ALBERT

Notes: This is a reply to the discussion piece Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations, Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology by Audrey de Grey. Having read the article there seem to be four messages. The first being, that longevity/immortality research faces rejection, resistance and neglect from `classic anti-aging' researchers, policy makers, the funding system and the public. The second being that the `pro-aging' trance is illogical; the third being that not pushing for longevity and immortality research is immoral; and the fourth being that so far no valid reason for opposing longevity and immortality has been generated and that we will deal with potential problems if and when they appear. My message in this invited comment is 1) that de Grey is right with his first point; 2) that his second point is debatable and depends on certain assumptions; 3) that his third point is even on weaker feet and debatable (Morals and ethics are social and cultural constructions and depending on ones frame of reference something can be seen as moral and ethical or not. This is a whole different paper as to who decides which morals and ethics are right and wrong and can't be covered here.) and 4) that the longevity and immortality research exhibits the same discourse problems as the other new and emerging technology discourses, namely that its makes light of potential and real social risks that it tailors to a minority of the world and ignores the marginalized majority of the world.

Notes: This paper's account of the core issues at stake in relation to genetic enhancement is presented as an alternative to mainstream liberal defenses of enhancement. The mainstream arguments are identified as being associated with reproductive autonomy, individual choice, and a `neutral', passive interpretation of technology. The alternative account is associated with the perspective of `woman' or child-bearer, with a fundamental concern for social justice, and an understanding of society in both a global and a contextual sense. This paper adopts a theoretical framework informed by feminist ethics, particularly a feminist ethic of care. The paper begins by outlining some of the key points of the care perspective, highlighting how this contrasts with a mainstream `justice' perspective, and illustrating how this is reflected in arguments relating to genetic enhancement. The paper then turns to a consideration of how a care perspective might be applied to questions of genetic enhancement, and how this may bring forward new issues. This includes in particular a consideration of IVF technologies and how applying understandings from research into this area brings forward usually unaddressed concerns in considering genetic enhancement. The final section of the paper covers some of the questions that there is space to ask once the narrow focus on individual rights is overcome.

Notes: The treatment-enhancement distinction is difficult to make, and defenders of enhancement often base their case on that. Critics of enhancement, however, often have prototypical cases of enhancement-oriented interventions in mind, and the ethics of these can be evaluated on a case by case basis. Things like intelligence enhancement may have adverse effects on equality and utility. If the equality and utility effects of such enhancements were sufficiently severe, then restrictions would be called for. We need to think more about how to make tradeoffs between liberty, equality, and utility--and we need to know more about the extent to which each of these is at stake--before reaching conclusions about the ethics of, and appropriate social policy regarding, human enhancement.

Notes: Aubrey de Grey's enthusiasm may or may not be infectious, but it is certainly palpable. And it adds a dimension to the discussion the priority that should be given to life-extension/anti-ageing research of which he seems to be unaware. For on the cusp of developments in emerging technologies we find ourselves button-holed by enthusiasts whose ``transhumanist" visions importunately press upon us the most radical understanding of their implications. My suspicion is that the transhumanist mini-insurgency is partly responsible for the general failure of the policy establishment to summon up the courage and vision to address the implications of emerging technologies at all. The insurgents' effort at ``branding" these technologies as transhumanist (like that of the Raelian flying-saucer cult, a decade ago, to claim cloning as their own) does no favors to the technology. The irony is that de Grey and his fellow-visionaries, far from generating consensus enthusiasm for emerging technology applications, are making them too hot to handle.

Notes: Liberal eugenics according to one version is distinguished from authoritarian eugenics on the basis that the choice of enhancement is devolved to parents. The argument for liberal eugenics combines a commitment to the right of parents to autonomy - in reproductive decisions and in the upbringing of children - and a parity claim that there is no morally significant difference between ante-natal and post-natal alterations of a child. The article reviews the putative constraints on parental choice, and assesses some criticisms of the parity claim. It concludes that a liberal commitment to social justice is in tension with a liberal commitment to parental choice, but judges that the former commitment does not entail the authoritarian eugenics which is represented as the alternative to liberal eugenics.

Notes: Genomics and the technologies arising out of the science are often heralded as a means of securing cures for diseases which have proved resistant to the progress of medicine. These, generally hereditary diseases, with advances in genomic science are becoming more understood, but as of yet the possibilities of effective cures, whether through for example somatic or germ-line gene therapy, remain elusive. This has not stopped despite speculation and debate on potential future applications such as the use of genetic technologies in enhancing humans. Curative applications and enhancement applications are inextricably linked however both through the social contexts in which these technologies are to be deployed and the discourses which inform and frame the debates on their use. This article seeks to explore these links and in doing so aims to investigate some of the wider dimensions of the enhancement debate.

Notes: This short comment presents arguments in support of human enhancement.What is enhancement? Surely it is a procedure that improves our functioning: any intervention which increases our general capabilities for human flourishing. We exclude from consideration those procedures often termed ``enhancements" that are of dubious overall benefit (for example breast or penis augmentation, or the taking of anabolic steroids to increase muscle mass). Equally we are not talking of ``designer" modifications which are more akin to aesthetic or fashion preferences than to improvements: hair colour, eye colour, or physique. An enhancement (as we are using the term) is something of benefit to the individual.

Notes: The pace of a given strand of scientific research, whether purely curiosity-driven or motivated by a particular technological goal, is strongly influenced by public attitudes towards its value. In the case of research directed to the radical postponement of aging and the consequent extension of healthy and total lifespans, public opinion is entrenched in a "pro-aging trance" - a state of resolute irrationality. This arises from the entirely rational attitude to a grisly, inevitable and relatively far-off fate: putting it out of one's mind allows one to make the most of what time one has, free of preoccupation with one's demise, and it is immaterial how irrational the arguments that one uses to achieve this are, e.g. by persuading oneself that aging is not such a bad thing after all. As biotechnology increasingly nears the point where aging will no longer be inevitable, however, this studied fatalism has become a core part of the problem, making people reluctant to join the crusade to hasten that technology's arrival. An effective way to address this hesitation is to promote debate about the reasons people give for fearing the defeat of aging, most of which are sociological. Such debate exposes people to the glaring flaws in their own logic. Thus, the more the debate is sustained and promoted, the harder it is for those flaws to be ignored.

Notes: Biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey has suggested that one of the reasons we as a society invest so little in research on combating aging is because we are in an intellectual trance. We think the effort will be futile: aging is immutable, so why try? A healthy skepticism can be a good thing but it is a major mistake to bet against the irresistible force of inexorable technological progress. Over the next few decades, nanotechnology will come to play a pivotal role in the solution to the problem of human aging. Medical nanorobotics, if it can be made to work, can unquestionably offer convenient solutions to all known causes of age-related damage and most likely can also successfully address any new causes of senescence that remain undiscovered today.

Notes: Sport is one of the first areas in which enhancement has become commonplace. It is also one of the first areas in which the use of enhancement technologies has been heavily regulated. Some have thus seen sport as a testing ground for arguments about whether to permit enhancement. However, I argue that there are fairness-based objections to enhancement in sport that do not apply as strongly in some other areas of human activity. Thus, I claim that there will often be a stronger case for permitting enhancement outside of sport than for permitting enhancement in sport. I end by considering some methodological implications of this conclusion.

Notes: Bioethics has paid little attention to the issues raised by health in athletic competition, with the single exception of the use of prohibited performance enhancements. However, in competitive athletics, the treatment and prevention of athletic injury and the development of training programs designed to maximize athletic achievement share many characteristics with medical innovation and clinical research, and should be understood to constitute enhancement research.Athletes should, in at least some circumstances, be viewed as vulnerable research subjects, akin to desperate patients. Competitive athletes are often encouraged to sacrifice long-term health benefits for short-term gains; cultural mythology about sports and high-stakes financial investments at the organizational level in team sports exercise great influence on individual athletes' range of choices. Technological advances in training, equipment, and injury treatment serve to raise the bar in competitive athletics, in turn increasing not only the risks of harm but the level of expectation with regard to performance, injury, and recovery. It is common for athletes to seek, and teams to offer, intensive and innovative training regimens from which data are gathered, thus transforming innovation into research.As technology continues to enhance the prospects for athletic enhancement, it is time for bioethics to take a closer look at the way competitive athletics highlights the troubling questions posed by enhancement research.

Notes: In this paper I argue that the virtue ethics tradition can enhance the moral discourse on the ethics of prenatal genetic enhancements in distinctive and valuable ways. Virtue ethics prescribes we adopt a much more provisional stance on the issue of the moral permissibility of prenatal genetic enhancements. A stance that places great care on differentiating between the different stakes involved with developing different phenotypes in our children and the different possible means (environmental vs. genetic manipulation) available to parents for pursuing legitimate concerns of parental love and virtue. Key components of the virtue ethics account of morality, such as the Aristotelian account of happiness, love and the doctrine of the mean, provide an adequate basis for rejecting the claim that it is morally impermissible for parents to pursue (safe and effective) prenatal enhancements. Furthermore, there is good reason to believe that a virtue ethics account of morality could actually support the stronger claim that utilising such interventions can (in certain contexts) be morally required.

Notes: This article examines Aubrey de Grey's case for allocating substantial funding to interventive biogerontological research immediately. The conclusion is that the case is inconclusive and that scientific analyses of costs and probabilities would be needed to defend it properly.

