ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: CONTENTS: Preface. - Part A Problem of effectiveness. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Current data-handling for fossils. - Part B Proposed solution. - 3 Suggested new Paleontologic Data-Handling Code (PDHC). - 4 Records are primary. - 5 Nomenclature/language of records. - 6 The Paleotaxon. - 7 Replacing the Genus. - 8 The Record package. - Part C Applications for information-handling. - 9 Earth and biologic evolution. - 10 Proposed new Period Classification of fossils of past organisms. - 11 Paleoenvironment investigation. - 12 General stratigraphic procedures. - 13 Limitations of the use of zones. - 14 Event-Correlation. - Part D Further considerations. - 15 Human and other problems. - 16 Main plan re-stated. - Appendices 1 and 2: Worked examples of GOR and PTR forms. - Glossary. - References. - Index.

Description / Table of Contents: This book discusses procedures for handling information derived from the fossil record, and the application of this information to solving problems in geological succession and earth history. The main purpose of the book is to analyse shortcomings of the existing procedures, and to propose in their place an alternative set of data-handling arrangements of much greater simplicity and efficiency. The author argues that the procedures in current use are cumbersome and inefficient, and that, partly as a consequence of these information-handling methods, palaeontology has failed to make advances commensurate with technological improvements. In this book he proposes a system which could make possible the integrated use of every detail of geological information taken from the rocks. This would achieve better resolution in sequence correlation, in paleoecologic interpretation and in logging the course of evolution. Compatibility of style with existing records has been maintained to avoid any danger of loss of valuable data, and to simplify the process of reevaluating old records. The book will be of interest to all paleontologists, particularly those dealing with microfossils, and is intended to stimulate discussion and criticism of both the analysis and the proposals.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Preface to Volume 2. - Foreword by Micael Metcalf. - License information. - 21 Introduction to Fortran 90 language features. - 22 Introduction to parallel programming. - 23 Numerical recipes utility functions for Fortran 90. - Fortran 90 code chapters. - B1 Preliminaries. - B2 Solution of linear algebraic equations. - B3 Interpolation and extrapolation. - B4 Integration of functions. - B5 Evaluation of functions. - B6 Special functions. - B7 Random numbers. - B8 Sorting. - B9 Root finding and nonlinear sets of equations. - B10 Minimization or maximization of functions. - B11 Eigensystems. - B12 Fast Fourier Transform. - B13 Fourier and spectral applications. - B14 Statistical description of data. - B15 Modeling of data. - B16 Integration of ordinary differential equations. - B17 Two point boundary value problems. - B18 Integral equations and inverse theory. - B19 Partial differential equtations. - B20 Less-numerical algorithms. - References. - Appendices

Description / Table of Contents: Now available in paperback, this wide-ranging account of the life of the tundra provides a fascinating insight into the ways in which animals, plants and climate interact in an inhospitable environment. Although the tundra is not rich in species compared with habitats in the tropics or even in temperate regions, it is an area of great interest to ecologists, botanists and zoologists alike, as an excellent example of nature contending with extreme environmental stress. As a biogeographer and ecologist the author has used his first-hand experience of the Eurasian Sub-Arctic to present an overview of life on the tundra of the Soviet Northlands that has become a classic of ecological literature. The tradition of interdisciplinary studies is very strong among Soviet tundra scientists. The present work, which was the author's first to be translated into English, provides a broad view of the complexities of life in the Soviet Northlands and makes a strong plea for its protection. This important book is a valuable guide to the life of the tundra and will interest all those interested in the conservation of its flora and fauna.