ALBERT

Anmerkung: N.F. entfällt ab 57.2000. - Volltext auch als Teil einer Datenbank verfügbar , Ersch. ab 2000 in engl. Sprache mit dt. Hauptsacht.

Anmerkung: Contents List of Contributors Preface Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Ocean Soundscape 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Seismic Waves 1.2.1 Body Waves 1.2.2 Surface Waves 1.3 Noise Sources in the Oceans 1.3.1 Noise from Geological Origins (Geophony) 1.3.2 Noise from Biological Origins (Biophony) 1.3.3 Noise from Anthropogenic Origins (Anthrophony) 1.4 Tools for Recording Marine Noise 1.4.1 Ocean-Bottom Seismometers 1.4.2 Ocean-Bottom Nodes 1.4.3 Ocean-Bottom Observatories 1.4.4 Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers 1.4.5 Echosounders 1.4.6 Drifters and Floats 1.5 Common Data-Processing Methods 1.5.1 Time-Drift Correction 1.5.2 Data Reduction 1.5.3 Instrument Relocation through Travel-Time Analysis 1.5.4 Rotation for Geophone Reorientation 1.5.5 Converting from Counts to Physical Units 1.5.6 Removing the Mean from the Data Set 1.5.7 Frequency Spectrum, Spectrogram, and Power Spectral Density 1.5.8 Frequency Filtering 1.5.9 Polarization Analysis 1.6 Summary of Chapters 1.7 Future Developments of Acoustic Measurements in the Ocean References Chapter 2 Seismic Ambient Noise: Application to Taiwanese Data 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Background Ambient Seismic Noise in Taiwan 2.3 Ambient Seismic Noise Generated by Intense Storms 2.4 Deepsea Internal Waves Southeast of Offshore Taiwan 2.5 Gas Emissions at the Seafloor and "Bubble" SDEs in SW Offshore Taiwan 2.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 3 Seasonal and Geographical Variations in the Quantified Relationship Between Significant Wave Heights and Microseisms: An Example From Taiwan 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Method and Data Processing 3.2.1 Data 3.2.2 Method 3.3 Testing and Determining Parameters 3.4 Results and Discussion 3.4.1 Seasonal Variation 3.4.2 Geographical Variation 3.4.3 Residual Distributions of the SHW Simulation 3.5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Listening for Diverse Signals From Emergent and Submarine Volcanoes 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Detection and Monitoring of Submarine Volcanism 4.2.1 Hydroacoustic Arrays 4.2.2 Seismometer Arrays 4.2.3 Cabled Systems 4.2.4 Limitations in Detecting Submarine Volcanism 4.3 Diverse Volcano Signals Recorded Underwater 4.3.1 Distinguishing Signal from Noise in the Ocean 4.3.2 High-Frequency Volcanic Signals 4.3.3 Low-Frequency Volcanic Signals 4.3.4 Volcanic Tremor Signals 4.3.5 Volcanic Explosion-Type Signals 4.3.6 Volcanic Landslide Signals 4.4 Conclusions Availability Statement Acknowledgments References Chapter 5 Seismic and Acoustic Monitoring of Submarine Landslides: Ongoing Challenges, Recent Successes, and Future Opportunities 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Recent Advances in Direct Monitoring of Submarine Landslides 5.1.2 Aims 5.2 Passive Geophysical Monitoring of Terrestrial Landslides 5.3 Which Aspects of Submarine Landslides Should We Be Able to Detect with Passive Systems? 5.4 Recent Advances and Opportunities in Passive Monitoring of Submarine Landslides 5.4.1 Determining the Timing and Location of Submarine Landslides at a Margin Scale Using Land-Based Seismological Networks 5.4.2 Quantifying Landslide Kinematics Using Hydrophones 5.4.3 Characterizing Landslide Run-Out to Enhance Hazard Assessments 5.4.4 Opportunities Using Distributed Cable-Based Sensing 5.5 The Application of Passive Geophysical Monitoring in Advancing Submarine Landslide Science 5.5.1 Can Passive Seismic and Acoustic Techniques Overcome the Logistical Challenges That Have Previously Hindered the Monitoring of Submarine Landslides? 5.5.2 What Aspects of Submarine Landslides Can We Assess from Passive Remote Sensing Techniques, and What Needs To Be Resolved? 