Notes: Abstract The dimensions, composition, and stiffness of the airway wall are important determinants of airway cross-sectional area during dynamic collapse in a forced expiration or when airway smooth muscle is constricted. Under these circumstances, airway caliber is determined by an interaction between the forces acting to open the airway (parenchymal tension and wall stiffness) and those acting to close it (smooth-muscle force and surface tension at the inner gas-liquid interface). Experimental measurements and theoretical models of the airway tube law (relationship between cross-sectional area and transmural pressure) are presented. Data are presented for the elastic properties of the wall tissue. Simulations of airway constriction in normal and asthmatic airways are discussed. To the extent possible, comparisons are presented between the various models and existing experimental data.

Notes: Abstract Richard Skalak (1923-1997) played a leadership role in the formative decades of the discipline of biomedical engineering through his technical contributions in biomechanics, his educational influence on students, and his service to many developing societies and journals. But always, the distinguishing marks of his involvement with any activity or person were his generosity, respect and tolerance for others, integrity, and curiosity. These very qualities are what first brought him as a traditional engineer trained in engineering mechanics into the young field of biomedical engineering in the 1960s, and they are what led him to new approaches to cellular and molecular engineering, tissue engineering, and orthopedic biomechanics. His technical papers and lectures on blood cell mechanics, pulmonary circulation, dental implants, and tissue growth were models of clarity and often pointed the way to new areas of exploration, while his personal writings offer advice on life, academic organizations, and the pursuit of significant work. He would be deeply appreciative that this first volume of the Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering is dedicated to his memory.

Notes: Abstract Because of an aging population and increased occurrence of sports-related injuries, musculoskeletal disorders have become one of the major health concerns in the United States. Current treatments, although fairly successful, do not provide the optimum therapy. These treatments typically rely on donor tissues obtained either from the patient or from another source. The former raises the issue of supply, whereas the latter poses the risk of rejection and disease transfer. This has prompted orthopedic surgeons and scientists to look for viable alternatives. In recent years, tissue engineering has gained increasing support as a method to treat orthopedic disorders. Because it uses principles of engineering, biology, and chemistry, tissue engineering may provide a more effective approach to the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders than traditional methods. This chapter presents a review of current methods and new tissue-engineering techniques for the treatment of disorders affecting bone, ligament, and cartilage.

Notes: Abstract The successful application and optimization of cell transplantation will require quantitative engineering design and analysis of cells and materials in which relevant biological processes remain complex and incompletely defined. This report primarily reviews the engineering and material considerations in islet cell transplantation, including established biological constraints and biohybrid devices for cell delivery, as well as available barrier materials and the associated processing strategies directed at the control of solute transport, barrier permeability, and host responses at the biological-material interface. Also described are current areas of investigation with particular promise as enabling technologies for accelerating the clinical effectiveness of islet cell transplantation.

Notes: Abstract Hematopoietic cell culture, or ex vivo expansion of hematopoietic cells, is an enabling technology with many potential applications in bone-marrow transplantation, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and the production of blood products. Hematopoietic cultures are complex, with many different cell types at different stages of development present at any given point in time and never in steady state. Moreover, these cells interact strongly with each other and the environment through cytokines (growth factors) and adhesion molecules, as well as through their metabolism. Despite these significant challenges, cell products produced in bioreactors have shown promise in recent phase 1 clinical trials.

Notes: Abstract By maintaining a near normal (70-120 mg/dL) glucose concentration, diabetic patients can drastically reduce the likelihood of the occurrence of diabetes complications. In the near future, subcutaneously implanted electrochemical glucose sensors will be available to provide frequent or continuous information on which timely treatment decisions, such as insulin injection or glucose source intake, can be based, as well as timely alarm signals. The currently engineered devices are of three types: (a) innocuous microsensors, with actively mass-transporting areas 〈10-3 cm2, replaced twice a week by the patient; (b) self-contained, surgeon-implanted, transmitter-containing packages of 〉1 cm2 area, operating for 〉100 days; and (c) devices transporting subcutaneous fluid to an external sensor, based on implanted microfiltration or microdialysis fibers or on iontophoretic transport of the subcutaneous fluid through the skin.

Notes: Abstract Extraordinary advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to the development of a vast number of therapeutic anti-cancer agents. To reach cancer cells in a tumor, a blood-borne therapeutic molecule, particle, or cell must make its way into the blood vessels of the tumor and across the vessel wall into the interstitium, which it then must migrate through. Unfortunately, tumors often develop in ways that hinder these steps. The goal of research in this area is to analyze each of these steps experimentally and theoretically and integrate the resulting information into a unified theoretical framework. This paradigm of analysis and synthesis has fostered a better understanding of physiological barriers in solid tumors and aided in the development of novel strategies to exploit and/or overcome these barriers for improved cancer detection and treatment.

Notes: Abstract Historically, electronic devices such as pacemakers and neuromuscular stimulators have been surgically implanted into animals and humans. A new class of implants made possible by advances in monolithic electronic design and implant packaging is small enough to be implanted by percutaneous injection through large-gauge hypodermic needles and does not require surgical implantation. Among these, commercially available implants, known as radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, are used for livestock, pet, laboratory animal, and endangered-species identification. The RFID tag is a subminiature glass capsule containing a solenoidal coil and an integrated circuit. Acting as the implanted half of a transcutaneous magnetic link, the RFID tag is powered by and communicates with an extracorporeal magnetic reader. The tag transmits a unique identification code that serves the function of identifying the animal. Millions of RFID tags have been sold since the early 1980s. Based on the success of the RFID tags, research laboratories have developed injectable medical implants, known as micromodules. One type of micromodule, the microstimulator, is designed for use in functional-neuromuscular stimulation. Each microstimulator is uniquely addressable and could comprise one channel of a multichannel functional-neuromuscular stimulation system. Using bidirectional telemetry and commands, from a single extracorporeal transmitter, as many as 256 microstimulators could form the hardware basis for a complex functional-neuromuscular stimulation feedback-control system. Uses include stimulation of paralyzed muscle, therapeutic functional-neuromuscular stimulation, and neuromodulatory functions such as laryngeal stimulation and sleep apnea.

Notes: Abstract The cardiovascular system is an internal flow loop with multiple branches circulating a complex liquid. The hallmarks of blood flow in arteries are pulsatility and branches, which cause wall stresses to be cyclical and nonuniform. Normal arterial flow is laminar, with secondary flows generated at curves and branches. Arteries can adapt to and modify hemodynamic conditions, and unusual hemodynamic conditions may cause an abnormal biological response. Velocity profile skewing can create pockets in which the wall shear stress is low and oscillates in direction. Atherosclerosis tends to localize to these sites and creates a narrowing of the artery lumen-a stenosis. Plaque rupture or endothelial injury can stimulate thrombosis, which can block blood flow to heart or brain tissues, causing a heart attack or stroke. The small lumen and elevated shear rate in a stenosis create conditions that accelerate platelet accumulation and occlusion. The relationship between thrombosis and fluid mechanics is complex, especially in the post-stenotic flow field. New convection models have been developed to predict clinical occlusion from platelet thrombosis in diseased arteries. Future hemodynamic studies should address the complex mechanics of flow-induced, large-scale wall motion and convection of semisolid particles and cells in flowing blood.

Notes: Abstract Ionic and molecular transfer among cells occurs by a variety of transport processes operative at different length scales. Cell membrane permeability and electrical conductance derive from channel proteins producing pores at the molecular (ultrastructural) scale. Intracellular mobility involves the dynamics of motion through the complex ultrastructure of the cytoplasm. These phenomena unite in the larger-scale (microscopic) process of gross intercellular transfer. When such movement occurs among sufficiently many cells, it in turn begins to reflect their average collective (macroscopic) behavior as bulk tissue. This article surveys selected aspects of intercellular and intracellular transport, with emphasis on detailed mechanistic theory, experimental probes of cellular permeability, and systematic transcendence from small to large length scales.

Notes: Abstract Blood clots form under hemodynamic conditions and can obstruct flow during angina, acute myocardial infarction, stroke, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, peripheral thrombosis, or dialysis access graft thrombosis. Therapies to remove these clots through enzymatic and/or mechanical approaches require consideration of the biochemistry and structure of blood clots in conjunction with local transport phenomena. Because blood clots are porous objects exposed to local hemodynamic forces, pressure-driven interstitial permeation often controls drug penetration and the overall lysis rate of an occlusive thrombus. Reaction engineering and transport phenomena provide a framework to relate dosage of a given agent to potential outcomes. The design and testing of thrombolytic agents and the design of therapies must account for (a) the binding, catalytic, and systemic clearance properties of the therapeutic enzyme; (b) the dose and delivery regimen; (c) the biochemical and structural aspects of the thrombotic occlusion; (d) the prevailing hemodynamics and anatomical location of the thrombus; and (e) therapeutic constraints and risks of side effects. These principles also impact the design and analysis of local delivery devices.

Notes: Abstract Since the introduction of medical ultrasound in the 1950s, modern diagnostic ultrasound has progressed to see many major diagnostic tools come into widespread clinical use, such as B-mode imaging, color-flow imaging, and spectral Doppler. New applications, such as panoramic imaging, three-dimensional imaging, and quantitative imaging, are now beginning to be offered on some commercial ultrasound machines and are expected to grow in popularity. In this review, we focus on the various algorithms, their processing requirements, and the challenges of these ultrasound modes. Whereas the older, mature B and color-flow modes could be systolically implemented using hardwired components and boards, new applications, such as three-dimensional imaging and image feature extraction, are being implemented more by using programmable processors. This trend toward programmable ultrasound machines will continue, because the programmable approach offers the advantages of quick implementation of new applications without any additional hardware and the flexibility to adapt to the changing requirements of these dynamic new applications.

