ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: This volume introduces the principles and procedures involved in the description and analysis of fracture surface topographies. It contains a wide range of case studies from core and field samples, as well as from experimentally produced fractures, which illustrate the application of fractography to fracture studies. Fractography is a powerful tool that has been largely neglected by those who deal with fracture characterization. A greater understanding of the subject is essential to the development of oil and gas fields, particularly deep and marginal fields. In addition, incorporating fractographic data into models of rock masses, such as the permeability of hydrocarbon reservoirs and the stability of tunnels or underground nuclear waste repositories, will undoubtedly enhance their feasibility. The book also presents new methods of quantitative measurement of fracture topography, and outlines areas needing further research and development. The volume will be of interest to a broad range of researchers and professionals in fracture mechanics, as well as structural, engineering and petroleum geology, material sciences and mining engineering.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: A framework of microtectonic studies.- Flow and deformation. - Deformation mechanisms. - Foliations, lineations and lattice preferred orientation. - Shear zones. - Dilatation sites - veins, strain shadows, fringes and boudins. - Porphyroblasts and reaction rims. - Primary structures. - Natural microgauges. - Special techniques. - Experimental modelling techniques. - From sample to section.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Carbon, the Earth and life. Chemical composition of biogenic matter. Production, preservation and degradation of organic matter. Long-term fate of organic matter in the geosphere. Chemical stratigraphy. The carbon cycle and climate. Anthropogenic carbon and the environment.

Description / Table of Contents: Understanding tensile fracture in rocks provides an important key for the interpretation of many problems in structural geology. This book presents a multidisciplinary approach to tensile fracture in rocks (faulting is briefly addressed), starting with an introduction to fracture physics and progressing through tectonofractographic features, characterized both in experimental settings and in geological outcrops. Four examples of sedimentary rocks and two of granites have been chosen to demonstrate the principles and problems in fracture geology. Principles of fracture mechanics and rock mechanics are applied throughout the book, which also explores current understanding about electromagnetic radiation induced by fractures and how such radiation can be used to monitor and predict earthquakes and hazardous collapses in mines.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: The Earth's Aggregate Physical and Chemical State. Introduction to Thermodynamics. Mixture and Simple Phase Relations. Mineral Chemistry. Aqueous Solutions. Chemistry of Natural Waters. Chemistry of Igneous Rocks. Chemical Controls on Soil Formation, Diagenesis, Metamorphism, and Hydrothermal Ore Deposition . Radioactive Isotope Geochemistry. Stable Isotope Geochemistry. Surface Sorption Geochemistry. Chemical Kinetics. Oxidation and Reduction. Organic Geochemistry. Atmospheric Chemistry

Description / Table of Contents: Salt produces some of the most complex and beautiful deformation features on the Earth's surface, although few of these surface exposures have been examined in detail, as they are usually situated in remote hostile regions. However, salt diapirs have become a recent focus of attention because of their strategic importance in controlling hydrocarbon reserves, while their unique physical properties enable storage of hydrocarbons and toxic waste. The volume commences with analyses of outcrop, cave, mine and borehole information which add to our general understanding of internal diapir deformation patterns and overburden tectonics. Seismic imaging has also increased our knowledge of halokinesis, and several papers are presented on regional case studies. Numerical and physical modelling have provided a broader knowledge of geometry and processes. Such studies have led to new insights into what is physically possible. This volume draws on all these different approaches and should be a useful source of reference for both academic and industrial geologists.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: The Focused Ion Beam Instrument. Ion,Solid Interactions. Focused Ion Beam Gases for Deposition and Enhanced Etch. Three-Dimensional Nanofabrication Using Focused Ion Beams. Device Edits and Modifications. The Uses of Dual Beam FIB in Microelectronic Failure Analysis. High Resolution Live Imaging of FIB Milling Processes for Optimum Accuracy. FIB for Materials Science Applications. Practical Aspects of FIB TEM Specimen Preparation. FIB LiftOut Specimen Preparation Techniques. A FIB MicroSampling Technique and a Site Specific TEM Specimen Preparation Method. DualBeam (FIBSEM) Systems. Focused Ion Beam Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (FIBSIMS). Quantitative Three Dimensional Analysis Using Focused Ion Beam Microscopy. Applications of FIB in Combination with Auger Electron Spectroscopy.

Description / Table of Contents: Motivations and Opportunities. - Structural Mapping Techniques and Tools. - Characterizing Structures Using Differential Geometry. - Physical Quantities, Fields, Dimensions, and Scaling. - Deformation and Flow. - Force, Traction, and Stress. - Conservation of Mass and Momentum. - Elastic Deformation. - Brittle Behavior. - Viscous Flow. - Rheological Behavior. - Model Development and Methodology.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Terrestrial craters: Structure, geophysics and cratering motions. - Terrestrial craters: Ejecta studies. - Shock metamorphism. - The planetary perspective.