5.5.3 Suggestions for Future Directions 5.6 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments References Chapter 6 Iceberg Noise 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Waveforms of Iceberg Noise 6.2.1 Iceberg Bursts 6.2.2 Iceberg Tremor 6.2.3 Iceberg Harmonic Tremor 6.3 Observation and Location of Iceberg Noise 6.3.1 Hydroacoustic Records at Long Distances 6.3.2 Records of Regional Hydroacoustic Networks 6.3.3 Seismic Records in Antarctica 6.4 Spatial and Temporal Variations of Iceberg Noise 6.5 Source Mechanisms of Iceberg Noise 6.6 Discussion 6.7 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 7 The Sound of Hydrothermal Vents 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Theory of Sound Production by Hydrothermal Vents 7.2.1 Radiation Efficiency 7.2.2 Monopole 7.2.3 Dipole 7.2.4 Quadrupole 7.2.5 Estimated Source Sound Pressure Levels 7.2.6 Estimated Source Spectra 7.3 Survey of Acoustic Measurements 7.3.1 Very Low Frequency (〈 10 Hz) 7.3.2 Narrowband 7.3.3 Broadband 7.3.4 Tidal Variability 7.3.5 Summary of Acoustic Measurements 7.4 Other Sources of Ambient Noise 7.4.1 Microseisms 7.4.2 Local and Teleseismic Events 7.4.3 Biological Sources 7.4.4 Anthropogenic Sources 7.5 Measurement and Analysis Considerations 7.5.1 Flow Noise and Coupled Vibration 7.5.2 Sound Speed in Hydrothermal Fluid 7.5.3 Near Field vs Far Field 7.5.4 Hydrophone Array Measurements 7.6 Conclusion Nomenclature References Chapter 8 Atypical Signals: Characteristics and Sources of Short-Duration Events 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Signal Characteristics 8.3 Worldwide Distribution of SDEs 8.4 Observations and Studies Advancing SDE Understanding 8.4.1 Observations from Different Types of Ocean Bottom Instruments 8.4.2 Continuous Long-Term, Multidisciplinary Monitoring of Gas Emissions 8.4.3 Correlation with Acoustic Monitoring of Gas Emissions 8.4.4 Correlation with Earthquakes 8.4.5 Correlation with Tides 8.4.6 Controlled in situ and Laboratory Experiments 8.5 Discussion of SDE Potential Sources 8.5.1 Biological Origin 8.5.2 Action of Ocean/Sea Currents 8.5.3 Fluids in Near-Surface Sediments 8.5.4 Low-Magnitude Seismicity 8.5.5 Source Modeling 8.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 9 Short-Duration Events Associated With Active Seabed Methane Venting: Scanner Pockmark, North Sea 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Scanner Pockmark Complex 9.3 CHIMNEY Seismic Experiment 9.4 Methods 9.5 Results 9.6 Discussion 9.6.1 Characteristics of SDEs 9.6.2 Spatial Distribution of SDEs 9.6.3 Negative Correlation with the Tide 9.6.4 Efficiency of SDE Detection 9.7 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 10 Ambient Bubble Acoustics: Seep, Rain, and Wave Noise 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Bubbles as Acoustic Sources 10.2.1 The Injection of a Gas Bubble 10.2.2 Bubbles as Simple Harmonic Oscillators 10.2.3 Minnaert Frequency 10.3 Subsurface Gas Release 10.3.1 Gas-Seep Acoustics 10.4 Rainfall Acoustics 10.5 Acoustics of Breaking Waves 10.6 Conclusion Further Reading Appendix Symbology References Chapter 11 Baleen Whale Vocalizations 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Marine Mammal Classification 11.2 Physical Description of Sound and Its Conventions 11.2.1 Sound Pressure Level (SPL) 11.2.2 Source Level (SL) 11.2.3 Whale-Sound Analysis 11.3 Marine Mammal Vocalizations 11.3.1 Sirenia and Carnivora 11.3.2 Toothed Whales 11.3.3 Baleen Whales 11.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 12 Tracking and Monitoring Fin Whales Offshore Northwest Spain Using Passive Acoustic Methods 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Passive Acoustic Monitoring 12.1.2 Fin Whale Vocalizations 12.1.3 Data Available for This Study 12.2 Methods 12.2.1 Call Detection 12.2.2 Delay Estimation 12.2.3 Localization and Tracking 12.2.4 Kalman Filter 12.3 Results 12.3.1 Detections 12.3.2 Localization 12.3.3 Tracking 12.4 Discussion 12.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 13 Noise From Marine Traffic 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Underwater Radiated Noise 13.2.1 Sources of Shipping Noise 13.2.2 Measuring Radiated Noise 13.2.3 Modeling Underwater Radiated Noise 13.3 Noise Mapping 13.3.1 Modeling Shipping Contributions 13.3.2 Source Properties 13.3.3 Acoustic Propagation 13.3.4 Noise-Mapping Applications 13.4 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 14 Tracking Multiple Underwater Vessels With Passive Sonar Using Beamforming and a Trajectory PHD Filter 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Narrow-Band Signal Model 14.3 Detection via Beamforming and CA-CFAR 14.3.1 CBF 14.3.2 CA-CFAR 14.4 T

Anmerkung: Long problems -- Why long problems are hard to govern -- Forward action : addressing the early action paradox -- The long view : addressing shadow interests -- Endurance and adaptability : addressing institutional lag -- Studying long problems -- Governing time.