Notes: Abstract Much of the recent rapid progress in large-scale genomic sequencing has been driven by the dramatic improvements both in the area of biological protocols and in the availability of improved laboratory instrumentation and automation platforms. We discuss recent developments in the area of bioinstrumentation that are contributing to the current revolution in genetic analysis. Examples of systems for laboratory automation are described together with specific single-purpose instruments. Emphasis is placed on those tools that are contributing significantly to the scale-up of genomic mapping and sequencing efforts. In addition, we present a selection of more advanced measurement techniques and instrumentation developments that are likely to contribute significantly to future advances in sequencing and genome analysis.

Notes: Robust and bright light emitters, semiconductor nanocrystals [quantum dots (QDs)] have been adopted as a new class of fluorescent labels. Six years after the first experiments of their uses in biological applications, there have been dramatic improvements in understanding surface chemistry, biocompatibility, and targeting specificity. Many studies have shown the great potential of using quantum dots as new probes in vitro and in vivo. This review summarizes the recent advances of quantum dot usage at the cellular level, including immunolabeling, cell tracking, in situ hybridization, FRET, in vivo imaging, and other related technologies. Limitations and potential future uses of quantum dot probes are also discussed.

Notes: Biological research has been accelerated by the development of noninvasive imaging techniques and by use of genetically engineered mice to model human diseases and normal development. Because these mice can be expensive, noninvasive imaging techniques, such as high-resolution positron emission tomography (PET), that permit longitudinal studies of the same animals are very attractive. Such studies reduce the number of animals used, reduce intersubject variability, and improve the accuracy of biological models. PET provides quantitative measurements of the spatiotemporal distribution of radiotracers and is an extremely powerful tool in using molecular imaging to study biology, to monitor disease intervention, and to establish pharmacokinetics for new drugs. The design of animal PET scanners has improved significantly in the past decade and can provide adequate image resolution and sensitivity to study transgenic mice. This article reviews the fundamental and technical challenges of small-animal PET imaging, with a particular focus on the latest developments and future directions of detector technologies and system design.

Notes: An enormous literature has been developed on investigations of the growth and guidance of axons during development and after injury. In this review, we provide a guide to this literature as a resource for biomedical investigators. We first review briefly the molecular biology that is known to regulate migration of the growth cone and branching of axonal arbors. We then outline some important fundamental considerations that are important to the modeling of the phenomenology of these guidance effects and of what is known of their underlying internal mechanisms. We conclude by providing some thoughts on the outlook for future biomedical modeling in the field.

Notes: Cell motility is an essential cellular process for a variety of biological events. The process of cell migration requires the integration and coordination of complex biochemical and biomechanical signals. The protrusion force at the leading edge of a cell is generated by the cytoskeleton, and this force generation is controlled by multiple signaling cascades. The formation of new adhesions at the front and the release of adhesions at the rear involve the outside-in and inside-out signaling mediated by integrins and other adhesion receptors. The traction force generated by the cell on the extracellular matrix (ECM) regulates cell-ECM adhesions, and the counter force exerted by ECM on the cell drives the migration. The polarity of cell migration can be amplified and maintained by the feedback loop between the cytoskeleton and cell-ECM adhesions. Cell migration in three-dimensional ECM has characteristics distinct from that on two-dimensional ECM. The migration of cells is initiated and modulated by external chemical and mechanical factors, such as chemoattractants and the mechanical forces acting on the cells and ECM, as well as the surface density, distribution, topography, and rigidity of the ECM.

Notes: Paralyzed or paretic muscles can be made to contract by applying electrical currents to the intact peripheral motor nerves innervating them. When electrically elicited muscle contractions are coordinated in a manner that provides function, the technique is termed functional electrical stimulation (FES). In more than 40 years of FES research, principles for safe stimulation of neuromuscular tissue have been established, and methods for modulating the strength of electrically induced muscle contractions have been discovered. FES systems have been developed for restoring function in the upper extremity, lower extremity, bladder and bowel, and respiratory system. Some of these neuroprostheses have become commercialized products, and others are available in clinical research settings. Technological developments are expected to produce new systems that have no external components, are expandable to multiple applications, are upgradable to new advances, and are controlled by a combination of signals, including biopotential signals from nerve, muscle, and the brain.

Notes: Abstract Ventricular fibrillation, a loss of synchronus electrical activity in the heart which leads to hemodynamic collapse, is a leading cause of death. Because of the devastating personal and societal effects of this phenomenon, the automatic cardioverter-defibrillator has been developed for automatic detection and termination of the arrhythmia and is in widespread clinical use. Advances in circuits, leads, waveforms, and signal processing along with increased knowledge of the mechanisms of fibrillation have led to continuing improvements in this device, extending its use to many patients. A device has also been developed for the automatic or semiautomatic treatment of atrial fibrillation, an arrhythmia less life-threatening than ventricular fibrillation, but still a serious health problem. Continued improvement of these devices and the development of qualitatively new approaches hold great promise for exciting therapeutic advances in this area.

Notes: Abstract Microfabrication uses integrated-circuit manufacturing technology supplemented by its own processes to create objects with dimensions in the range of micrometers to millimeters. These objects can have miniature moving parts, stationary structures, or both. Microfabrication has been used for many applications in biology and medicine. These applications fall into four domains: tools for molecular biology and biochemistry, tools for cell biology, medical devices, and biosensors. Microfabricated device structures may provide significantly enhanced function with respect to a conventional device. Sometimes microfabrication can enable devices with novel capabilities. These enhancing and enabling qualities are conferred when microfabrication is used appropriately to address the right types of problems. Herein, we describe microfabrication technology and its application to biology and medicine. We detail several classes of advantages conferred by microfabrication and how these advantages have been used to date.

Notes: Abstract Protein crystallization is the most difficult and time-consuming step in the determination of a protein's atomic structure. As X-ray diffraction becomes a commonly available tool in structural biology, the necessity for rational methodologies and protocols to produce single, high-quality protein crystals has come to the forefront. The basics of protein crystallization conform to the classical understanding of crystallization of small molecules. Understanding the effect of solution variables such as pH, temperature, pressure, and ionicity on protein solubility allows the proper evaluation of the degree of supersaturation present in protein crystallization experiments. Physicochemical measurements such as laser light scattering, X-ray scattering, X-ray diffraction, and atomic force microscopy provide a clearer picture of protein crystal nucleation and growth. This ever deepening knowledge base is generating rational methods to produce protein crystals as well as means to improve the diffraction quality of such protein crystals. Yet, much remains unclear, and the protein crystallization research community will be quite active for many years to come.

Notes: Abstract Transgenic and eugenic animals as small as 30 g can be studied noninvasively by radionuclides with resolutions of 1-2 mm, by MRI with resolution of 100 mum and by light fluorescence and bioluminescence with high sensitivities. The technologies of radionuclide emission, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, optical tomography, optical fluorescence and optical bioluminescence are currently being applied to small-animal studies. These technologies and examples of their applications are reviewed in this chapter.

Notes: Abstract Visualizable objects in biology and medicine extend across a vast range of scale, from individual molecules and cells through the varieties of tissue and interstitial interfaces to complete organs, organ systems, and body parts. These objects include functional attributes of these systems, such as biophysical, biomechanical, and physiological properties. Visualization in three dimensions of such objects and their functions is now possible with the advent of high-resolution tomographic scanners and imaging systems. Medical applications include accurate anatomy and function mapping, enhanced diagnosis, accurate treatment planning and rehearsal, and education/training. Biologic applications include study and analysis of structure-to-function relationships in individual cells and organelles. The potential for revolutionary innovation in the practice of medicine and in biologic investigations lies in direct, fully immersive, real-time multisensory fusion of real and virtual information data streams into online, real-time visualizations available during actual clinical procedures or biological experiments. Current high-performance computing, advanced image processing, and high-fidelity rendering capabilities have facilitated major progress toward realization of these goals. With these advances in hand, there are several important applications of three-dimensional visualization that will have a significant impact on the practice of medicine and on biological research.

Notes: Abstract Metabolic engineering is the science that combines systematic analysis of metabolic and other pathways with molecular biological techniques to improve cellular properties by designing and implementing rational genetic modifications. As such, metabolic engineering deals with the measurement of metabolic fluxes and elucidation of their control as determinants of metabolic function and cell physiology. A novel aspect of metabolic engineering is that it departs from the traditional reductionist paradigm of cellular metabolism, taking instead a holistic view. In this sense, metabolic engineering is well suited as a framework for the analysis of genome-wide differential gene expression data, in combination with data on protein content and in vivo metabolic fluxes. The insights of the integrated view of metabolism generated by metabolic engineering will have profound implications in biotechnological applications, as well as in devising rational strategies for target selection for screening candidate drugs or designing gene therapies. In this article we review basic concepts of metabolic engineering and provide examples of applications in the production of primary and secondary metabolites, improving cellular properties, and biomedical engineering.