Description / Table of Contents: Hydrothermal venting at mid-ocean ridges has become one of the fastest-growing areas of interest in the marine geosciences since their discovery at the beginning of the 1980s. Marine geologists, geochemists and biologists are beginning to unravel the processes that generate and focus these high-temperature, chemically charged fluid exhalations, and those that control the colonization and ecology of the bizarre gamut of fauna and flora resident at these sites. Researchers, on the edge of understanding how volcanic and tectonic processes interact to control fluid flow, can show how they can predict the likely occurrence of hydrothermal systems throughout the world ridge system, and how the biomass has flourished in such inhospitable settings. Indeed, the very isolation of the communities has led workers to suggest that their restricted evolutionary path has direct significance for studies of the early origins of life itself. Hydrothermal processes are four-dimensional in their character, on a range of time-scales, which are of the order of thousands of years in terms of the of the lifetime of the hydrothermal sites, down to days in terms of the dispersal of plume products in the water column. The papers in this volume represent the latest reviews and reports of the state-of-the-art understanding of an area of marine science that we are only just beginning to recognize the scope and impact of.

Description / Table of Contents: The role and importance of structural geology in exploration and production of hydrocarbons is increasing with the tendency towards the development of smaller, more complex structural prospects and satellite fields. The availability of high-powered computer hardware and sophisticated software has facilitated a quantum leap in the accessibility of structural restoration, modelling and visualization techniques and made the rapid and accurate manipulation of large data sets possible. Many papers in this volume fully reflect use of this latest technology and demonstrate a broad range of capabilities. The book provides anyone wishing to undertake structural interpretation in complex areas with a comprehensive review of the latest techniques available. ... I certainly learned a great deal reading through it. Structural geologists working in or with industry will want a copy for their bookshelves. Basin Research, 9, 88-89. The volume is an excellent mixture of review and research papers that underscore the importance of multidisciplinary approaches to improve interpretations of complex structures. There is a good trade off between academic research and industrial applications, and I recommend this book as a library reference. AAPG Bulletin November 1997. ... I am certain that this Special Publication will be regarded as a valuable source of techniques for structural interpretation and validation of fault geometries. I can certainly recommend this volume as an essential, and indeed, a worthwhile purchase, for academic and industry structural geologists alike. Geological Magazine.

Description / Table of Contents: Permo-Triassic rifting in Northwest Europe was part of the tectonism which caused Pangaea to disintegrate virtually as soon as it had formed. This rifting, together with associated events elsewhere in Europe, controlled much of the predominantly terrestrial sedimentation which occurred as the continent moved from the equatorial rainbelt in Carboniferous times, through the trade wind desert zone in the Permian to somewhat less arid conditions in the Triassic. To what extent Permo-Triassic rifting influenced sedimentation in the petroleum provinces of the Central and Viking Grabens of the North Sea is still debated. Elsewhere on and around the present-day continental shelf of Northwest Europe the influence of the rifting on Permo-Triassic sedimentation is becoming clearer. The twelve chapters of this volume introduce and discuss the emerging evidence for the differing styles of Permo-Triassic rifting around Northwest Europe. A number go on to discuss how this rifting influenced sedimentation and how it related to igneous activity in some areas.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Introduction to the topic of thrustbelts; Mechanics of thrust wedges; Mechanics of thrust sheets; Thin-skin thrustbelt structures; Thick-skin thrustbelt structures; Determination of timing of thrusting and deformation rates; Role of mechanical stratigraphy on evolving architectural elements and structural style; Role of pre-contractional tectonics and anisotropy on evolving structural style; Role of syn-orogenic erosion and deposition on evolving structural style; Fluid flow in thrustbelts during and after deformation; Role of pre-orogenic heat flow on subsequent thermal regimes; Role of structural and stratigraphic architecture on thermal regimes; Role of syn-orogenic burial and/or uplift and erosion on thermal regimes; Role of deformation on thermal regimes; Role of fluid movement on thermal regimes; Hydrocarbons in thrustbelts: global view; Source rocks in thrustbelt settings; Maturation and migration in thrustbelts; Seals and traps in thrustbelts; Reservoir destruction or enhancement due to thrusting; Remaining petroleum potential of thrustbelts.

Description / Table of Contents: This collection of research and review papers addresses the question of structural evolution during deformation to high strains and the physical properties of rocks that have been affected by high-strain zones. The discussions range from natural examples at outcrop to microscopic studies. They include experiments and numerical models based on the active processes in high-strain zones as well as studies on the physical properties of highly strained rocks in the field and laboratory. Specific questions addressed include magnetotelluric imaging of faults, magnetic fabrics, fabric development, seismic properties of highly strained rocks, change of rheology with strain, influence of melt on the localization of deformation, the relationship between deformation and metamorphism as well as new methods in the analysis of deformation.