Anmerkung: Part 1: Recycling in context Chapter 1: Introduction Abstract 1.1: The Challenges 1.2: The Role of Materials in Society 1.3: From Linear to Circular Economy 1.4: Recycling in the Circular Economy 1.5: The Book References Chapter 2: The fundamental limits of circularity quantified by digital twinning Abstract 2.1: Introduction 2.2: A Product and Material Focus on Recycling Within the CE 2.3: Digital Twinning of the CE System: Understanding the Opportunities and Limits 2.4: Opportunities and Challenges References Chapter 3: Maps of the physical economy to inform sustainability strategies Abstract Acknowledgments 3.1: Introduction 3.2: Dimensions of MFA 3.3: Components for Monitoring the Physical Economy 3.4: Application of the Framework: Maps of the Aluminum Cycle 3.5: Recommendations References Chapter 4: Material efficiency—Squaring the circular economy: Recycling within a hierarchy of material management strategies Abstract 4.1: Is a Circular Economy Possible or Desirable? 4.2: Hierarchies of Material Conservation 4.3: When Is Recycling Not the Answer? 4.4: Discussion References Chapter 5: Material and product-centric recycling: design for recycling rules and digital methods Abstract Acknowledgements 5.1: Introduction 5.2: Recyclability Index and Ecolabeling of Products 5.3: DfR Rules and Guidelines 5.4: Product-Centric Recycling 5.5: Examples of Recycling System Simulation 5.6: Summary 5.7: Future Challenges References Additional Reading Chapter 6: Developments in collection of municipal waste Abstract 6.1: Introduction 6.2: Definitions and Models 6.3: A Global Picture of SWM 6.4: Collection and Recovery Systems 6.5: Future Developments 6.6: Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 7: The path to inclusive recycling: Developing countries and the informal sector Abstract 7.1: Introduction 7.2: Definition and Links With the Formal Sector 7.3: Informal Waste Tire Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities 7.4: Approaches Towards Inclusive Recycling 7.5: Policies and Standardization Developments for Inclusive Recycling 7.6: Conclusion and Outlook References Part 2: Recycling from a product perspective Chapter 8: Physical separation Abstract 8.1: Introduction 8.2: Properties and Property Spaces 8.3: Breakage 8.4: Particle Size Classification 8.5: Gravity Separation 8.6: Flotation 8.7: Magnetic Separation 8.8: Eddy Current Separation 8.9: Electrostatic Separation 8.10: Sorting 8.11: Conclusion References Chapter 9: Sensor-based sorting Abstract 9.1: Mechanical Treatment of Waste 9.2: Principle of Sensor-Based Sorting 9.3: Requirements for Optimal Sorting Results 9.4: Available Sensors 9.5: Application of Different Sensors in Recycling 9.6: Recent Developments 9.7: Outlook References Chapter 10: Mixed bulky waste Abstract 10.1: Introduction 10.2: The Circular Process for Mixed Bulky Waste 10.3: Conditions for Economically Viable Sorting 10.4: Sorting of Mixed Bulky Waste 10.5: Sorting Process 10.6: Recycling Efficiency 10.7: Conclusion and Outlook Reference Chapter 11: Packaging Abstract 11.1: Introduction 11.2: Packaging Waste 11.3: Composition 11.4: Recovery and Recycling 11.5: Collection and Recovery Schemes 11.6: Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 12: End-of-life vehicles Abstract 12.1: Introduction 12.2: Vehicle Composition 12.3: Recycling Chain 12.4: Recycling of Automotive parts 12.5: Recycling of Automotive Fluids 12.6: Automotive Shredder Residue 12.7: Future Developments and Outlook 12.8: Conclusions References Further Reading Chapter 13: Electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) Abstract 13.1: Introduction 13.2: Waste Characterization 13.3: Recycling Chain and Technologies 13.4: Future Developments 13.5: Conclusions References Chapter 14: Photovoltaic and wind energy equipment Abstract 14.1: Introduction 14.2: Wind Turbines 14.3: Photovoltaic Modules 14.4: Wind Turbine Recycling 14.5: PV Recycling 14.6: Future Developments 14.7: Key Issues and Challenges 14.8: Conclusions and Outlook References Chapter 15: Buildings Abstract 15.1: The Why: Buildings and Circularity 15.2: The How and Who: A Framework 15.3: The When: Shearing Layers 15.4: The What: Materials in Buildings 15.5: Improving Data on Materials 15.6: The How, Who, When, and What 15.7: Outlook References Chapter 16: Construction and demolition waste Abstract Acknowledgments 16.1: Introduction 16.2: C&D Waste Use 16.3: Recycling 16.4: Recycling Technologies and Practice 16.5: Future Developments 16.6: Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 17: Industrial by-products Abstract 17.1: Waste, By-product, or Product? 17.2: Major By-products 17.3: Where and How to Use By-products 17.4: Technical and Environmental Requirements 17.5: Sustainability Aspects 17.6: Conclusions, Challenges, and Outlook References Chapter 18: Mine tailings Abstract 18.1: Introduction 18.2: Future Opportunities for Tailings Management 18.3: Main Drivers for Change 18.4: Emerging Technologies 18.5: Conclusions and Outlook References Further Reading Part 3: Recycling from a material perspective Chapter 19: Steel Abstract 19.1: Introduction 19.2: Use Phase and Recycling Examples 19.3: Classification of Steel Scrap 19.4: Requirements for Scrap 19.5: Treatment Process 19.6: Steel Scrap Smelting Process 19.7: Steel 19.8: Alloy or Tramp Elements? 