Notes: Abstract This paper reviews the emergence of telemedicine and its recent expansion and use within the healthcare industry. Through this review, several examples of telemedicine within a variety of applications provide a broad context to discuss the challenges and opportunities facing the emergence of e-medicine. These examples provide snapshots of a teleradiology system used by the military, teleconsultations used in neurosurgery and hemodialysis, and home telemedicine used in diabetes care. Based on the discussion of telemedicine's history and expansion and the examples provided, a framework is offered for understanding the evolution of telemedicine applications through four stages. These stages include: (a) development of basic technological capabilities, (b) development of relevant applications, (c) the integration of technical applications within a complex environment, and (d) transformation of the operating environment. Implications for this framework are discussed.

Notes: Retinal prostheses represent the best near-term hope for individuals with incurable, blinding diseases of the outer retina. On the basis of the electrical activation of nerves, prototype retinal prostheses have been tested in blind humans and have demonstrated the capability to elicit the sensation of light and to give test subjects the ability to detect motion. To improve the visual function in implant recipients, a more sophisticated device is required. Simulations suggest that 600Đ??1000 pixels will be required to provide visual function such as face recognition and reading. State-of-the-art implantable stimulator technology cannot produce such a device, which mandates the advancement of the state of the art in areas such as analog microelectronics, wireless power and data transfer, packaging, and stimulating electrodes.

Notes: Accurate, fast, and affordable analysis of the cellular component of blood is of prime interest for medicine and research. Yet, most often sample preparation procedures for blood analysis involve handling steps prone to introducing artifacts, whereas analysis methods commonly require skilled technicians and well-equipped, expensive laboratories. Developing more gentle protocols and affordable instruments for specific blood analysis tasks is becoming possible through the recent progress in the area of microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip-type devices. Precise control over the cell microenvironment during separation procedures and the ability to scale down the analysis to very small volumes of blood are among the most attractive capabilities of the new approaches. Here we review some of the emerging principles for manipulating blood cells at microscale and promising high-throughput approaches to blood cell separation using microdevices. Examples of specific single-purpose devices are described together with integration strategies for blood cell separation and analysis modules.

Notes: We review the history of DNA mechanics and its analysis. We evaluate several methods to analyze the structures of superhelical DNA molecules, each predicated on the assumption that DNA can be modeled with reasonable accuracy as an extended, linearly elastic polymer. Three main approaches are considered: mechanical equilibrium methods, which seek to compute minimum energy conformations of topologically constrained molecules; statistical mechanical methods, which seek to compute the Boltzmann distribution of equilibrium conformations that arise in a finite temperature environment; and dynamic methods, which seek to compute deterministic trajectories of the helix axis by solving equations of motion. When these methods include forces of self-contact, which prevent strand passage and preserve the topological constraint, each predicts plectonemically interwound structures. On the other hand, the extent to which these mechanical methods reliably predict energetic and thermodynamic properties of superhelical molecules is limited, in part because of their inability to account explicitly for interactions involving solvent. Monte Carlo methods predict the entropy associated with supercoiling to be negative, in conflict with a body of experimental evidence that finds it is large and positive, as would be the case if superhelical deformations significantly disrupt the ordering of ambient solvent molecules. This suggests that the large-scale conformational properties predicted by elastomechanical models are not the only ones determining the energetics and thermodynamics of supercoiling. Moreover, because all such models that preserve the topological constraint correctly predict plectonemic interwinding, despite these and other limitations, this constraint evidently dominates energetic and thermodynamic factors in determining supercoil geometry. Therefore, agreement between predicted structures and structures obtained experimentally, for example, by electron microscopy, does not in itself provide evidence for the correctness or completeness of any given model of DNA mechanics.

Notes: Discovery of new genes and proteins directly supporting leukocyte adhesion is waning, whereas there is heightened interest in the cell mechanics and receptor dynamics that lead from transient tethering via selectins to affinity shifts and adhesion strengthening through integrins. New optical tools enable real-time imaging of leukocyte rolling and arrest in parallel plate flow channels (PPFCs), and detection of single-molecule force spectroscopy provides an inner view of the intercellular adhesive contact region. Leukocyte recruitment during acute inflammation is triggered by ligation of G proteinĐ??coupled chemotactic receptors (GPCRs) and clustering of selectins. This, in turn, activates ?‚2-integrin (CD18), which facilitates cell capture and arrest in shear flow. This review provides a conceptual model for the molecular events supporting leukocyte recruitment.

Notes: Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) has been used for more than two decades to interrogate metabolite distributions in living cells and tissues. Techniques have been developed that allow multiple spectra to be obtained simultaneously with individual volume elements as small as 1 uL of tissue (i.e., 1 ?? 1 ?? 1 mm3). The most common modern applications of in vivo MRS use endogenous signals from 1H, 31P, or 23Na. Important contributions have also been made using exogenous compounds containing 19F, 13C, or 17O. MRS has been used to investigate cardiac and skeletal muscle energetics, neurobiology, and cancer. This review focuses on the latter applications, with specific reference to the measurement of tissue choline, which has proven to be a tumor biomarker that is significantly affected by anticancer therapies.

Notes: Werner Goldsmith, one of the foremost authorities on the mechanics of impact and the biomechanics of head and neck injuries, died peacefully at home in Oakland, California, on August 23, 2003, at age 79 after a short, courageous battle with leukemia, ending a long and very distinguished career in mechanics, dynamics, and biomechanics, and an almost six-decades-long association with the University of California, Berkeley. He was one of the pioneering, eminent solid and fluid mechanicians who made an early transition to biomechanics, and in rising to equal distinction in their new fields, added great credibility to biomechanics as a discipline in its own right. He was also a distinguished and influential figure in bioengineering education at his own institution, and, more broadly, in the United States and abroad. An emeritus professor for over a decade, he continued to be active in research and teaching until the very last days of his life.

Notes: Abstract The microcirculation represents a region of the circulation in which blood vessels are directly surrounded by the tissue and cells to which they supply nutrients and from which they collect metabolites. The cellular elements that make up the microcirculation have now been identified, and a large body of evidence has become available that provides molecular definitions of these elements. The blood flow is in a domain in which viscous stresses dominate, but the viscoelastic and active properties of cells lead to nonlinear problems. The ability of cells to actively control cytoplasmic mechanical properties and shape, as well as their membrane adhesion, leads to unique cell behavior in microvessels that has a direct influence on organ transport and function. There is also increasing evidence that the properties of the cells are in turn influenced by fluid shear stresses. These issues have greatly expanded the scope of microvascular analysis. The microcirculation is one of the sites in which diseases manifest themselves at an early stage. The application of biomechanical analysis of the microcirculation is starting to focus on diseases. The field is rich with problems of high significance.

Notes: Abstract Driven by advances in the acquisition of genetic sequence information and the ability to manipulate small quantities of nucleic acid, a number of technologies are emerging that exploit nucleic acids for research, diagnostic, and therapeutic utility. In this review, we cover three technologies based on nucleic acids-DNA microarrays, antisense technology, and gene therapy-that are especially promising and may make a substantial impact in the laboratory and in the clinic during the coming years. For each of these areas, an overview of the current status and applications is provided, followed by a discussion of critical issues and challenges to be faced for further advancement of the technology; an emphasis is placed on quantitative and engineering aspects.

Notes: Abstract Robotic technology is enhancing surgery through improved precision, stability, and dexterity. In image-guided procedures, robots use magnetic resonance and computed tomography image data to guide instruments to the treatment site. This requires new algorithms and user interfaces for planning procedures; it also requires sensors for registering the patient's anatomy with the preoperative image data. Minimally invasive procedures use remotely controlled robots that allow the surgeon to work inside the patient's body without making large incisions. Specialized mechanical designs and sensing technologies are needed to maximize dexterity under these access constraints. Robots have applications in many surgical specialties. In neurosurgery, image-guided robots can biopsy brain lesions with minimal damage to adjacent tissue. In orthopedic surgery, robots are routinely used to shape the femur to precisely fit prosthetic hip joint replacements. Robotic systems are also under development for closed-chest heart bypass, for microsurgical procedures in ophthalmology, and for surgical training and simulation. Although results from initial clinical experience is positive, issues of clinician acceptance, high capital costs, performance validation, and safety remain to be addressed.

Notes: Abstract The continuing accrual of positive results in clinical cancer trials of adjunctive, synergistic hyperthermia therapy remains a strong motivation for the development of improved hyperthermia equipment and software. Indeed, the lack of needed engineering tools can be viewed as the major stumbling block to hyperthermia's effective clinical implementation. Developing clinically effective systems will be difficult, however, because (a) it requires solving several complex engineering problems, for which (b) setting appropriate design and evaluation goals is currently difficult owing to a lack of critical biological, physiological, and clinical knowledge, two tasks which must (c) be accomplished within a complicated social/political structure.

Notes: Therapies for myocardial infarction have historically been developed by trial and error, rather than from an understanding of the structure and function of the healing infarct. With exciting new bioengineering therapies for myocardial infarction on the horizon, we have reviewed the time course of structural and mechanical changes in the healing infarct in an attempt to identify key structural determinants of mechanics at several stages of healing. Based on temporal correlation, we hypothesize that normal passive material properties dominate the mechanics during acute ischemia, edema during the subsequent necrotic phase, large collagen fiber structure during the fibrotic phase, and cross-linking of collagen during the long-term remodeling phase. We hope these hypotheses will stimulate further research on infarct mechanics, particularly studies that integrate material testing, in vivo mechanics, and quantitative structural analysis.