Description / Table of Contents: As geomicrobiologists, we seek to understand how some of nature's most complex systems work, yet the very complexity we seek to understand has placed many of the insights out of reach. Recent advances in cultivation methodologies, the development of ultrahigh throughput DNA sequencing capabilities, and new methods to assay gene expression and protein function open the way for rapid progress. In the eight years since the first Geomicrobiology volume (Geomicrobiology: Interactions between microbes and minerals; volume 35 in this series) we have transformed into scientists working hand in hand with biochemists, molecular biologists, genome scientists, analytical chemists, and even physicists to reveal the most fundamental molecular-scale underpinnings of biogeochemical systems. Through synthesis achieved by integration of diverse perspectives, skills, and interests, we have begun to learn how organisms mediate chemical transformations, the ways in which the environment determines the architecture of microbial communities, and the interplay between evolution and selection that shapes the biodiversity of the planet. This volume presents chapters written by leaders in the rapidly maturing field we refer to as molecular geomicrobiology. Most of them are relatively young researchers who share their approaches and insights and provide pointers to exciting areas ripe for new advances. This volume ties together themes common to environmental microbiology, earth science, and astrobiology. The resesarch presented here, the associated short course, and the volume production were supported by funding from many sources, notably the Mineralogical Society of America, the Geochemical Society, the US Department of Energy Chemical Sciences Program and the NASA Astrobiology Institute.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Kontraktionstheorie, Kontinentverschiebung und Plattentektonik, 2. Plattenbewegungen und ihre geometrischen Beziehungen, 3. Kontinentale Grabenbrüche, 4. Passive Kontinentränder und Tiefseebecken, 5. Mittelozeanische Rücken, 6. Heiße Flecken, 7. Subduktionszonen, Inselbögen und Aktive Kontinentränder, 8. Transformstörungen, 9. Terrane, 10. Plattentektonik im frühen Präkambrium, 11. Plattentektonik und Gebirgsbildung, 12. Alte Gebirge, 13. Junge Gebirge - Alpen und Himalaja.

Description / Table of Contents: Over 25 years ago, Volume 9 of Reviews in Mineralogy: Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyriboles seemed to contain all that was possible to know about this group of fascinating minerals. The subsequent twenty-five years have shown that this assessment was wrong: Nature was keeping a lot in reserve, and has since revealed considerable new complexity in the constitution and behavior of amphiboles. Some of the advances in knowledge have been due to the use of new experimental techniques, some have been due to the investigation of hitherto neglected rock-types, and some have been due to the development of new ideas. The identification and systematic investigation of variable LLE (Light Lithophile Elements), particularly Li and H, led to the identification of several new amphibole species and the recognition that variable Li and H play an important role in chemical variations in amphiboles from both igneous and metamorphic parageneses. In turn, this work drove the development of microbeam SIMS to analyze LLE in amphiboles. Detailed mineralogical work on metasyenites showed hitherto unexpected solid-solution between Na and Li at the M(4) site in monoclinic amphiboles, a discovery that has upset the current scheme of amphibole classification and nomenclature and initiated new efforts in this direction. Systematic and well-planned synthesis of amphiboles, combined with careful spectroscopy, has greatly furthered our understanding of cation and anion order in amphiboles. The use of bond-valence theory to predict patterns of SRO (Short-Range Order) in amphiboles, and use of these predictions to understand the infrared spectra of well-characterized synthetic-amphibole solid-solutions, has shown that SRO is a major feature of the amphibole structure, and has resulted in major advances in our understanding of SRO in minerals. There has been significant progress relating changes in amphibole composition and cation ordering to petrogenetic conditions and trace-element behavior. Work on the nature of fibrous amphiboles and their toxicity and persistence in living organisms has emphasized the importance of accurate mineralogical characterization in environmental and health-related problems. The current volume has taken a different approach from previous volumes concerned with major groups of rock-forming minerals. Some of the contents have previously been organized by the investigative technique or groups of similar techniques: crystal-structure refinement, spectroscopy, TEM etc. Here, we have taken an approach that focuses on aspects of amphiboles rather than experimental techniques: crystal chemistry, new compositions, long-range order, short-range order etc., and all experimental results germane to these topics are discussed in each chapter. The intent of this approach is to focus on amphiboles, and to emphasize that many techniques are necessary to fully understand each aspect of the amphiboles and their behavior in both natural and industrial processes.