19.9: Purification of Scrap 19.10: Outlook References Further Reading Chapter 20: Aluminum Abstract 20.1: Introduction 20.2: Alloys and Their Recycling 20.3: Melt Loss 20.4: Used Beverage Can (UBC) Recycling 20.5: Wheel Recycling 20.6: Dross Processing 20.7: Purification and Refining 20.8: Future Trends and Challenges References Chapter 21: Copper Abstract 21.1: Sources of Copper Scrap 21.2: Smelting and Refining of Copper Scrap 21.3: Conclusions and Outlook References Further Reading Chapter 22: Lead Abstract 22.1: Introduction 22.2: Material Use 22.3: The Lead-Acid Battery 22.4: Recycling Technologies 22.5: Future Developments 22.6: Key Issues and Challenges References Chapter 23: Zinc Abstract 23.1: Introduction 23.2: Recycling Technologies 23.3: Key Issues and Challenges References Chapter 24: Ferroalloy elements Abstract 24.1: Introduction 24.2: Use and Recycling 24.3: Recycling of Residues 24.4: Conclusion References Chapter 25: Precious and technology metals Abstract 25.1: Introduction 25.2: Applications 25.3: Scrap Types and Quantities 25.4: Recycling Technologies 25.5: Future Challenges 25.6: Conclusions and Outlook Further reading References Chapter 26: Concrete and aggregates Abstract Acknowledgment 26.1: Introduction 26.2: Waste Flows 26.3: Recovery Rates 26.4: Recycled Aggregate Concrete Applications 26.5: Concrete Recycling Technologies 26.6: Future Developments 26.7: Conclusion References Chapter 27: Cementitious binders incorporating residues Abstract 27.1: Introduction 27.2: Clinker Production: Process, and Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials 27.3: From Clinker to Cement: Residues in Blended Cements 27.4: Alternative Cements With Lower Environmental Footprint 27.5: Conclusions and Outlook References Chapter 28: Glass Abstract 28.1: Introduction 28.2: Types of Glass 28.3: Manufacturing 28.4: Recovery for Reuse and Recycling 28.5: Reuse 28.6: Closed-Loop Recycling 28.7: Open-Loop Recycling 28.8: Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 29: Lumber Abstract 29.1: Introduction 29.2: Wood Material Uses 29.3: Postuse Wood Recovery for Recycling 29.4: Postuse Wood Recycling 29.5: Case Study Scenarios 29.6: Future Developments 29.7: Concluding Remarks References Chapter 30: Paper Abstract 30.1: Introduction 30.2: Collection and Utilization 30.3: Collection and Sorting Systems 30.4: Stock Preparation 30.5: Key Issues and Future Challenges References Further Reading Chapter 31: Plastic recycling Abstract 31.1: Introduction 31.2: Use 31.3: Recycling 31.4: Mechanical Recycling 31.5: Chemical Recycling 31.6: Impact of Recycling 31.7: Conclusions and Outlook References Further Reading Chapter 32: Black rubber products Abstract 32.1: Introduction 32.2: Mechanical Rubber Go

Anmerkung: Contents Preface Contributors PART I AN OVERVIEW OF THE DIVERSITY OF BACTERIOPHAGES 1 Structural and Genomic Diversity of Bacteriophages / Bert Ely, Jacob Lenski, and Tannaz Mohammadi 2 The Diversity of Bacteriophages in the Human Gut / Amanda Carroll-Portillo, Derek M. Lin, and Henry C. Lin 3 Breaking the Ice: A Review of Phages in Polar Ecosystems / Mara Elena Heinrichs, Gonçalo J. Piedade, Ovidiu Popa, Pacifica Sommers, Gareth Trubl, Julia Weissenbach, and Janina Rahlff 4 The Diversity of Bacteriophages in Hot Springs / Timothy J. Marks and Isabella R. Rowland PART II ISOLATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES 5 Isolation of Bacteriophages from Soil Samples in a Poorly Equipped Field Laboratory in Kruger National Park / Ayesha Hassim and Kgaugelo Edward Lekota 6 Purification and Up-Concentration of Bacteriophages and Viruses from Fecal Samples / Frej Larsen, Rasmus Riemer Jakobsen, Xiaotian Mao, Josue Castro-Mejia, Ling Deng, and Dennis S. Nielsen 7 Isolation of Enterococcus Bacteriophages from Municipal Wastewater Samples Using an Enrichment Step / Cory Schwarz and Jacques Mathieu 8 Phage DNA Extraction, Genome Assembly, and Genome Closure / Justin Boeckman, Mei Liu, Jolene Ramsey, and Jason Gill PART III ENUMERATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES 9 Enumeration of Bacteriophages by Plaque Assay / Diana Elizabeth Waturangi 10 Detection and Quantification of Bacteriophages in Wastewater Samples by Culture and Molecular Methods/ Laura Sala-Comorera, Maite Muniesa, and Lorena Rodríguez-Rubio 11 Flow Virometry: A Fluorescence-Based Approach to Enumerate Bacteriophages in Liquid Samples / Elena A. Dlusskaya and Rafik Dey 12 A Metagenomics Approach to Enumerate Bacteriophages in a Food Niche / Kelsey White, Giovanni Eraclio, Gabriele Andrea Lugli, Marco Ventura, Jennifer Mahony, Fabio Dal Bello, and Douwe van Sinderen PART IV CHARACTERIZATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES 13 Bioinformatic Analysis of Staphylococcus Phages: A Key Step for Safe Cocktail Development / Soledad