Notes: Purpose - This article aims to show how communities with severe river flooding can develop sustainable flood plans that remediate environmental problems caused by previous river straightening and other structural flood controls. Design/methodology/approach - The article builds on a case study of the nationally recognized Napa River Flood Protection Project (USA), which incorporates an ecological living river strategy and builds on strong community participation to restore a river and its floodplain. After discussing the drawbacks of structural flood control measures, and especially of river straightening, reviews the contents of the Napa Flood Project and the public participation process necessary for its design, approval and implementation. Findings - The key lessons learned from Napa's flood project are that: undoing past structural works is difficult but feasible; ecological criteria can and should be used to design modern flood projects; involvement of a wide and diverse group of stakeholders is crucial to developing and implementing an environmentally sustainable flood management project; and the US Army Corps of Engineers can work with communities and depart from its typical, structural flood control approaches. Research limitations/implications - Information on straightened rivers is extremely limited. Furthermore, this study focuses on flood planning for US rivers, and may therefore be less useful elsewhere in the world where the frequency of river straightening may differ. Originality/value - This case study provides a critique on river straightening, which is a poorly documented but fairly frequent approach to flood control. This article helps to fill gaps in the knowledge of how communities can, and are, addressing environmental concerns associated with flood controls and river straightening.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to investigate the safety practices in some selected agro-allied industries in south-western Nigeria with a view to analysing the degree of safety awareness; adequacy of safety equipment; extent of enforcing safety rules; effectiveness of safety-related activities and economics of safety programme. Design/methodology/approach - A case study method of investigation, field study guidelines and binary variable were used and information gathered from 36 industries was documented. The data collected were analysed using mean, percentage and standard mathematical models. The analyses carried out on the data gathered are presented on the following: occurrence of accidents, causes of accidents, damages resulting from accidents, accident prevention activities and economic implications. Findings - Three classes of accidents are identified as fatal, serious, and minor. The results showed that minor accident has the highest frequency of occurrence of 304, while fatal accident has the least frequency of occurrence of 17. However, serious accident has the greatest economic implication, accounting for annual average loss of $4.97 millions. Also, nine causes of accidents are identified, out of which faulty equipment is common to all industries. And eight accident prevention activities are identified, amongst which standard operating procedure, good housekeeping and on-the-job training are commonly being practised, while provision of safety handbook and policy is least practised. Originality/value - This paper has described the safety practices in 15 agro-allied industries with an organised safety programme in South Western Nigeria. The study has investigated the extent of enforcement of safety rules; safety awareness; and economic implication of accidents from this sector for the national economy.

Notes: Purpose - The following conceptual exposition is presented in light of the growing number of scholars who indicate need for a comprehensive and coherent approach to disaster reduction, while practitioners seem to be continually faced with dynamic and seemingly contradictory goals and strategies. Design/methodology/approach - This article reviews arguments from an assorted collection of literature in order to increase theoretical understanding of disasters and attempts to integrate various concepts, paradigms and policy proposals. Findings - The discussion points out the strengths and weaknesses of alternative viewpoints about disasters, and suggests that a broad conceptualization of vulnerability may be best suited to assimilate findings for academia and simplify policy guidance for professionals in the field. Research limitations/implications - Because this is a cursory exploration of the casting of vulnerability management in terms of liability reduction and capacity building, additional research on the matter will undoubtedly be needed. Nonetheless, it is hoped that this article may pull together diverse academic frameworks, in order to avert recurring mistakes among those designing and implementing policy. Originality/value - By updating the author's prior work in this area with additional considerations regarding the natural hazards, civil defense, risk management and homeland security schools, this article may be useful for scholars and practitioners interested in reversing the trend of more frequent and intense disasters.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to review research findings on the effects of a variety of disasters, including the events of 9/11, on the general public and members of organizations. Design/methodology/approach - A literature search was undertaken. Three areas were targeted: impact on public attitudes and morale, on organizations and human resource management, and on organizational resilience. Findings - Four conclusions were drawn. First, disasters such as 9/11 have immediate negative effects on emotions and behaviors. Second, with the passage of time these effects dissipate for most people. Third, organizations directly affected by 9/11 immediately stopped functioning. Fourth, fortunately many of these firms bounced back surprisingly quickly. Research limitations/implications - Relatively little research has been conducted on the effects of 9/11, limiting our understanding of it. Practical implications - The people in these resilient firms, those more directly affected by the terrorist attacks, made the difference. Human resource management practices and cultural values already in place were the key factors in bringing about a speedy recovery. These factors can also be developed in other organizations as a precaution. Originality/value - This paper explores important yet still under-researched areas of management and organizational responses to terrorism.

Notes: Assumes acceptance of the argument that, as the world has become amere village owing to modern communications systems, trading patternsand the like, it is no longer possible for any individual, community orstate to seek to pull down the blinds and ignore what is happening inother parts of the world. This is not merely an ethical issue –although believes that the morality of caring is much in need of anuplift, both in British society and elsewhere - it is a pragmaticand political necessity. Confines discussion to looking at conflicts atthe levels where they involve communities or whole states, rather thanindividuals alone.

Notes: Based on the experience of five years of work in the midst of theongoing civil war in Afghanistan, outlines a number of ideas aboutinvolving communities in measures to provide emergency relief or supportrehabilitation, in order to encourage and assist an indigenous processof social and physical recovery.

Notes: Reports on research carried out under the aegis of the EuropeanCommunity as part of the Step Programme. Researchers from the followinguniversities contributed: Berlin (Germany), Grenoble (France), Lancaster(Great Britain), Liège (Belgium), and The Catholic University(Milan, Italy). Aims to evaluate public perception of individuals andorganizations as informers in situations where there is a high levelindustrial risk. Discusses the following: the clarity of communication,the degree of professionalism of the information sources, the extent towhich the message attributed to each of the important informers wascredible. Treats this as a comparative study under the terms of Article8 of the Seveso Directive which invites public authorities, as well asso-called "risk" industries, to keep the population informedof the potential dangers to which they are exposed as a result ofindustrial activity.

Notes: Examines the relationship between sources and functions of supportin the context of an evolving stressful event - the Gulf War. Datawere obtained through questionnaires filled out by 261 parents sampledthroughout comprehensive schools located in two different areas ofIsrael (damaged and undamaged by missile attacks). Respondents assessedthe extent of support received from a list of sources, designated threepreferred sources, and rated the amount of informational, instrumentaland/or emotional support provided by these referred sources, at threedifferent periods of the event: waiting, impact and recovery. Findingsindicate that different sources of support, fulfilling differentfunctions, were utilized over the course of the event, and that changesin sources and functions were related to the changing circumstances ofthe war. Gives empirical validation to the concept of matching theevolution of a stressful event to specific uses of social support.Considers implications for social work practice.

Notes: The terms "sheltering" and "housing" areused in a variety of unclear and inconsistent ways in the disasterliterature. Proposes a differentiation among emergency sheltering,temporary sheltering, temporary housing and permanent housing. Indicateshow they are paid differential attention in American disaster planningand gives specific observations about the four patterns, notingespecially how they differ from one another. Suggests there will be afuture increase in problems in all the patterns, and that it is not yetfully established to what extent these patterns are applicable in alltypes of societies.

Notes: Discusses the results of evaluations of flood forecasting, warningand response systems in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.Reveals that in England and Wales flood warning systems oftenunderperform. Despite technical sophistication and their elevation tohigh priority in central government's flood defence strategy,arrangements for flood warnings are now under considerable stressbecause of lack of agreement over organizational roles andresponsibilities. Legal ambiguities, funding difficulties andideological positions lie behind these problems. Flood warning systemsare developing in Scotland, and there is now a "fledgling"system in Northern Ireland, but both lag behind England and Wales.Examines implications for the future.

Notes: Evacuation is commonly used to mitigate the ill effects of avariety of disaster agents. It is important that authorities gain anaccurate understanding of the circumstances under which citizens willevacuate. Tests the efficacy of evacuation message clarity andfrequency, authority type, the accuracy of past warnings, and the impactof the presence of children in the home as viable variables in effectingan evacuation response. Finds the evacuation response was more likely tooccur if the potential victim was ordered to do so, if the potentialvictim was contacted frequently (more than once) by the proper authority(as perceived by the potential victim), if past warnings were perceivedas being accurate, and dependent children were in the home. Interviewsrespondents from 83 households in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, USA, after amajor fire emergency threatened residents of three neighbourhoodscontiguous to the site.

Notes: Addresses the issue of the structure and function of the communityemergency operations centre (EOC). There is some confusion among someemergency responders and particularly among public officials regardingthe role and function of the EOC. In part this emerges because many EOCsat different levels operate in conjunction with any given disaster. Itis argued that the community EOC is best seen as an over-archingorganization into which information from more specialized EOCs –such as those operated by fire and police departments - flows, andfrom which the overall response to the disaster is directed. There isalso a tendency to define the functions of the community EOC narrowly.Such definitions typically understate the importance of such activitiesas damage assessment and public information, and consequently leave theresponsibility for these and related critical functions somewhatambiguous. Seeks to achieve an explicit definition of the range andcontent of disaster responsibilities associated with the community EOCand thereby to clarify and contribute more to effective community-widedisaster response.

Notes: Describes the use of schema theory to conceptualize how disaster experience can undermine well-being and operational performance and discusses how this approach provides a basis for the development of preparatory strategies for promoting worker wellbeing and response effectiveness. Defines specific characteristics of the disaster experience - disaster stressors. Discusses their role in mediating disaster impact and their potential for facilitating the identification of high risk situations, training needs analysis and disaster simulation design. Also discusses selection, training and operational practices in relation to aspects of the disaster experience that elicit a positive and adaptive response.