Description / Table of Contents: The idea for this book was conceived in early June, 2005 at a paleoaltimetry workshop held at Lehigh University, Lehigh, Pennsyalvania and organized by Dork Sahagian. The workshop was funded by the tectonics program at NSF, and was designed to bring together researchers in paleoaltimetry to discuss different techniques and focus the community on ways of improving paleoelevation estimates and consequent interpretations of geodynamics and tectonics. At this meeting, some commented that a comprehensive volume describing the different methods could help advance the field. I offered to contact the Mineralogical Society of America and the Geochemical Society about publishing a RiMG volume on paleoaltimetry. Because many of the techniques used to infer paleoelevations are geochemically-based or deal with thermodynamic principles, the GS and MSA agreed to the project. Two years and roughly 1000 e-mails later, our book has arrived. The book is organized into 4 sections: Geodynamic and geomorphologic rationale (Clark). This chapter provides the broad rationale behind paleoaltimetry, i.e., why we study it. Stable isotope proxies. These 4 chapters cover theory of stable isotopes in precipitation and their response to altitudinal gradients (Rowley), and stable isotopes sytematics in paleosols (Quade, Garzione and Eiler), silicates (Mulch and Chamberlain) and fossils (Kohn and Dettman). Proxies of atmospheric properties. These 4 chapters cover temperature lapse rates (Meyer), entropy (Forest), and atmospheric pressure proxies, including total atmospheric pressure from gas bubbles in basalt (Sahagian and Proussevitch), and the partial pressure of CO2 (Kouwenberg, Kürshner, and McElwain). Note that clumped isotope thermometry (Quade, Garzione and Eiler) also provides direct estimates of temperature. Radiogenic and cosmogenic nuclides. These 2 chapters cover low-temperature thermochronologic approaches (Reiners) and cosmogenic isotopes (Riihimaki and Libarkin). Some chapters overlap in general content (e.g., basic principles of stable isotopes in precipitation are covered to different degrees in all stable isotope chapters), but no attempt was made to limit authors' discussion of principles, or somehow attempt to arrive at a "consensus view" on any specific topic. Because science advances by critical discussion of concepts, such restrictions were viewed as counterproductive. This does mean that different chapters may present different views on reliability of paleoelevation estimates, and readers are advised to read other chapters in the book on related topics – they may be more closely linked than they might at first appear! I hope readers of this book will discover and appreciate the synergy among paleoaltimetry, climate change, and tectonic geomorphology. These interrelationships create a complex, yet rich field of scientific enquiry that in turn offers insights into climate and geodynamics.

Description / Table of Contents: In situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides can provide chronologies of environmental change over the past few thousand to several millions of years and may be used to quantify a wide range of weathering and sediment transport processes. These nuclides are thus now used across a broad spectrum of earth science disciplines, including paleoclimatology, geomorphology, and active tectonics. This book is organized around sections that focus on specific aspects of the utilization of cosmogenic nuclides in earth sciences: (1) development of new methods for application of in situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides (burial dating methods, extending their utilization to carbonate-rich and mafic environments); (2) glacial geology (Laurentide Ice Sheet, northern Alps); (3) active tectonics, focusing on applications to constrain slip rates of active faults in Asia (Tibet and Mongolian Gobi-Altay); and (4) landscape development (quantifying sediment production or erosion rates and processes and application of exposure dating to landslides in Hong Kong).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1. Isotopes and radioactivity; 2. The principles o radioactive dating; 3. Radiometric dating methods; 4. Dating by cosmogenic isotopes; 5. Uncertainties and results of radiometric dating; 6. Radiogenic isotope geochemistry; 7. Stable isotope geochemistry; 8. Isotope geology and dynamic reservoir analysis

Description / Table of Contents: The Eastern Mediterranean region is a classic area for the study of tectonic processes and settings related to the development of the Tethyan orogenic belt. The present set of research and synthesis papers by Earth scientists from countries in this region and others provides an up-to-date, interdisciplinary overview of the tectonic development of the Eastern Mediterranean region from Precambrian to Recent. Key topics include continental rifting, ophiolite genesis and emplacement, continental collision, extensional tectonics, crustal exhumation and intra-plate deformation (e.g. active faulting). Alternative tectonic reconstructions of the Tethyan orogen are presented and discussed, with important implications for other regions of the world. The book will be an essential source of information and interpretation for academic researchers (geologists and geophysicists), advanced undergraduates and also for industry professionals, including those concerned with hydrocarbons, minerals and geological hazards (e.g. earthquakes).

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Fluid Dynamics of Mantle Plumes.- Tracing the Hawaiian Mantle Plume by Converted Seismic Waves.- Iceland: The Current Picture of a Ridge-Centred Plume.- Combined Gas-geochemical and Receiver Function Studies on the Vogtland/NW Bohemia Intraplate Mantle Degassing Field, Central Europe.- Crustal and Upper Mantle Structure of the French Massif Central Plume.- Geodynamic Setting of the Tertiary Hocheifel Volcanism (Germany), Part I: 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology.- Geodynamic Setting of the Tertiary Hocheifel Volcanism (Germany), Part II: Geochemistry and Sr, Nd and Pb Isotopic Compositions.- The Quaternary Volcanic Fields of the East and West Eifel (Germany).- Thermal and Geochemical Evolution of the Shallow Subcontinental Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Eifel: Constraints from Mantle Xenoliths, a Review.- He-Ne-Ar Isotope Systematics of Eifel and Pannonian Basin Mantle Xenoliths Trace Deep Mantle Plume-Lithosphere Interaction Beneath the European Continent.- Quaternary Uplift in the Eifel Area.- The Seismic Signature of the Eifel Plume.- Upper Mantle Structure Beneath the Eifel from Receiver Functions.- Rayleigh Wave Dispersion in the Eifel Region.- Seismic Anisotropy in the Asthenosphere Beneath the Eifel Region, Western Germany.- Gravity Observations in the Western Rhenish Massif and Forward Modelling of the Eifel Plume Bouguer Anomaly.