Telma Carrasco and He´ctor Ricardo Morbidoni 14 Use of Localized Reconstruction to Visualize the Shigella Phage Sf6 Tail Apparatus / Chun-Feng David Hou, Fenglin Li, Stephano Iglesias, and Gino Cingolani 15 Bacteriophage–Host Interactions and Coevolution / Diana M. Álvarez-Espejo, Dácil Rivera, and Andrea I. Moreno-Switt 16 Unraveling Physical Interactions of Clostridioides difficile with Phage and Phage-Derived Proteins Using In Vitro and Whole-Cell Assays / Wichuda Phothichaisri, Tanaporn Phetruen, Surang Chankhamhaengdecha, Tavan Janvilisri, Puey Ounjai, Robert P. Fagan, and Sittinan Chanarat 17 Phage Transduction of Staphylococcus aureus / Melissa-Jane Chu Yuan Kee and John Chen PART V APPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES AND BACTERIOPHAGE-DERIVED COMPONENTS 18 The Next Generation of Drug Delivery: Harnessing the Power of Bacteriophages / Alaa A. A. Aljabali, Mohammad B. M. Aljbaly, Mohammad A. Obeid, Seyed Hossein Shahcheraghi, and Murtaza M. Tambuwala 19 Construction of Nonnatural Cysteine-Cross-Linked Phage Libraries / Brittney Chau, Kristi Liivak, and Jianmin Gao 20 Application of Deep Sequencing in Phage Display / Vincent Van Deuren, Sander Plessers, Rob Lavigne, and Johan Robben 21 The Application of Bacteriophage and Photoacoustic Flow Cytometry in Bacterial Identification / Robert H. Edgar, Anie-Pier Samson, and John A. Viator 22 Propagation, Purification, and Characterization of Bacteriophages for Phage Therapy / Katarzyna Kosznik-Kwaśnicka, Gracja Topka, Jagoda Mantej, Łukasz Grabowski, Agnieszka Necel, Grzegorz Węgrzyn, and Alicja Węgrzyn 23 Overcoming Bacteriophage Resistance in Phage Therapy / Elina Laanto 24 Bacteriophage Virus-Like Particles: Platforms for Vaccine Design / Ebenezer Tumban Index

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2024 , Content Preface Acknowledgements Summary Zusammenfassung Abbreviations 1. Introduction 1.1. Peatlands 1.1.1. Peatland development and peat bog succession 1.1.2. Characteristic peatlands of the northern hemisphere 1.1.3. Anthropogenic threats of northern peatlands 1.1.4. Peat bog restoration 1.2. Peatland bryophytes 1.2.1. Brown mosses 1.2.2. Sphagnum mosses 1.3. Moss microbiota 1.3.1. Moss-associated bacteria 1.3.2. Moss-associated archaea 1.3.3. Endophytic prokaryotic communities 1.4. Biotic and abiotic influences on moss-associated microorganisms 1.5. Objectives 1.6. Study sites 1.6.1. High Arctic peatlands of Svalbard (SV) 1.6.2. Polygonal Tundra of Samoylov (SA) 1.6.3. Palsa Bogs of Neiden (NEI) 1.6.4. Kettle Bog Peatlands of Mueritz National Park (MUE) 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Sampling scheme overview 2.2. Sampling of pore water 2.3. Sampling of moss plantlets 2.4. Analysis of pore water chemistry 2.5. Cell wall analysis 2.5.1. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) 2.5.2. Holocellulose (HC) 2.5.3. Lignin and Lignin-like polymers (LLP) 2.5.4. Bulk moss litter analysis 2.6. Moss surface sterilisation and separation of putative epiphytic and endophytic microbial communities 2.7. DNA extraction and sequencing 2.8. Sequence analyses and bioinformatics 2.9. Statistical analyses 2.10. Potential methane production and oxidation assays 2.10.1. Surface sterilisation prior to activity tests 2.10.2. Methane production 2.10.3. Methane oxidation 3. Results 3.1. Peatland bulk and pore water characteristics 3.2. Diversity and structure of natural peatland microbial communities 3.3. Environmental drivers of moss-associated microbial communities 3.4. Microbial taxa associated with brown mosses and Sphagnum mosses 3.4.1. Moss-associated bacteria 3.4.2. Moss-associated archaea 3.4.3. Bacterial and archaeal core communities 3.4.4. Acetobacteraceae as dominant taxon of the bacterial core community 3.5. Sphagnum bacteriomes of disturbed, rewetted and pristine temperate kettle bog 3.6. Potential moss-associated methane production and methane oxidation rates 3.6.1. Moss-associated methane production 3.6.2. Moss-associated methane oxidation 4. Discussion 4.1. Environmental influences on moss-associated bacterial communities 4.2. Moss-associated archaeal communities and their environmental drivers 4.3. Distinct patterns of endophytic bacteria 4.4. The core microbiota and their possible role for peatland succession 4.5. The potential role of Acetobacteraceae for Sphagnum host mosses and bog ecosystems 4.6. Moss-associated microbial communities of the methane cycle and their potential metabolic activity 4.7. Diversity and structure of Sphagnum bacteriomes from pristine, disturbed and rewetted kettle bogs 5. Conclusion 6. Critical remarks and outlook 6.1. Critical remarks 6.2. Outlook Bibliography Supplementary

