements is also discussed. Nordstrom and Southam summarize sulfide mineral oxidation and dissolution kinetics and devote considerable effort to describing the specific contributions of microorganisms, mostly bacteria. Despite the vast amount of accumulated information, many unanswered questions remain. Barker, Welch and Banfield address weathering of silicate minerals. This topic encompasses not only mineralogy but geomorphology, microbiology, and geochemistry. The necessary interdisciplinary mode of these investigations is highlighted by discussion of the role(s) of bacterial nutrition, groundwater chemistry, and biochemistry. There are obvious implications for hazardous waste storage, a currently daunting and politicized topic that requires predictions over thousands to millions of years. Finally, Des Marais treats the long term evolution of the carbon cycle, adopting a biogeochemical view. He discusses the sources, sinks and the transfer of the element over geologic time. Consideration of such a basic series of questions relating to the partitioning of carbon necessitate interdisciplinary crossovers. It is a fitting conclusion to a dialogue in progress.

Description / Table of Contents: Deterministic chaos offers a striking explanation for irregular behaviour and anomalies in systems which do not seem to be inherently stochastic. The most direct link between chaos theory and the real world is the analysis of time series from real systems in terms of nonlinear dynamics. This book provides experimentalists with methods for processing, enhancing, and analysing measured signals using these methods; and for theorists it also demonstrates the practical applicability of mathematical results. The framework of deterministic chaos constitutes a new approach to the analysis of irregular time series. Traditionally, nonperiodic signals have been modelled by linear stochastic processes. But even very simple chaotic dynamical systems can exhibit strongly irregular time evolution without random inputs. Chaos theory offers completely new concepts and algorithms for time series analysis which can lead to a thorough understanding of the signals. The book introduces a broad choice of such concepts and methods, including phase space embeddings, nonlinear prediction and noise reduction, Lyapunov exponents, dimensions and entropies, as well as statistical tests for nonlinearity. Related topics such as chaos control, wavelet analysis, and pattern dynamics are also discussed. Applications range from high-quality, strictly deterministic laboratory data to short, noisy sequences which typically occur in medicine, biology, geophysics, and the social sciences. All the material discussed is illustrated using real experimental data. This book will be of value to any graduate student or researcher who needs to be able to analyse time series data, especially in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, geophysics, medicine, economics, and the social sciences.

Description / Table of Contents: The record of tectonic and climatic processes through geological time is held within sedimentary rocks along with evidence for the evolution of life on Earth. The study of the formation, transport and deposition of material to form sedimentary rocks and the temporal and spatial relationships between strata is a fundamental part of the Earth sciences. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy aims to provide students who are starting to study geology at university level with an introduction to the continuum of scales of observation and interpretation which lie between the formation of a grain of sand and a fill of a sedimentary basin. In the first section of this book, the author treats the formation and transport of sediment in a largely descriptive manner and introduces the concepts of environments and facies. The full spectrum of continental and marine sedimentary environments is then covered in a series of chapters which consider the depositional processes and products which may be considered to be characteristic for each setting. In the final part, the principles of stratigraphy and interpretation of the fill of sedimentary basins are considered. The text and illustrations are designed to be accessible to those completely new to the subject whilst at the same time the book covers the concepts and terminology used in more advanced work.

Description / Table of Contents: This book presents a comprehensive survey of the climatology and meteorology of Antarctica. As well as describing the climate which prevails in the Antarctic, the book also considers the processes by which this climate is maintained and explores links between the Antarctic and the global climate system. The first section of the book reviews the methods by which we can observe the Antarctic atmosphere and presents a synthesis of climatological measurements. In the second section, the processes whcih maintain the observed climate are considered, starting with large-scale weather systems to mesoscale and small-scale processes. The final section reviews our current knowledge of the variability of the Antarctic climate and considers changes that may occur in Antarctica as a result of 'greenhouse' warming. Throughout the book, the links between the Antarctic atmosphere and other elements of the Antarctic climate system (oceans, sea ice and ice sheets) are stressed and the processes which couple the Antarctic with the global climate system are examined. The instruments and platforms used in Antarctic climate studies are discussed (including automatic stations and international data centres), with special emphasis on the role of remote sensing from satellites and numerical modelling techniques. This volume will be of greatest interest to meteorologists and climatologists with a specialised interest in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, but it will also appeal to researchers in Antarctic glaciology, oceanography and biology. Graduates and undergraduates studying physical geography or the earth, atmospheric and environmental sciences will find much useful background material in the book.