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Preface. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Atmospheric structure, composition, and thermodynamics. - 3 The continuity and thermodynamic energy equations. - 4 The momentum equation in cartesian and spherical coordinates. - 5 Vertical-coordinate conversions. - 6 Numerical solutions to partial differential equations. - 7 Finite-differencing the equations of atmospheric dynamics. - 8 Boundary-layer processes. - 9 Cloud thermodynamics and dynamics. - 10 Radiative energy transfer. - 11 Gas-phase species, chemical reactions, and reaction rates. - 12 Urban, free-tropospheric, and stratospheric chemistry. - 13 Methods of solving chemical ordinary differential equations. - 14 Particle components, size distributions, and size structures. - 15 Aerosol emissions and nucleation. - 16 Coagulation. - 17 Condensation, evaporation, deposition, and sublimation. - 18 Chemical equilibrium and dissolution processes. - 19 Aqueous chemistry. - 20 Sedimentation and dry deposition. - 21 Model design, application, and testing. - Appendix A: Conversions, constants, and symbols. - Appendix B: Tables. - References. - Index

Description / Table of Contents: This comprehensive text describes the atmospheric processes, numerical methods, and computational techniques required for a scientist to successfully study air pollution and meteorology. Computer modeling has become a powerful tool in modern atmospheric sciences, combining the disciplines of meteorology, physics, mathematics, chemistry, computer sciences, and , to a lesser extent, geology, biology, microbiology, and oceanographic sciences. This text presents fundamental equations that describe physical, chemical, and dynamical processes in the atmosphere, and it provides numerical methods to solve these equations. Along with classic methods for simulating gas and aerosol processes not available in any other text. The book has been developed from the author's graduate courses and research at Standford University and contains homework and computer programming assignments. It is a valuable textbook for graduate and upper-level undergraduate courses in atmospheric sciences and meteorology. It will also be useful for courses in earth sciences, environmental sciences, and applied mathematics.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: List of Illustrations. - Preface. - Acknowledgments. - 1 Basic Properties of Radiation, Atmospheres, and Oceans. - 1.1 lntroduction. - 1.2 Parts of the Spectrum. - 1.2.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Flux. - 1.2.2 Terrestrial lnfrared Flux. - 1.3 Radiative Interaction with Planetary Media. - 1.3.1 Feedback Processes. - 1.3.2 Types of Matter that Affect Radiation. - 1.4 Vertical Structure of Planetary Atmospheres. - 1.4.1 Hydrostatic and Ideal Gas Laws. - 1.4.2 Minor Species in the Atmosphere. - 1.4.3 Optical Line-of-Sight Paths. - 1.4.4 Radiative Equilibrium and the Thermal Structure of Atmospheres. - 1.4.5 Climate Change: Radiative Forcing and Feedbacks. - 1.5 Density Structure of the Ocean. - 1.6 Vertical Structure of the Ocean. - 1.6.1 The Mixed Layer and the Deep Ocean. - 1 .6.2 Seasonal Variations of Ocean Properties. - 1.6.3 Sea-Surface Temperature. - 1.6.4 Ocean Spectral Reflectance and Opacity. - 1.7 Remarks on Nomenclature, Notation, and Units. - 1.8 Summary. - 2 Basic State Variables and the Radiative Transfer Equation. - 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Geometrical Optics. - 2.3 Radiative Flux or Irradiance. - 2.4 Spectral Intensity and Its Angular Moments. - 2.4.1 Relationship between Flux and Intensity. - 2.4.2 Average Intensity and Energy Density. - 2.5 Some Theorems on Intensity. - 2.5.1 lntensity and Flux from an Extended Source. - 2.6 Perception of Brightness: Analogy with Radiance. - 2.7 The Extinction Law. - 2.7.1 Extinction = Scattering + Absorption. - 2.8 The Differential Equation of Radiative Transfer. - 2.9 Summary. - 3 Basic Scattering Processes. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.2 Lorentz Theory for Radiation- Matter Interactions. - 3.2.1 Scattering and Collective Effects in a Uniform Medium. - 3.2.2 Scattering from Density Irregularities. - 3.2.3 Scattering in Random Media. - 3.2.4 First-Order and Multiple Scattering. - 3.3 Scattering from a Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator. - 3.3.1 Case ( 1 ): Resonance Scattering and the Lorentz Profile. - 3.3.2 Conservative and Nonconservative Scattering. - 3.3.3 Natural Broadening. - 3.3.4 Pressure Broadening. - 3.3.5 Doppler Broadening. - 3.3.6 Realistic Line-Broadening Processes. - 3.3.7 Case (2): Rayleigh Scattering. - 3.4 The Scattering Phase Function. - 3.4.1 Rayleigh-Scattering Phase Function. - 3.5 Mie-Debye Scattering. - 3.6 Summary. - 4 Absorption by Solid, Aqueous, and Gaseous Media. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Absorption on Surfaces, on Aerosols, and within Aqueous Media. - 4.2.1 Solids. - 4.2.2 Aerosols. - 4.2.3 Liquids. - 4.3 Molecular Absorption in Gases. - 4.3.1 Thermal Emission and Radiation Laws. - 4.3.2 Planck's Spectral Distribution Law. - 4.3.3 Radiative Excitation Processes in Molecules. - 4.3.4 Inelastic Collisional Processes. - 4.3.5 Maintenance of Thermal Equilibrium Distributions. - 4.4 The Two-Level Atom. - 4.4.1 Microscopic Radiative Transfer Equation. - 4.4.2 Effects of Collisions on State Populations. - 4.5 Absorption in Molecular Lines and Bands. - 4.5.1 Molecular Rotation: The Rigid Rotator. - 4.5.2 Molecular Vibration and Rotation: The Vibrating Rotator. - 4.5.3 Line Strengths. - 4.6 Absorption Processes in the UV/Visible. - 4.7 Summary. - 5 Principles of Radiative Transfer. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Boundary Properties of Planetary Media. - 5.2.1 Thermal Emission from a Surface. - 5.2.2 Absorption by a Surface. - 5.2.3 Kirchhoff's Law for Surfaces. - 5.2.4 Surface Reflection: The BRDF. - 5.2.5 Albedo for Collimated lncidence. - 5.2.6 The Flux Reflectance, or Albedo: Diffuse Incidence. - 5.2.7 Analytic Reflectance Expressions. - 5.2.8 The Opposition Effect. - 5.2.9 Specular Reflection from the Sea Surface. - 5.2.10 Transmission through a Slab Medium. - 5.2.11 Spherical, or Bond Albedo. - 5.3 Absorption and Scattering in Planetary Media. - 5.3.1 Kirchhoff's Law for Volume Absorption and Emission. - 5.3.2 Differential Equation of Radiative Transfer. - 5.4 Solution of the Radiative Transfer Equation for Zero Scattering. - 5.4.1 Solution with Zero Scattering in Slab Geometry. - 5.4.2 Half-Range Quantities in a Slab Geometry. - 5.4.3 Formal Solution in a Slab Geometry. - 5.5 Gray Slab Medium in Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium. - 5.6 Formal Solution Including Scattering and Emission. - 5.7 Radiative Heating Rate. - 5.7.1 Generalized Gershun's Law. - 5.7.2 Warming Rate, or the Temperature Tendency. - 5.7.3 Actinic Radiation, Photolysis Rate, and Dose Rate. - 5.8 Summary. - 6 Formulation of Radiative Transfer Problems. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Separation into Diffuse and Direct (Solar) Components. - 6.2.1 Lower Boundary Conditions. - 6.2.2 Multiple Scattering. - 6.2.3 Azimuth lndependence of Flux and Mean Intensity. - 6.3 Azimuthal Dependence of the Radiation Field. - 6.4 Spherical Shell Geometry. - 6.5 Nonstratified Media. - 6.6 Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere-Ocean System. - 6.6.1 Two Stratified Media with Different Indices of Refraction. - 6.7 Examples of Phase Functions. - 6.7.1 Rayleigh Phase Function. - 6.7.2 The Mie-Debye Phase Function. - 6.8 Scaling Transformations Useful for Anisotropic Scattering. - 6.8.1The [Delta]-Isotropic Approximation. - 6.8.2 The [Delta]- Two-Term Approximation. - 6.8.3 Remarks on Low-Order Scaling Approximations. - 6.8.4 The [Delta]-N Approximation: Arbitrary N. - 6.8.5 Mathematical and Physical Meaning of the Scaling. - 6.9 Prototype Problems in Radiative Transfer Theory. - 6.9.1 Prototype Problem 1: Uniform Illumination. - 6.9.2 Prototype Problem 2: Constant lmbedded Source. - 6.9.3 Prototype Problem 3: Diffuse Reflection Problem. - 6.9.4 Boundary Conditions: Reflecting and Emitting Surface. - 6.10 Reciprocity, Duality, and Inhomogeneaus Media. - 6.11 Effects of Surface Reflection on the Radiation Field. - 6.12 Integral Equation Formulation of Radiative Transfer. - 6.13 Probabilistic Aspects of Radiative Transfer. - 6.13.1 The Escape Probability. - 6.14 Summary. - 7 Approximate Salutions of Prototype Problems. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Separation of the Radiation Field into Orders of Scattering. - 7.2.1 Lambda Iteration: The Multiple-Scaltering Series. - 7.2.2 Single-Scattered Contribution from Ground Reflection: The Planetary Problem. - 7.3 The Two-Stream Approximation: Isotropic Scattering. - 7.3.1 Approximate Differential Equations. - 7.3.2 The Mean lnclination: Possible Choices for [My]. - 7.3.3 Prototype Problem 1: Differential-Equation Approach. - 7.3.4 Prototype Problem 2: lmbedded Source. - 7.3.5 Prototype Problem 3: Beam Incidence. - 7.4 Conservative Scattering in a Finite Slab. - 7.5 Anisotropic Scattering. - 7.5.1 Two-Stream Versus Eddington Approximations. - 7.5.2 The Backscattering Coefficients. - 7.5.3 Two-Stream Salutions for Anisotropic Scattering. - 7.5.4 Scaling Approximations for Anisotropic Scattering. - 7.5.5 Generalized Two-Stream Equations. - 7.6 Accuracy of the Two-Stream Method. - 7.7 Final Comments on the Two-Stream Method. - 7.8 Summary. - 8 Accurate Numerical Salutions of Prototype Problems. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Discrete-Ordinate Method - Isotropic Scattering. - 8.2.1 Quadrature Formulas. - 8.2.2 The Double-Gauss Method. - 8.3 Anisotropic Scattering. - 8.3.1 General Considerations. - 8.3.2 Quadrature Rule. - 8.4 Matrix Formulation of the Discrete-Ordinate Method. - 8.4.1 Two- and Four-Stream Approximations. - 8.4.2 Multistream Approximation ( N Arbitrary). - 8.5 Matrix Eigensolutions. - 8.5.1 Two-Stream Salutions ( N = 1). - 8.5.2 Multistream Solutions ( N Arbitrary). - 8.5.3 Inhomogeneous Solution. - 8.5.4 General Solution. - 8.6 Source Function and Angular Distributions. - 8.7 Boundary Conditions - Removal of Ill-Conditioning. - 8.7.1 Boundary Conditions. - 8.7.2 Removal of Numerical lll-Conditioning. - 8.8 Inhomogeneous Multilayered Media. - 8.8.1 General Solution - Boundary and Layer Interface Conditions. - 8.8.2 Source Functions and Angular Distributions. - 8.8.3 Numerical lmplementation of the Discrete-Ordinate Method. - 8.9 Correction of the Truncated Intensity Field. - 8.9.1 The Nakajima-Tanaka Correction Procedure. - 8.9.2 Computed lntensity Distributions for the Standard Problem. - 8.10 The Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Problem. - 8.10.1 Discretized Equations for the Atmosphere-Ocean System. - 8.10.2 Quadrature and General Solution. - 8.10.3 Boundary, Continuity, and Atmosphere-Ocean Interface Conditions. - 8.11 The Doubling-Adding and the Matrix Operator Methods. - 8.11.1 Matrix-Exponential Solution - Formal Derivation of Doubling Rules. - 8.11.2 Connection between Doubling and Discrete-Ordinate Methods. - 8.11.3 Intuitive Derivation of the Doubling Rules - Adding of Dissimilar Layers. - 8.12 Other Accurate Methods. - 8.12.1 The Spherical-Harmonics Method. - 8.12.2 Invariant