Anmerkung: Contents: 1 Introduction: inequality and the environment 1 Michael A. Long, Michael J. Lynch, and Paul B. Stretesky PART I THEORETICAL TRADITIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 2 Treadmill of production 11 Amalia Leguizamón 3 Substantive inequality and the alienated metabolism of the capital system 28 Brett Clark, John Bellamy Foster, and Daniel Auerbach 4 Ecologically unequal exchange 44 Kelly F. Austin 5 Social inequalities, environmental crises, and the STIRPAT model 59 Patrick Trent Greiner, Julius Alexander McGee, and Richard York 6 Environmental justice 71 David N. Pellow 7 Money, value, and entropy 86 Alf Hornborg PART II RIGHTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 8 Greenwashed relations of genocide 103 Martin Crook and Damien Short 9 Environmental inequality and rights of nature among Indigenous Peoples in North America 125 Julie Schweitzer, Olivia M. Fleming, and Tamara L. Mix 10 Nonhuman Animal rights 147 Corey L. Wrenn PART III RACE/ETHNICITY, INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 11 Race and environmental inequality 162 Md Belal Hossain 12 Environmental inequality in West Africa 181 Jessie K. Luna and Gabin Korbeogo 13 Energy development and sociocultural inequality among First Nation Peoples 200 Duane A. Gill and Liesel A. Ritchie PART IV GENDER AND ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 14 Gender and environmental inequality 225 Laura A. McKinney and Devin Wright 15 Gender and nonhuman animals 243 Amy Fitzgerald and Nik Taylor 16 Gender, large-scale resource extraction, and environmental inequality in Latin America 262 Inge A.M. Boudewijn and Katy Jenkins PART V THE ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 17 Organizational political economy, corporate power, and the great acceleration of environmental pollution in the United States 285 Harland Prechel 18 Inequality, emissions, and human well-being 305 Jennifer E. Givens, Orla M. Kelly, and Andrew K. Jorgenson 19 Working time, inequality, and sustainability 322 Jared B. Fitzgerald and Juliet Schor PART VI THE STATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL INEQUALITY 20 Democracy and environmental inequality 343 Liam Downey and Brigid Mark 21 Environmental criminal enforcement and environmental justice in the United States 362 Joshua Ozymy and Melissa Jarrell Ozymy 22 Non-criminal enforcement and environmental inequality in the United States 380 Tara O’Connor Shelley and Anne E. Egelston 23 Incarceration and environmental inequality 402 Maggie Leόn-Corwin, Jericho R. McElroy, and Michelle L. Estes 24 Grassland conservation and environmental inequality in Inner Mongolia, China 425 KuoRay Mao, Qian Zhang, and Micaela Truslove PART VII CLIMATE AND INEQUALITY 25 Climate change governance, environment, and inequality in Latin America 446 Ruth E. McKie 26 Social theory and climate change in the interregnum 460 Robert J. Antonio 27 Hurricanes, floods, and environmental inequality 486 Jayajit Chakraborty, Timothy W. Collins, Aaron B. Flores, and Sara E. Grineski PART VIII NATURAL RESOURCES AND INEQUALITY 28 Coal and environmental inequality 502 Ryan Wishart and Pierce Greenberg 29 Hydraulic fracturing and environmental inequality 527 Stephanie A. Malin, Adam Mayer, and Shawn Hazboun 30 Uranium mining, environmental inequality, and Native American health 551 Averi R. Fegadel PART IX FOOD INSECURITY, INJUSTICE, AND INEQUALITY 31 Food insecurity, inequality, and the environment 570 Stephen J. Scanlan 32 Food insecurity and inequality among young people in the United States 597 Lara Gonçalves Index

Anmerkung: Inhaltsverzeichnis Vorwort Kapitel 1 Dringlichst gesucht – Wege aus der Klimakrise Alarmstufe Rot für Mensch und Natur Lösungen für das Treibhausgas-Problem? CONCLUSIO: Die Klimakrise kennt nur eine Lösung: Treibhausgasneutralität Kapitel 2 Die Rolle des Ozeans im Kohlenstoffkreislauf der Erde Wie der Ozean Kohlendioxid aufnimmt CONCLUSIO: Kohlenstoffspeicher Ozean: Riesig, effizient und in Gefahr 67 Kapitel 3 Das ungenutzte Klimaschutzpotenzial der Ökosysteme an Land Wälder, Wiesen und Böden als Kohlenstoffspeicher CONCLUSIO: Lösungen, die viel zu selten umgesetzt werden Kapitel 4 Marine CDR-Verfahren: Forschung unter Zeit- und Erwartungsdruck Ein Ozean der Möglichkeiten oder gefährlicher Hype? Kapitel 5 Mehr Kohlenstoffeinlagerung in Wiesen und Wäldern des Meeres? Blue Carbon: Ein Lösungsansatz mit doppeltem Nutzen CONCLUSIO: Küstenökosysteme: Marine Kohlenstoffsenke mit unverzichtbaren Zusatzleistungen Kapitel 6 Künstlicher Auftrieb: Die Idee von der Begrünung des Ozeans Eine Anschubhilfe für die biologische Kohlenstoffpumpe CONCLUSIO: Künstlicher Auftrieb – Prädikat: „nur bedingt nützlich“ Kapitel 7 Gezielte Eingriffe in die Meereschemie Alkalinitätserhöhung: Verfahren in den Kinderschuhen CONCLUSIO: Alkalinitätserhöhung – theoretisch verstanden, im Feld jedoch kaum getestet Kapitel 8 Kohlendioxid verpressen tief unter dem Meer Gasspeicherung in Sandsteinschichten und Basaltgestein CONCLUSIO: Kohlendioxidspeicherung unter dem Meer: Ein umstrittenes Verfahren im Aufwind Kapitel 9 Leitprinzipien und Regeln für einen Einsatz mariner CDR-Verfahren Wie regelt man eine verstärkte CO2-Aufnahme des Meeres? CONCLUSIO: Regulierung möglicher CDR-Einsätze: Gebraucht werden klare Strategien und Vorschriften Gesamt-Conclusio Abkürzungen Quellenverzeichnis Mitwirkende Index Partner und Danksagung Abbildungsverzeichnis Impressum .