Notes: Crises are hitting our industries with alarming regularity. Yet the word crisis is usually used with little thought to its meaning. Examines the various meanings which have been proposed by authors in the field of crisis management, and contends that for a situation to develop into a crisis three elements must be present: a triggering event causing significant change or having the potential to cause significant change; the perceived inability to cope with this change; and a threat to the existence of the foundation of the organization.

Notes: The recognition that disaster workers may be victimized as a consequence of fulfilling their disaster relief role has resulted in the development of several interventions to assist their recovery. Psychological debriefing is a prominent support resource. Uses recent concerns over the effectiveness of debriefing to frame a discussion of the nature of recovery and the longer-term determinants of its effectiveness. Focuses on the role of social, psychological, familial and organizational factors as determinants of the quality of recovery. Discusses the implications of these factors for the design and delivery of support resources for disaster workers.

Notes: The significance of operational human errors in shipping safety has widely been recognized. The accumulation of many shipboard operations on the bridge of the ship demands that a high level of efficiency must be ensured. Discusses the efficiency of the interface which depends on the success of incorporating the human factor in the engineering systems of ship control. At the time of diminishing crew quality, the bridge operator's confidence, competence and communication capability must be in co-ordination with the technology provided by these systems. Suggests that the areas of limitation in the bridge-operator interface must be identified and the course of action for optimizing this critical relationship for safety must be determined.

Notes: In the USA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides support to State and local governments in fulfilment of their responsibilities for preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation of disasters. One method FEMA has used to support State and local emergency communication functions was to sign and implement a Memorandum of Understanding with the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) for amateur radio operators to provide electronic communications for State and local governments in disasters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has licensed more than 600,000 amateur radio operators in the USA. The national organization of amateur radio operators called the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) was formed in 1914. More than 80,000 of these amateurs have registered their availability for emergency communications in disasters in the ARRL's Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES). Amateur radio operators have been providing communications in natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes and earthquakes since 1910. Since amateur radio operation was prohibited during the years of both World Wars I and II, FEMA has sponsored a new branch of the amateur service called Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES). RACES operators are authorized to operate if the President invokes his War Emergency Powers while all other amateur operation would be silenced. Examines the role of amateur radio in providing emergency electronic communications for disaster management and explores future contributions.

Notes: Discusses the background of the First Internet Disaster Conference. Debates the advantages and disadvantages of Internet conferencing, and covers the lessons learnt and experiences gained from this conference.

Notes: The date of 19 April 1995 will be remembered as a day on which a tragic event took place in Oklahoma. Argues that we need to go beyond a mere reading of the passionate convictions, the "rational" rhetoric and ideological arguments in trying to understand this act of terrorism and the aftermath reactions. In highly emotionally charged and anxiety-producing environments of social conflict, one can also expect to encounter a number of psychodynamic processes - such as projection, projective identification, splitting, idealization, stereotyping, narcissistic desire for the ego (group) ideal, denial and other defence mechanisms. Presents a representative text from the reporting of the Oklahoma bombing and its aftermath which is then read through the conceptual lenses of psychoanalytic theory. Highlights issues and behaviours that seem typically to arise in such disaster situations.

Notes: Describes a study of trends in the use of keywords (risk, hazard and crisis) in the media having accessed a large commercial on-line database for this purpose. Allowing for several assumptions, finds mainly rising trends in the usage of each of the keywords, and in the proportion of articles classified under related categories (insolvency, terrorism, environment/ecology, and air transport crash).

Notes: As the end of the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction approaches it is necessary to review what is known about global responses to catastrophes. Discusses four major weaknesses of the relief and mitigation community that are frequently identified in the disaster studies literature: the violation of human rights, a low degree of relief co-ordination, difficulties and drawbacks of providing aid, and dilemmas of development. Offers possible solutions for these challenges and also highlights the implications of the findings for research and application. Gives direction to both academics and practitioners who are interested in disaster relief and prevention around the world.

Notes: Proposes the establishment of a management information system (MIS) for the promotion of safety in shipping. Considers the information technology in shipping to be the combination of satellite systems and computers onboard and ashore. In this combination, which enables the provision of an optimum selection and management of data for automatic or human decision making, the role of satcoms is information transfer and that of computers is information processing. Acknowledges the importance of the human factor in shipping safety. Human decisions affecting shipping safety often depend on the quantity and quality of the available information. In the proposed MIS the need to improve the limited ability of humans to receive, store, process and interpret information, which is usually vast and complex, is acknowledged and fulfilled. Among the available maritime satcom systems and computer services, the proposal reveals those services which satisfy the criteria of useful, interactive, flexible, fast, reliable and low-cost transfer and management of information in support of safety-oriented decision making in shipping operations. The proposed MIS integrates the information resources of shipping office(s), the ship(s) and the maritime-related industry as a whole and provides the shipping company with the capability to document, monitor and control the safety-critical aspect of "technical reliability" towards promotion of safety in shipping and compliance with the International Safety Management Code.

Notes: Suggests that sources of data on human failure, particularly case studies of specific disasters, have not been able to offer a generalized theory. Suggests that this can best be effected at the level of middle range theory based on analysis of the comparative structure of a workplace organization. Offers an adaptation of an approach from anthropology and cultural theory, that supplies four distinct, exclusive and archetypal workplace structures. Each is associated with a distinct cluster of sustaining and justifying values and attitudes that are manifest as four associated patterns of behaviours. Particular attention is directed at the normal kinds of workplace deviance, including sabotage, shown to be typical of each of the four archetypes. Their incumbent attitudes to risk are delineated, as are their typical patterns of industrial relationships.

Notes: This paper reports on the findings of a survey of organisational responses to the 1995 eruptions at Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand. The survey identified co-ordination, communication, training and management issues that had implications for the quality and effectiveness of an integrated organisational response to hazard impacts. This paper explores the implications of organisational structure and social (professional) identity for developing and sustaining integrated emergency management capability. It also discusses the implications of decision-making processes and group dynamics for response effectiveness. These issues are used to illustrate the nature and origin of the problems observed in the survey and to define strategies for their resolution and for promoting effective inter-organisational relationships and integrated emergency management capability.

Notes: So much attention is devoted to the cost of industrial disasters in financial terms and to the technologies that fail at times, that it is possible to lose sight of the fact that disasters involve people, individually and in societal groups. Although awareness and concern about the human factor in industrial disaster has grown considerably over the last 15-20 years, many continue to see human error in a very narrow perspective. People, however, play a key role in causing disasters, must cope with them when they occur, and bear the consequences in their aftermath. Consideration of the human factor in industrial disaster has focused primarily on input in causing disasters. Two additional phases of human involvement in industrial disaster, their coping and their reaction to the outcome, must be included. At every stage of its occurrence, industrial disaster is truly about people and their behaviour.

Notes: Presents the status of public policy on protecting ports and ships and describes Greek law and practice regarding combating ship fires. Also "best practices" are identified with regard to preventing and suppressing fires on ships. Authors believe that a neglected topic is the protection of the port sea environment, a problem which made ESPO (European Sea Ports Organisation) create a code of practice for protecting the port environment and DG VII to implement it but are these sufficient for the protection of ports and ships?

Notes: This article presents the status of public policy on title's matters and makes recommendation thereto. Describes Greek law and practice combating ship fires. Also "best practices" are identified with regard to preventing and suppressing fires on ships. Ship fires are thought to be by the authors an important topic. The authors also believe that an equally important, but neglected topic, is the protection of the port sea environment. This problem made the ESPO (European Sea Ports Organisation) produce a code of practice for protecting port environments and DG VII to support that. But are these sufficient for the protection of ports and ships?

Notes: Increasingly, land is a scarce resource which is much sought after in Penang Island, Malaysia. This is because Penang is largely made up of steep topography and much of the lowland areas are already developed. Penang is one of the many rapidly industrialising states in Malaysia with a largely urban populace. In recent decades, efforts at industrialisation and the development of other economic sectors have been intensified, leading to greater urbanisation and greater pressures on land. Although land reclamation has eased the pressures somewhat, it is not enough to satisfy the high demand for land on the island. As such, developers have turned to the remaining hill land on the island. Many hills and their environs are already being developed and many hill projects are in the pipe line. This has led to many environmental problems such as deforestation, decimation of water catchments, destruction of endangered fauna and flora, soil erosion, landslides, water pollution, sedimentation and downstream flooding. Some of these problems have been exacerbated and turned into disasters due to the extremely fragile and sensitive nature of hill ecosystems. Despite such problems, the State Government has decided to lift the freeze on development of hill land since January 1998, and this has effectively opened up all hill land for development on the island. Therefore, hill land needs to be protected and conserved by other means and this study recommends the adoption of a policy of "No development in all ecologically and environmentally sensitive areas", the setting up of a Hill Land Technical Committee (HLTC) to manage all developments pertaining to hill land and to gazette all hill land in the State, and the use of state-of-the-art remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to monitor and control development activities on hill land in Penang.

Notes: In Britain in 1945, the politics of peace steered reconstructiontowards a static socio-economic base from which stemmed many laterplanning and social problems. Britain had emerged from six years of wareconomically weakened but with a clear social vision, an effectiveadministration and fully evolved plans for the transition from war topeace. The social vision including the ideal of full employment and theright to a local job and a local home. This placed the economy in aspatial stranglehold and denied it the flexibility needed to adapt tochanging global conditions. Draws on the British experience to suggestthat the understandable desire to replace in situ what has beendestroyed is doomed to fail and can prejudice the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs.