lmbedding. - 8.12.3 Iteration Methods. - 8.12.4 The Feautrier Method. - 8.12.5 Integral Equation Approach. - 8.12.6 Monte Carlo Methods. - 8.13 Summary. - 9 Shortwave Radiative Transfer. - 9.1 Introduction. - 9.2 Solar Radiation. - 9.3 Optical Properties of the Earth-Atmosphere System. - 9.3.1 Gaseaus Absorption and Penetration Depth. - 9.3.2 Optical Properlies of Atmospheric Aerosols. - 9.3.3 Optical Properties of Warm (Liquid Water) Clouds. - 9.3.4 Optical Properties of Ice Clouds. - 9.3.5 Optical Properties of the Ocean. - 9.3.6 Optical Properties of Snow and Ice. - 9.4 Modeling of Shortwave Radiative Effects in the Atmosphere. - 9.4.1 Spectral Averaging Procedure: The Chandrasekhar Mean. - 9.4.2 Solar Warming Rates Due to Ozone, Aerosols, and Clouds. - 9.4.3 Computation of Photolysis Rates. - 9.4.4 UV Transmission: Relation to Ozone Abundance. - 9.4.5 UV Transmission and Dose Rates at the Earth 's Surface. - 9.4.6 Comparisan of Measured and Computed UV Irradiance at the Surface. - 9.5 Modeling of Shortwave Radiation in the Ocean. - 9.5.1 Diffuse Radiation: Attenuation in the Ocean. - 9.5.2 Two-Stream Model Appropriate for Deep Water. - 9.5.3 Backscattering by Ocean Particles: The Role of Shape Factars. - 9.5.4 Approximate Expressions for the Remotely Sensed Reflectance. - 9.5.5 Modefing the UV Transmission into the Ocean. - 9.5.6 Measured and Computed UV Irradiance in the Ocean. - 9.6 Interaction of Solar Radiation with Snow and Ice. - 9.7 Summary. - 1 0 Transmission in Spectrally Complex Media. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Transmission in an Isolated Line. - 10.2.1 Isolated Lorentz Line. - 10.3 Band Models. - 10.3.1 The Elsasser Band Model. - 10.3.2 Distributed Line lntensities. - 10.3.3 Random Band Model. - 10.3.4 MODTRAN: A Moderate-Resolution Band Model. - 10.4 Spectral Mapping Transformations for Homogeneous Media. - 10.4.1 Method of the k-Distribution. - 10.4.2 k-Distribution for the Malkmus Band Model. - 10.5 Transmission in Nongray Inhomogeneaus Media. - 10.5.1 The H- C-G Scaling Approximation. - 10.5.2 LBL Transmission Computation: Inhomogeneaus Paths. - 10.5.3 Inclusion of Multiple Scattering in LBL Computations. - 10.5.4 The Correlated-k Method. - 10.5.5 Inclusion of Multiple Scattering in the Correlated-k Method. - 10.6 Summary. - 11 Radiative Transfer in Nongray Media. - 11.1 lntroduction. - 11.2 Radiative Flux and Heating Rate: Clear-Sky Conditions. - 11.2.1 Monochromatic Flux Equations. - 11.2.2 Wide-Band Emittance Models. - 11.2.3 Narrow-Band Absorption Model. - 11.2.4 Band Overlap. - 11.2.5 The Diffusivity Approximation. - 11.2.6 Equationsfor the Heating Rate. - 11.2.7 Clear-Sky Radiative Cooling: Nonisothermal Medium. - 11.2.8 Computations of Terrestrial Cooling Rates. - 11.3 The IR Radiative Impact of Clouds and Aerosols. - 11.3.1Heating Rate in an Idealized Cloud. - 11.3.2 Detailed Longwave Radiative Effects of Clouds. - 11.3.3 Accurate Treatment Including Scattering. - 11.4 Summary. - 12 The Role of Radiation in Climate. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Radiative Equilibrium with Zero Visible Opacity. - 12.3 Radiative Equilibrium with Finite Visible Opacity. - 12.4 Radiative-Convective Equilibrium. - 12.5 The Concept of the Emission Height. - 12.6 Effects of spectral window. - 12.7 Radiative forcing. - 12.8 Climate impact of clouds. - 12.8.1 Longwave Effects of water clouds. - 12.8.2 Shortwave effects of water clouds. - 12.8.3 Combined shortwave and longewave effects of clouds. - 12.9 Climate impact of cloud height. - 12.10 Cloud and aerosol forcing. - 12.10.1 Aerosol forcing. - 12.11 Water-Vapor Feedback. - 12.12 Effects of carbon dioxide changes. - 12.13 Greenhouse effect from individual gas species. - 12.14 Summary. - Appendices. - A Nomenclature: Glossary of symbols. - B Physical constants. - C Model atmospheres. - D Ocean optics nomenclature. - E Reflectance and transmittance at an interface. - Index.