Description / Table of Contents: This book presents a series of review articles on nine important ancient orogens on Earth. Comparison of these mountain belts provides a wealth of information for the debate on whether there has been a change in mountain-building processes through the history of the Earth. As a precursor to these papers, the rheology of the Earth’s lithosphere through time is reviewed. Theoretical analysis and insight into the behaviour of the lithosphere of other planets constrain mechanical considerations of the Earth’s lithosphere. It is clear from these overviews that geodynamic concepts and modelling, and new techniques such as deep seismic profiling and geochronology are having a profound impact on orogenic studies. It is also clear that orogenesis must not be equated with the Wilson cycle, culminating in continent-continent collision. Subduction-related orogens and intraplate orogens are also significant.

Description / Table of Contents: Hydrogen may be the most abundant element in the universe, but in science and in nature oxygen has an importance that is disproportionate to its abundance. Human beings tend to take it for granted because it is all around us and we breathe it, but consider the fact that oxygen is so reactive that in a planetary setting it is largely unstable in its elemental state. Were it not for the constant activity of photosynthetic plants and a minor amount of photo dissociation in the upper atmosphere, we would not have an oxygen-bearing atmosphere and we would not be here. Equally, the most important compound of oxygen is water, without which life (in the sense that we know it) could not exist. The role of water in virtually all geologic processes is profound, from formation of ore deposits to igneous petrogenesis to metamorphism to erosion and sedimentation. In planetary science, oxygen has a dual importance. First and foremost is its critical role in so many fundamental Solar System processes. The very nature of the terrestrial planets in our own Solar System would be much different had the oxygen to carbon ratio in the early solar nebula been somewhat lower than it was, because elements such as calcium and iron and titanium would have been locked up during condensation as carbides, sulfides and nitrides and even (in the case of silicon) partly as metals rather than silicates and oxides. Equally, the role of water ice in the evolution of our Solar System is important in the early accretion and growth of the giant planets and especially Jupiter, which exerted a major control over how most of the other planets formed. On a smaller scale, oxygen plays a critical role in the diverse kinds of physical evolution of large rocky planets, because the internal oxidation state strongly influences the formation and evolution of the core, mantle and crust of differentiated planets such as the Earth. Consider that basaltic volcanism may be a nearly universal phenomenon among the evolved terrestrial planets, yet there are basalts and basalts. The basalts of Earth (mostly), Earth's Moon, Vesta (as represented by the HED meteorites) and Mars are all broadly tholeiitic and yet very different from one another, and one of the primary differences is in their relative oxidation states (for that matter, consider the differences between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline magma series on Earth). But there is another way that oxygen has proven to be hugely important in planetary science, and that is as a critical scientific clue to processes and conditions and even sources of materials. Understanding the formation and evolution of our Solar System involves reconstructing processes and events that occurred more than 4.5 Ga ago, and for which the only contemporary examples are occurring hundreds of light years away. It is a detective story in which most of the clues come from the laboratory analysis of the products of those ancient processes and events, especially those that have been preserved nearly unchanged since their formation at the Solar System's birth: meteorites; comets; and interplanetary dust particles. For example, the oxidation state of diverse early Solar System materials ranges from highly oxidized (ferric iron) to so reducing that some silicon exists in the metallic state and refractory lithophile elements such as calcium exist occur in sulfides rather than in silicates or carbonates. These variations reflect highly different environments that existed in different places and at different times. Even more crucial has been the use of oxygen 3-isotope variations, which began almost accidentally in 1973 with an attempt to do oxygen isotope thermometry on high-temperature solar nebula grains (Ca-, Al-rich inclusions) but ended with the remarkable discovery of non-mass-dependent oxygen isotope variations in high-temperature materials from the earliest Solar System. The presolar nebula was found to be very heterogeneous in its isotopic composition, and virtually every different planet and asteroid for which we have samples has a unique oxygen-isotopic fingerprint. The idea for this book originated with Jim Papike, who suggested the idea of a study initiative (and, ultimately, a published volume) focused on the element that is so critically important in so many ways to planetary science. He recognized that oxygen is such a constant theme through all aspects of planetary science that the proposed initiative would serve to bring together scientists from a wide range of disciplines for the kind of cross-cutting dialogue that occurs all too rarely these days. In this sense the Oxygen Initiative is modeled on the Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, which culminated in what remains to this day a hugely important reference volume (Basaltic Volcanism Study Project 1981). After obtaining community input and feedback, primarily through the Curation and Analysis Planning Team for Extraterrestrial Materials (CAPTEM) and the Management Operations Working Group for NASA's Cosmochemistry Program, a team of scientists was assembled who would serve as chapter writing leads, and the initiative was formally proposed to and accepted by the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI; Dr. Stephen Mackwell, Director) for sponsorship. A formal proposal was then submitted to and approved by the Mineralogical Society of America to publish the resulting volume in the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (RiMG) series. Three open workshops were held as preludes to the book: Oxygen in the Terrestrial Planets, held in Santa Fe, NM July 20-23, 2004; Oxygen in Asteroids and Meteorites, held in Flagstaff, AZ June 2-3, 2005; and Oxygen in Earliest Solar System Materials and Processes (and including the outer planets and comets), held in Gatlinburg, TN September 19-22, 2005. The workshops were each organized around a small number of sessions (typically 4-6), each focusing on a particular topic and consisting of invited talks, shorter contributed talks, and ample time for discussion after each talk. In all of the meetings, the extended discussion periods were lively and animated, often bubbling over into the breaks and later social events. As a consequence of the cross-cutting approach, the final book spans a wide range of fields relating to oxygen, from the stellar nucleosynthesis of oxygen, to its occurrence in the interstellar medium, to the oxidation and isotopic record preserved in 4.56 Ga grains formed at the Solar System's birth, to its abundance and speciation in planets large and small, to its role in the petrologic and physical evolution of the terrestrial planets.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Tectonic Faults: Agents of Change on a Dynamic Earth. - Fault Zones from Top to Bottom . - Nucleation and Growth of Fault Systems. - Seismic Fault Rheology and Earthquake Dynamics. - Continental Fault Structure and Rheology from the Frictional-to-Viscous Transition Downwards. - Group Report: Rheology of Fault Rocks and Their Surroundings. - Topography, Denudation, and Deformation: The Role of Surface Processes on Fault Evolution. - Constraining the Denudational Response to Faulting. - Surface Environmental Effects on and of Faulting. - Fluid Processes in Deep Crustal Fault Zones. - Deformation in the Presence of Fluids and Mineral Reactions: Effect of Fracturing and Fluid Rock Interaction on Seismic Cycles. - On the Effects of Melting on Faulting and Continental Deformation. - Fluids, Geochemical Cycles, and Mass Transport in Fault Zones.