Notes: Owing to the nature of their funding, hardly any NGO projects inAfghanistan have been long term or geared to the future development ofthe country. "Donor fatigue" and the fact that much of theprevious aid was politically motivated, has led NGOs to begin toquestion the value of their existing work and to consider whether andhow they might do more to promote peace and longterm reconstruction anddevelopment. In an attempt to address some of the questions, theNorwegian Church Aid, the Norwegian Refugee Council and Oxfam jointlysupported the organization of a workshop aimed at exploring the role ofNGOs in peace building. Based on the findings of that workshop, as wellas on A. Strand's five years of field experience.

Notes: Presents the Mohonk Criteria for Humanitarian Assistance inComplex Emergencies, produced by the Task Force on Ethical and LegalIssues in Humanitarian Assistance, convened by the Program onHumanitarian Assistance at the World Conference on Religion and Peace,as guidelines for co-operative relationships between political,humanitarian and military actors in complex humanitarian emergenciescreated by armed conflict.

Notes: The Year 2000 (Y2K) problem threatens the effective functioning of all Information Technology-enabled organizations. This paper illustrates the Y2K preparedness at Firstlogic, a software company in Wisconsin, USA. At Firstlogic, products have been tested for Y2K compliance, solutions have been suggested for non-compliant systems, resources have been allocated to modify or replace affected systems, and relevant legal issues have been addressed to protect the company from Y2K-related lawsuits.

Notes: This paper examines the sources of stress likely to be encountered by emergency managers when responding to a disaster. Stressors relating to environmental (e.g. time pressure, level of risk, heat), organisational (e.g. bureaucracy, appropriateness of information, decision support and management systems) and operational (e.g. incident command, decision making, interagency liaison, team and media management) demands are considered. The mediating role of personality and transient states of physical (e.g. fitness and fatigue) and psychological (e.g. high levels of occupational stress) states are reviewed in terms of their influence on stress, judgement and decision making. Strategies for identifying which of these potential stress factors can be controlled or reduced and for training emergency managers to deal with the others are discussed.

Notes: Explains that while some non-governmental organization (NGO) managers report that international staff are more difficult to manage than national staff, others report the opposite. Such different perceptions stem from different expectations of staff from different cultures. Describes a study in which NGO managers working in field programmes were surveyed on their perceptions of the differences between national and international staff. International staff were regarded by respondents as being: more likely to act on their own initiative; less likely to need close supervision; and more demanding of themselves and of others. Those reporting that international staff were more difficult to manage were more likely to have more than five years' work experience in developing countries. This may be explained by managers adapting to the culture in which they work. Such a cultural adaptation on the part of managers may in turn explain why relief workers often report that they are dissatisfied with their managers.

Notes: For many years there has been increasing concern about the effects of human error in complex system safety and reliability. This concern has been increased owing to accidents such as Chernobyl, Bhopal, Herald of Free Enterprise, Three Mile Island and the Kegworth air disaster. In the vast majority of these accidents, human error has played a critical role in the events precipitating the accident. Such accidents can in theory be predicted and prevented by risk assessment, in particular assessing the human contribution to risk. However, the collection of human-error data has proved a difficult field for the past 30 years, and yet industry would benefit from the existence of a robust human-error database. Provides therefore a brief historical résumé of past human-error databases, and discusses data collection and the inherent problems associated with data-collection schemes. Goes on to outline a human-error database currently being developed at Birmingham University, and presents information on regularly quantified human-error types. Finally, gives a general synopsis of the research and provides a selection of real human-error data points.

Notes: Investigates the effects of earthquakes in the Victoria region of Australia. Looks at how they can be predicted by the use of seismology, and how this information can be used to protect buildings from major damage. Examines a system developed by the Seismology Research Centre, Bundoora, Australia, to provide alarm, damage scenario and response information after moderate or large earthquakes.

Notes: Malaysia is an ex-colonial, newly-industrialising country, with a sustained high economic growth rate averaging eight per cent GDP per annum over the past ten years. Within such a rapidly booming economy, the pace of social, economic and political change is fast, as is the pace of technological change. Other things being equal, these are the changes in which environmental hazards can be magnified. As a result of rapid economic development, physical systems are disturbed and changed. For example, the modification of the hydrological cycle due to deforestation, urbanisation, development of hill slopes and other human land use have given rise to increased risks of landslides. In recent years, the collapse of a block of luxury condominiums in Kuala Lumpur, the Genting Highland and Pos Dipang landslide tragedies as well as other landslide disasters have caused substantial loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. Combined with intensive development of hill slopes and hill land for housing, recreation, tourism, agriculture, highway and dam construction, and other human induced land use changes, the exposure and vulnerability of human populations to landslide hazards have also increased. Other reasons, largely structural, such as persistent poverty, low residential and occupational mobility, and landlessness, manifested in illegal squatting and farming on hill slopes and foothills have also contributed to increased vulnerability of large communities to landslide hazards in many parts of the country. As Malaysia pushes ahead to meet its target of becoming a fully industrialised country by the year 2020, further environmental degradation is expected to occur. Notwithstanding other aspects of environmental degradation, the occurrence of landslide hazards is expected to become a common feature of Malaysian life.

Notes: This paper describes the phenomenon of tsunamis within the European Seas and explains how tsunami research has developed during the last 40 years as a response to a large tsunami which occurred in the Aegean Sea region of Greece in 1956. The paper states that specific tsunami hazard maps have been established for particular coastal areas of Greece and that these maps and any associated disaster management plans have been developed as a tool to mitigate the effects of future tsunamis in the region. The author provides the results of new investigations of the effects of a past tsunami in Greece and shows that the magnitude of this event has been overestimated. The results imply that revisions of the urban hazard maps and associated disaster preparedness plans should be considered.

Notes: The emergence of biological weapons of mass destruction as likely terrorist means of reigning terror on domestic urban populations is outlined. The dimensions of such a possible future catastrophe are described. The lack of preparedness to mitigate and respond to such an event is noted and it is argued that the disaster research literature should be consulted as a guide to help develop effective mitigation and response plans.

Notes: As information systems (IS) become indispensable, EDP disaster recovery has to become an essential IS function. In this paper, after discussing the criticality of sound planning for information systems disaster recovery in banks, the approach to contingency planning adopted by Banca Commerciale Italiana, one of the largest banks of Italy, is presented. The most crucial point of the whole decision-making process was the selection of the most reliable layout configuration. Hence, the steps and the simulation methodology followed to such a purpose are illustrated. Finally the benefits and pitfalls of the solution adopted in Banca Commerciale Italiana are discussed.

Notes: Purpose - Proposes to analyze known case studies of information systems failure. Design/methodology/approach - Uses the organizational failure diagnosis model. Findings - Finds that there is the need to assess the organization's "health" prior to information systems development and to raise the organization's actual capacity for systems development to the necessary levels for success. Originality/value - Previous studying of these cases has underplayed the role of technical problems as the surface manifestations of deeper-rooted organizational pathologies causing the failure. The usefulness of the organizational failure diagnosis model is shown in recognizing these deeper-rooted issues and a number of suggestions are made for the prevention of failure.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to review the changes made to civil protection in the UK, both legislative and capacity building, that aim to make the UK more resilient. Design/methodology/approach - Reviews the background to changes in UK civil protection and compares these with the work being done by the broader disaster management community on the meaning and development of resilience to a range of threats. Findings - Finds that the UK approach has been deflected by the terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 and is clearly focused on organisational resilience. This top-down approach does not augur well in terms of promoting a more resilient society. The paper also questions if it is time to take a broader view of what constitutes an emergency. Originality/value - The recent changes in UK civil protection are in many ways welcome. But the promotion of more resilient communities requires a bottom-up as opposed to a top-down approach. Government funding is aimed mainly at institutional resilience. This raises the question of how to promote a broader agenda of more resilient societies able to respond to a broad range of threats.

Notes: Purpose - It is observed that the slow onslaught disasters do not normally catch media attention as these often do not result in human casualties. Inadequate media attention results in insufficient rehabilitation support for the victims. The paper aims at highlighting the problem of ground subsidence in the Himalayan terrain together with the hardships of the victims. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is based on the detailed field investigations carried out by the author in the remote Himalayan habitations of Garbyang in Dharchula block of Pithoragarh, Talla Dhumar and Umli-Bhandarigaon in Munsyari block of Pithoragarh and Bagi in Uttarkashi district in the state of Uttaranchal in India. All these habitations are being affected by ground subsidence and the inhabitants of these villages are facing severe resource crisis. Findings - Garbyang village in Central Himalaya is observed to be situated over the varve deposits laid down in the proglacial lake abutting against Chialekh ridge and is witnessing the problem of ground subsidence resulting in the destruction of the once thriving and prosperous habitation. The studies relate the subsidence at Garbyang with the seismicity in the region as also the subsequent toe erosion and downslope mass movement. The other sites discussed in the paper are witnessing the problem of ground subsidence due to the active toe erosion by rivers and streams. Research limitations/implications - There exist no records of the exact date of initiation of the ground subsidence in the investigated areas and these are grossly based on the information provided by the village elders. Originality/value - The article would help in making the disaster managers responsive to the problems the masses are facing due to ground subsidence in this fragile zone and this would result in mustering resources for reducing the hardships of the masses.