Anmerkung: Contents Contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgments 1. Background and Approach / Michael D. Delong, Martin C. Thoms, Timothy D. Jardine, and Arthur C. Benke INTRODUCTION BASIC APPROACH CHAPTER CONTENTS AND BACKGROUND REFERENCES 2. Atlantic Coast Rivers of the Northeastern United States / John K. Jackson, Sally A. Entrekin, Hamish S. Greig, and Allison H. Roy INTRODUCTION KENNEBEC RIVER MERRIMACK RIVER HOUSATONIC RIVER RARITAN RIVER MULLICA RIVER PATUXENT RIVER POTOMAC RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 3. Atlantic Coast Rivers of the Southeastern United States / Cecil A. Jennings, Elizabeth P. Anderson, Arthur C. Benke, Tom J. Kwak, Mark C. Scott, and Leonard A Smock INTRODUCTION YORK RIVER ROANOKE RIVER GREAT PEE DEE RIVER SANTEE RIVER EDISTO RIVER ALTAMAHA RIVER SATILLA RIVER ST. MARYS RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 4. Gulf Coast Rivers of the Southeastern United States / G. Milton Ward, Amelia K. Ward, and Phillip M. Harris INTRODUCTION PASCAGOULA RIVER TOMBIGBEE RIVER BLACK WARRIOR RIVER COOSA-TALLAPOOSA RIVERS CONECUH-ESCAMBIA RIVER CHOCTAWHATCHEE RIVER FLINT RIVER CALOOSAHATCHEE RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 5. Gulf Coast Rivers of the Southwestern United States / Jude A. Benavides, John Karges, Kevin B. Mayes, Hanadi S. Rifai, and Cyndi V. Castro INTRODUCTION PECOS RIVER DEVILS RIVER NUECES RIVER NUECES-RIO GRANDE BASIN SAN MARCOS RIVER TRINITY RIVER SAN JACINTO RIVER NECHES RIVER ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES 6. Rivers of the Lower Mississippi Basin / Clifford A. Ochs, Joseph Baustian, Audrey B. Harrison, Paul Hartfield, Carol Johnston, Catherine A. Justis, Daniel Larsen, Andrew Mickelson, Bryan P. Piazza, and Jonathan J. Spurgeon INTRODUCTION CURRENT RIVER CACHE RIVER HATCHIE RIVER WOLF RIVER OUACHITA RIVER SALINE RIVER BIG SUNFLOWER RIVER ATCHAFALAYA RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 7. Southern Plains Rivers / Caryn C. Vaughn, Keith B. Gido, Kevin R. Bestgen, Joshuah S. Perkin, and Steven P. Platania INTRODUCTION ARKANSAS RIVER HEADWATERS CANADIAN RIVER HEADWATERS CIMARRON RIVER NINNESCAH RIVER NEOSHO RIVER ILLINOIS RIVER WASHITA RIVER KIAMICHI RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 8. Upper Mississippi River Basin / Michael D. Delong, Gregory W. Whitledge, Charles H. Theiling, and James T. Lamer INTRODUCTION CHIPPEWA RIVER ROOT RIVER WAPSIPINICON RIVER DES MOINES-SKUNK RIVERS ROCK RIVER SANGAMON RIVER MERAMEC RIVER KASKASKIA RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 9. Ohio River Basin / David S. White and Susan P. Hendricks INTRODUCTION GREEN RIVER KENTUCKY RIVER GREAT MIAMI RIVER LICKING RIVER SCIOTO RIVER MUSKINGUM RIVER ALLEGHENY RIVER MONONGAHELA RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 10. Missouri River Basin / David L. Galat, Patrick J. Braaten, Christopher Guy, Christopher Hoagstrom, Travis Horton, David Moser, and Craig Paukert INTRODUCTION MADISON RIVER MILK RIVER CHEYENNE RIVER NIOBRARA RIVER BIG SIOUX RIVER KANSAS RIVER GRAND RIVER OSAGE RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 11. Colorado River Basin / Anya N. Metcalfe, Jeffrey D. Muehlbauer, Morgan A. Ford, and Theodore A. Kennedy INTRODUCTION GUNNISON RIVER SAN JUAN RIVER VIRGIN RIVER BILL WILLIAMS RIVER BLACK RIVER VERDE RIVER SALT RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 12. Pacific Coast Rivers of the Coterminous United States / Arthur C. Benke, Vincent H. Resh, Patina K. Mendez, Peter B. Moyle, and Stanley V. Gregory INTRODUCTION SKAGIT RIVER UMPQUA RIVER