Description / Table of Contents: Radiative transfer is important to a range of disciplines, from the study of greenhause warming to stellar atmospheres and ocean optics. This text provides a foundation of the theoretical and practical aspects of radiative transfer for senior undergraduate and graduate students of atmospheric, oceanic, and environmental sciences. With an emphasis on formulation, judicial approximations and numerical solutions of the radiative transfer equation, Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere and Ocean fills a gap between descriptive texts covering the physical processes and the practical numerical approaches needed in research. Designed to convey physical insight into the transfer process, it can also be used as a self-contained manual for practitioners who require accurate modeling of the effects of solar and infrared radiation on natural systems. Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere and Ocean includes a unified treatment of radiation within both the atmosphere and ocean, boundary properties (such as reflectionand absorptance of solid surfaces), heuristic models (Lorentzatom, two-level atom, rotating vibrator), and extensive use of two-stream and approximate methods. State of the-art computational methods are illustrated by a thorough treatment of the discrete-ordinates technique and the correlated-k band absorption method. Exercises and problem sets provide practice in both formulation and solution techniques. Applications to the subjects of solar UV penetration of the atmosphere / ocean system and the greenhause effect serve to illustrate the use of such techniques in modern research. This self-contained, systematic treatment will prepare the student in solving radiative transfer problems across a broad range of subjects.

Description / Table of Contents: Engineers and applied geophsicists routinely encounter interpolation and estimation problems when analyzing data from field observations. Introduction to Geostatistics presents practical techniques for the estimation of spatial functions from sparse data. The author's unique approach is a synthesis of classic and geostatistical methods, with a focus on the most practical linear minimum-variance estimation methods, and includes suggestions on how to test and extend the applicability of such methods. The author includes many useful methods often not covered in other geostatistics books, such as estimating variogram parameters, evaluating the need for a variable mean, parameter estimation and model testing in complex cases (e.g., anisotropy, variable mean, and multiple variables), and using information from deterministic mathematical models. Well illustrated with exercises and worked examples taken from hydrogeology, Introduction to Geostatistics assumes no background in statistics and is suitable for graduate-level courses in earth sciences, hydrology, and environmental engineering and also for self-study.

Description / Table of Contents: Dr Houghton has revised the acclaimed first edition of The Physics of Atmospheres in order to bring this important textbook completely up-to-date. Several factors have led to vigorous growth in the atmospheric sciences, particularly the availability of powerful computers for detailed modelling, the investigation of the atmospheres of other planets, and techniques of remote sensing. The author describes the physical processes governing the structure and circulation of the atmosphere. Simple physical models are constructed by applying the principles of classical thermodynamics, radiative transfer and fluid mechanics, together with analytic and numerical techniques. These models are applied to real planetary atmospheres. This new edition is essential for undergraduates or graduate students studying atmospheric physics, climatology or meteorology, as well as planetary scientists with an interest in atmospheres.