Description / Table of Contents: Inhalt: 1 Die Bildung und Umwandlung von organischem Material. - 1.1 Der globale Kohlenstoffzyklus. - 1.1.1 Organische Geochemie und der Kohlenstoffzyklus: eine Einleitung. - 1.1.2 Kohlenstoffspeicher und -transport. - Organismen und der Kohlenstoffzyklus. - Die Anreicherung von organischem Sedimentmaterial. - Abweichungen vom Gleichgewichtszustand. - Marine Primärproduktion und Sedimentation. - 1.1.3 Biochemische und geochemische Subzyklen. - Organisch-reiche Sedimente und Primärproduktion. - 1.2 Photosynthese und die Evolution des Lebens. - 1.2.1 Atmosphärischer Sauerstoff, Photosynthese und die ersten Organismen. - 1.2.2 Evolution des marinen Lebens. - 1.2.3 Evolution des terrestrischen Lebens. - 1.2.4 Regionale Veränderungen von Ökosystemen. - 1.3 Quellen des sedimentären organischen Materials. - 1.3.1 Die wichtigsten heutigen Quellen. - 1.3.2 Fossile Aufzeichnungen der Quellen des organischen Materials. - 1.4 Photosynthese und stabile Kohlenstoffisotope. - 2 Die chemische Zusammensetzung biogener Stoffe. - 2.1 Die Struktur natürlich vorkommender Stoffe. - 2.1.1 Einleitung. - 2.1.2 Bindungen in organischen Verbindungen. - 2.1.3 Stereoisomerie. - 2.2 Kohlenhydrate. - 2.2.1 Zusammensetzung. - 2.2.2 Vorkommen und Funktion. - 2.3 Proteine. - 2.3.1 Zusammensetzung. - 2.3.2 Vorkommen und Funktion. - 2.4 Lipide. - 2.4.1 Glyceride. - Fette. - Phospholipide, Glycolipide und Etherlipide. - 2.4.2 Wachse und verwandte Verbindungen. - Wachse. - Kutin und Suberin. - 2.4.3 Terpene. - Monoterpene. - Sesquiterpene. - Diterpene. - Triterpene. - Steroide. - Tetraterpene. - 2.4.4 Tetrapyrrole Farbstoffe. - 2.5 Lignin, Tannin und verwandte Verbindungen. - 2.5.1 Lignin. - 2.5.2 Tannine und andere hydroxyaromatische Pigmente. - 2.6 Geochemische Auswirkungen der Veränderungen der Zusammensetzung. - 2.6.1 Veränderungen der Zusammensetzung von Organismen. - 2.6.2 Veränderungen durch die geologische Zeit. - 3 Bedingungen für die Bildung organisch-reicher Sedimente. - 3.1 Einleitung. - 3.2 Kontrollierende Faktoren der Primärproduktion. - 3.2.1 Die Schichtung der Wassersäule. - 3.2.2 Licht. - 3.2.3 Nährstoffe. - Ozeane in niedrigen Breitengraden. - Ozeane in mittleren Breitengraden. - Ozeane in höheren Breitengraden. - Geschichtete Seen. - 3.2.4 Räumliche Veränderungen der marinen Primärproduktion. - 3.2.5 Veränderungen der Phytoplanktonpopulationen. - 3.3 Die Erhaltung und der Abbau organischen Materials. - 3.3.1 Die Entwicklung der Primärproduktion in der Wassersäule. - 3.3.2 Der Werdegang des organischen Materials in den Sedimenten. - Der aerobe Abbau. - Der anaerobe Abbau. - Bakterielle Gemeinschaften und ihre Wechselwirkungen. - 3.3.3. Kontrollierende Faktoren bei der Erhaltung des organischen Sedimentmaterials. - 3.4 Ablagerungsbereiche. - 3.4.1 Lakustrine Bereiche. - Offene Seen. - Geschlossene Seen. - 3.4.2 Torfsümpfe und Kohlenbildung. - Okefenokee-Sumpf. - 3.4.3 Marine Bereiche. - Marine Schelfablagerungen. - Eingeschlossene und durch Schwellen abgetrennte Becken. - Bildung und Erhaltung organischen Materials im Schwarzen Meer. - Reduzierende Ereignisse der Kreide. - 4 Die Bildung von Huminstoffen, Kohle und Kerogen. - 4.1 