Notes: Purpose - To highlight the failure of the tsunami early warning system and the challenges of successfully responding to, and managing a transnational catastrophe of this nature. The paper also highlights unique challenges in the management of this catastrophe and suggests potential strategies for good disaster response and management in this response and beyond. Design/methodology/approach - Primary data collection was by telephone interviews with experts in the South and South-East Asian region, supplemented by a comprehensive literature review of scholarly journals, reports from relief agencies and United Nations situation reports and bulletins amongst others. The scope of the paper is limited to the issue of a warning not been passed onto appropriate authorities in the region, the unique challenges of the relief response and the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the affected communities. Findings - From the study, there is a need for further investigation into the catastrophic warning failure; as reasons proffered by the early warning officials for their inability to pass on a warning to authorities in the affected area appear weak at this stage. The study also found unique geographical, political, economic and social challenges facing the international relief and reconstruction effort. Specifically some of the challenges include the management of the media and information, logistics and coordination, needs and damage assessment, donations and safety and security issues amongst others. In summary, the author found that there is also a need for foreign assistance agencies to be seen to be fair, to build trust and ownership of relief and reconstruction efforts amongst the local populace, as well as use local people as much as possible. Research limitations/implications - The study was conducted only 21 days (three weeks) after the tsunami catastrophe of 26 December 2004, hence it is a snapshot of events in the days immediately after the catastrophe. The relief action is an on-going event and there may be changes as new information emerges from the field. Practical implications - A world wide network of integrated submarine earthquake and tsunami monitoring and early warning system should be set up. Critical warning information in any potential disaster should be shared as inclusively as possible. Relief workers must be seen to be politically and religiously neutral, especially in the civil conflicts of Banda Aceh Indonesia. Finally relief and aid should be given on the basis of sound humanitarian principles such as need, not just on wider economic criteria. Originality/value - The study highlights specific potential challenges which relief organisations must deal with in responding effectively to the disaster, and in assisting to reconstruct the region. The paper proffers specific strategies for effective management of the international assistance effort. Finally, the study adds to the literature on developing countries and is valuable for governments, emergency and relief workers, policy makers in both developed and developing countries.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to initiate a conversation within the disaster community about the applicability of "critical reflection" to the professional work of firefighters. "Critical reflection" is a term commonly used within the nursing and teaching professions. Although it has contested meanings, it generally conveys the sense of purposeful enquiry about one's professional conduct, ethics and decision making. Fire fighting labor is no longer blue collar, and firefighters in western fire fighting agencies require increasingly complex capabilities and accountabilities. Could "critical reflection" be added to post-incident debrief as a core professional capability? Design/methodology/approach - The paper draws on the concept of "critical reflection" as it has been developed within the professional fields of nursing and teaching. It then considers the applicability of and importance of this concept to the professional field of firefighting. Findings - The meanings and applications of "critical reflection" vary, but the inclusion of dialogue about it exists within many nurse and teacher education courses. It can be argued to provide professionals with an opportunity to engage in dialogue about their labor, and thereby scrutinise their professional conduct and the ethical dilemmas of their work. Practical implications - This paper calls for a paradigmatic shift in the approach taken by educators who work with firefighters. It argues that instructional methods based on rote learning, chalk and talk, and show and tell training are insufficient as a means of developing firefighters capable of responding and adapting to the complex demands implicit within increasingly professionalized firefighting labor. Future firefighters will need to be adaptive, reflective and accountable; able to demonstrate discursive and inquisitive capabilities; and engage in reflected actions both on and off the incident ground. Originality/value - High originality. This is the first time the intellectual traditions and debates implicit within "critical reflection" have been linked to the work of firefighters.

Notes: Purpose - Given the widespread lack of homogeneity, consistency and quality control in emergency planning, this paper sets out to offer some suggestions, guidelines and models for the processes of drawing up, testing, revising and utilising an emergency plan. Design/methodology/approach - The paper considers some definitions of the term "standard" and discussing the utility of the concept with respect to emergency planning. The subsequent analysis is based on the application of logical and observational criteria to the process of systematically building a framework on which to base a planning standard. Findings - The paper enumerates 18 principles that can be used to judge the quality of emergency plans. The principles are treated as basic criteria to be used when formulating a standard. Next, the paper reviews existing standards in civil protection, risk management, emergency preparedness and humanitarian relief. After a brief discussion of the consultative process used in preparing an instrument for measuring quality, the paper presents a draft standard for an emergency plan. This is broadly focused on the local authority level and on the generic, "all-hazards" approach. Finally, the paper describes a category-based methodology for applying the standard. Research limitations/implications - Standards may be viewed as unnecessarily restrictive and overly prescriptive. However, they can instead be regarded as a useful means of helping to guarantee the quality, content and relevance of plans. Practical implications - The application of a standard to the emergency planning process will help to make plans more functional and relevant and will ensure that their content is adequate for the task of predisposing resources during emergencies. It will also guarantee compatibility between plans made for different purposes or jurisdictions. Originality/value - As few model standards exist in emergency management and planning, this paper offers one of the first attempts to provide a set of generic, comprehensive guidelines for the process of creating, testing, using and revising plans.

Notes: Purpose - To develop a decision model supporting employee involvement in industrial vulnerability reduction. Design/methodology/approach - A synthesis review of some of the relevant extant literature on technological/industrial vulnerability, and their application within a normative decision-making model (i.e. the "Vroom-Yetton model"). Findings - The insights on vulnerability drawn from the literature are highly amenable to a systematic decision-making model for employee involvement. Various aspects of vulnerability, specifically with regard to substantial, social and temporal dimensions may be included in such a model. Research limitations/implications - New insights about the context-dependent aspects of vulnerability are offered by considering these within a contingency decision model. This suggests that vulnerability categories are not absolute, but have to be assessed in relation to a specific decision-making framework. Practical implications - The developed model provides a way of weighting various dimensions of vulnerability and making more appropriate decisions regarding leadership style in a range of circumstances. Originality/value - While decision models exist for assessing risk in organizations, no contingency model for employee involvement in vulnerability assessment has been presented to date.

Notes: Purpose - Over the past 50 years India has been experiencing rapid population growth, causing the migration of a large part of the population to the cities looking for livelihood. This resulted in massive increments of population in the cities that has led to the increase of pollution. Gujarat, being a highly industrialized state, is a case in point. The systems for treatment and water disposal of this state are highly challenged. The north-western state of Gujarat has no effective systems for treatment or disposal of waste water. The purpose of this article is to address this problem, introducing a geographic information system (GIS) approach to record the characterization, analyze the needs and generate a conceptual GIS database in the state. Design/methodology/approach - This paper outlines the background, suggested methodology for the development of a GIS database pollution dependent control of water pollution in the state of Gujarat in India. The present research is to install a document management system that has been developed in providing organizing chart, sorting, querying and retrieving of key data. A computerized laboratory information system on monitoring of quality of ambient air has been developed. Findings - An integrated GIS database has been generated involving creation of pollutant contours, querying and visualizing the query output in spatial and non-spatial form. Originality/value - The authors have created a complete geo-spatial database for the environmental monitoring for the whole state of Gujarat. They have dealt with nearly 36,000 different files from different sources and put them together to create the database. A computerized laboratory information system on monitoring of quality of ambient air has been developed. Front-end application programs have been developed in Visual Basic and the back-end database to integrate the laboratory data and the existing data in oracle database.

Notes: Purpose - Many villages in the vicinity of the hill township of Mussorie in the Indian Himalayas are witnessing signs of an impending disaster. These villages are witnessing active wastage that might take an heavy toll of human interest during the monsoon season and therefore the paper proposes examining this subject. Design/methodology/approach - A detailed study was undertaken in the area of Mussorie. Findings - It is suggested that a series of prevention and mitigation measures (both structural and non-structural) with the involvement of the local community are required for ruling out the possibility of any mishap in the area. Originality/value - This paper highlights the importance of having a disaster management strategies for the region and involving the community with these.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to present a new approach in viewing the control of safety at crude oil exploration platforms. Design/methodology/approach - The approach utilized in this work is the fusion of artificial neural network and fuzzy logic. The approach is adopted in view of the better presentation of solutions to the safety control problem that neuro-fuzzy exhibits. It is better than the individual application of either artificial neural network or fuzz logic to the problem at hand. The model captures uncertainties and imprecision that are prevalent in the quantification or data gathering stage of safety control measurement. Findings - It was demonstrated that the application of neuro-fuzzy is feasible. The results seem applicable to similar settings with similar system characteristics. Practical implications - Since more confidence is obtained with the use of this more effective tool, there is improvement in decision making based on reliance on the model. Thus, the improved quality of decision made would positively affect lives of workers at the oil platforms or the materials or equipment used for exploration purposes. Originality/value - The work is original in that it is the first time the neuro-fuzzy methodology would be applied to offshore oil platform safety control.

Notes: Purpose - To follow the modern movement of using "positive feedback" to explain companies' behaviour with special focus on historical accidents. Design/methodology/approach - To contribute to the emergence of new complexity theory as applied to management and prove that historical accidents matter, combining and bringing together literature sources. Findings - The concept of unique equilibrium has been seriously disputed - the selection process is shown, as is the path dependent process using probability theory. Practical implications - A location theory as case study is outlined - great for those fond of unique equilibrium. Originality/value - To show another theory, which is dynamic, non-linear, and complex as reality; to apply it to management underlying at the same time the role of historical accidents (random process).