Diagenese. - 4.1.1 Einleitung. - 4.1.2 Der mikrobielle Abbau des organischen Materials während der Diagenese. - 4.1.3 Die Bildung von Geopolymeren. - 4.2 Huminstoffe. - 4.2.1 Vorkommen und Klassifizierung. - 4.2.2 Komposition und Struktur. - 4.2.3 Die Bildung der Huminstoffe. - 4.3 Kohlen. - 4.3.1 Klassifizierung und Zusammensetzung. - Klassifizierung. - Petrologische Zusammensetzung. - Chemische Zusammensetzung. - 4.3.2 Die Bildung. - Torfbildung. - Die biochemische Stufe der Inkohlung. - Die geochemische Stufe der Inkohlung. - Strukturelle Veränderungen während der Bildung der Kohlen. - 4.4 Kerogen. - 4.4.1 Bildung. - Geopolymerbildung während der Diagenese. - Biomarker. - Schwefeleinbindung. - 4.4.2 Zusammensetzung des Kerogens. - 4.4.3 Klassifizierung des Kerogens. - Typ I-Kerogen. - Typ II-Kerogen. - Typ III-Kerogen. - Typ IV-Kerogen. - Verbesserte Kerogentypisierung. - 4.4.4 Die thermische Evolution des Kerogens. - Strukturelle Veränderungen. - Veränderungen der chemischen Zusammensetzung. - 5 Die Bildung und Zusammensetzung von Petroleum. - 5.1 Petroleumbildung. - 5.1.1 Einleitung. - 5.1.2 Kohlenwasserstoffbildung aus Kohlen. - 5.1.3 Kohlenwasserstoffzusammensetzung als Funktion der Kerogenreife. - 5.1.4 Reaktionen bei der Kohlenwasserstoffbildung. - Isotopenfraktionierung. - 5.2 Die Bedeutung von Zeit und Temperatur bei der Petroleumbildung. - 5.2.1 Der Einfluß von Zeit und Temperatur auf die Kohlenwasserstoffgeneration. - Temperatur. - Zeit. - 5.2.2 Kinetische Modelle der Petroleumbildung. - Zeit-Temperatur-Index. - Komplexe Modelle. - 5.3 Die Migration von Kohlenwasserstoffen. - 5.3.1 Primäre Migration. - Mechanismen der primären Migration. - Expulsionseffizienz. - 5.3.2 Sekundäre Migration. - 5.3.3 Fallen und Speicher. - 5.4 Die Zusammensetzung des Petroleums. - 5.4.1 Die Gesamtzusammensetzung von Erdölen. - 5.4.2 Kohlenwasserstoffe im Petroleum. - Die wichtigsten Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Biomarker. - 5.4.3 Vergleich der Rohölzusammensetzung mit dem Bitumen der Muttergesteine. - Migration. - Auswaschung. - Deasphaltierung. - Biodegradation. - Thermische Veränderungen. - 5.5 Die Vorkommen fossiler Brennstoffe. - 5.5.1 Die zeitliche Verteilung der fossilen Brennstoffe. - 5.5.2 Ölreserven. - Konventionelle Öle. - Schweröle. - Ölschiefer. - 5.5.3 Kohle. - 5.5.4 Gas. - 5.6 Die Bewertung von Erdöl- und Erdgasmuttergesteinen. - 5.6.1 Menge und Art des organischen Materials. - Menge des organischen Materials. - Typ des organischen Materials - optische Methoden. - Typ des organischen Materials - physikalisch-chemische Methoden. - 5.6.2 Reife des organischen Materials. - Optische Bestimmungen der Reife. - Pyrolytische Messungen der Reife. - Einfluß der Reife auf die Identifizierung des organischen Materials. - Chemische Bestimmungen der Reife anhand des Bitumens. - 5.6.3 Korrelationen zwischen Isotopenverteilung und Petroleummuttergestein. - 6 Die molekulare Bewertung rezenter Sedimente. - 6.1 Von Organismen vererbte Biomarkerverteilungen. - 6.1.1 Einleitung. - 6.1.2 Generelle Unterschiede zwischen den Hauptorganismengruppen. - 6.1.3 Faktoren, die die Lipidzusammensetzung der Organismen beeinflussen. - 6.2 Beispiele für Quellenindikatoren in rezenten Sedimenten. - 6.2.1 Fettsäuren. - Monoungesättigte Fettsäuren. - Polyungesättigte Fettsäuren. - 2- und 3-methylverzweigte Fettsäuren. - Intern-verzweigte und Cycloalkylfettsäuren. - Hydroxyfettsäuren. - 6.2.2 Sterole. - 6.2.3 Kohlenhydrate. - 6.2.4 Lignin. - 6.2.5 Kohlenstoffisotope. - 6.3 Die Diagenese auf molekularer Ebene. - 6.3.1 Allgemeine diagenetische Prozesse. - Kohlenhydrate und Lignine. - Biomarker. - 6.3.2 Die Lipiddiagenese in der Wassersäule. - 6.3.3 Die sedimentäre Diagenese der Lipide. - Fettsäuren. - Photosynthetisch aktive Farbstoffe. - Steroide. - Terpene. - 6.4 Paleotemperaturmessungen. - 6.4.1 Die Epimerisierung von Aminosäuren. - 6.4.2 Der Sättigungsgrad in langkettigen Ketonen. - 7 Molekulare Untersuchungen an Sedimenten und die Petroleumbildung. - 7.1 Quellenindikatoren. - 7.1.1 Einleitung. - 7.1.2 Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Normale und methyl-verzweigte Alkane. - Acyclische Isoprene. - Cycloalkane. - 7.1.3 Kohlenstoffisotope. - 7.2 Hinweise auf den Ablagerungsbereich. - 7.2.1 Hypersalinität. - 7.2.2 Redoxbedingungen. - Phytoldiagenese. - Nickel- und Vanadiumverteilungen. - 7.2.3 Die Erkennung unterschiedlicher mariner und lakustriner Bereiche. - 7.3 Thermische Reife und molekulare Umwandlungen. - 7.3.1 Strukturisomerie. - Acyclische Isoprenalkane. - Sterane. - Triterpane. - 7.3.2 Aromatisierung. - 7.3.3 Anreicherung von kurzkettigen Kohlenwasserstoffen und Crackprozesse. - Steroide. - Porphyrine. - 7.4 Molekulare Reife und Quellenparameter in der Erdölexploration. - 7.4.1 Molekulare Reifeparameter. - Leichte Kohlenwasserstoffe. - Kohlenstoffpräferenz-Index (Carbon Preference Index). - Pristanformations-Index. - Biomarker-Umwandlungen. - Methylgruppenisomerisierung in aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen. - 7.4.2 Der Einfluß von geothermischen Gradienten auf molekulare Reifeparameter. - 7.4.3 Öl/Muttergesteins-Korrelationen. - 7.5 Die Analyse der Biomarker-Kohlenwasserstoffe. - 7.5.1 Einleitung. - 7.5.2 Gaschromatographie-Massenspektrometrie. - 7.5.3 Die Bewertung der Biomarkerverteilungen. - 8 Das Verhalten anthropogener organischer Verbindungenin der Umwelt. - 8.1 Einleitung. - 8.2 Der Einfluß des Menschen auf den Kohlenstoffzyklus. - 8.2.1 Kohlendioxid und der Treibhauseffekt. - 8.2.2 Der Einfluß von Spurengasen auf die globale Erwärmung. - Methan. -Kohlenmonoxid. - Dimethylsulfide. - 8.2.3 Eutrophierung. - 8.3 Halogenkohlenwasserstoffe und Abbau des Ozons. - 8.4 Verschmutzungen durch Kohlenwasserstoffe im aquatischen Bereich. - 8.4.1 Die Verbrennung fossiler Brennstoffe. - Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in rezenten Sedimenten. - Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in vorzeitlichen Sedimenten. - 8.4.2 Ölverschmutzungen. - Die Effekte der Ölverschmutzung. - Die Überwachung von Ölverschmutzungen. - 8.5 Einige xenobiotische organische Substanzen. - 8.5.1 DDT und verwandte Verbindungen. - 8.5.2 Polychlorierte Biphenyle. - 8.6 Faktoren, die den Werdegang anthropogener Einträge beeinflussen. - 8.6.1 Allgemeine Betrachtungen. - 8.6.2 Huminstoffe und Schadstoffe. - Literatur. - Weiterführende Literatur. - Sachregister