EEL RIVER RUSSIAN RIVER SANTA ANA RIVER SANTA MARGARITA RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 13. Columbia River Basin / Jack A. Stanford, Audrey Thompson, Eli Asher, Stanley V. Gregory, Gordon Reeves, Don Ratliff, Nick Bouwes, Christopher Frissell, and Richard N. Williams INTRODUCTION METHOW RIVER WENATCHEE RIVER COWLITZ RIVER SPOKANE RIVER DESCHUTES RIVER JOHN DAY RIVER GRANDE RONDE RIVER CLEARWATER RIVER OWYHEE RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 14. Great Basin Rivers / Dennis K. Shiozawa, Andrea L. Kokkonen, Peter C. Searle, and Samantha A. Tilden INTRODUCTION CARSON RIVER MARYS RIVER WEBER RIVER PROVO RIVER SPANISH FORK RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 15. Fraser River Basin / Eduardo G. Martins, Stephen J. Déry, and David A. Patterson INTRODUCTION WEST ROAD (BLACKWATER) RIVER QUESNEL RIVER CHILCOTIN RIVER LILLOOET-HARRISON RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 16. Pacific Coast Rivers of Canada and Alaska / Alexander M. Milner, Kristin Carpenter, Michael D. Delong, Jonathan Moore, Gordon Reeves, and Ciara Sharpe INTRODUCTION CHILKAT RIVER COPPER RIVER NASS RIVER NUSHAGAK RIVER TAKU RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 17. Yukon River Basin / Robert C. Bailey and Christopher R. Burn INTRODUCTION TESLIN RIVER PELLY RIVER WHITE RIVER STEWART RIVER PORCUPINE RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 18. Mackenzie River Basin / Joseph M. Culp, Eric A. Luiker, Robert B. Brua, Jordan L. Musetta-Lambert, Daryl B. Halliwell, and Jennifer Lento INTRODUCTION SMOKY RIVER STEEPBANK RIVER HAY RIVER SOUTH NAHANNI RIVER YELLOWKNIFE RIVER ARCTIC RED RIVER PEEL RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 19. Nelson and Churchill River Basins / lain Phillips, Timothy D. Jardine, Karl-Erich Lindenschmidt, Cherie Westbrook, and John Pomeroy INTRODUCTION SIBBALD CREEK BOW RIVER BEAVER RIVER OTTER TAIL RIVER QU’APPELLE RIVER DAUPHIN RIVER SMITH CREEK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 20. Rivers of Arctic North America / Jennifer Lento, Sarah M. Laske, Eric A. Luiker, Joseph M. Culp, Leslie Jones, Christian E. Zimmerman, and Wendy A. Monk INTRODUCTION KOBUK RIVER COLVILLE RIVER THELON RIVER KAZAN RIVER KOROC RIVER NAKVAK BROOK THOMSEN RIVER RUGGLES RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 21. Atlantic Coast Rivers of Canada / Wendy A. Monk, Michelle A. Gray, James H. McCarthy, Kurt M. Samways, and R. Allen Curry INTRODUCTION CHURCHILL RIVER HUMBER RIVER MARGAREE RIVER BEDEQUE BAY COMPLEX FUNDY COMPLEX CASCAPEDIA RIVER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 22. St. Lawrence River—Great Lakes Basin / Gary A. Lamberti, Andrew F. Casper, David M. Costello, and David J. Janetski INTRODUCTION AU SABLE RIVER BLACK RIVER CUYAHOGA RIVER MAUMEE RIVER MUSKEGON RIVER ONTONAGON RIVER RIVIERE RICHELIEU RIVIERE SAINT-MAURICE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 23. Rivers of Mexico / Allison A. Pease, Krista A. Capps, Maria M. Castillo, Dean A. Hendrickson, Manuel Mendoza-Carranza, Rocio Rodiles-Hernandez, Colton Avila, and Topiltzin Contreras-MacBeath INTRODUCTION RIO FUERTE RIO SALADO RIO NAZAS-AGUANAVAL RIO TAMESI RIO BALSAS RIO DE LA SIERRA RIO LACANTUN RIO HONDO ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 24. Rivers of North America: Overview and Future Prospects / J. David Allan, Mary L. Khoury, Michael D. Delong, Timothy D. Jardine, and Arthur C. Benke THE VARIETY OF RIVERS RESTORATION AND RECOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA’S RIVERS CONCLUSION REFERENCES Appendix Glossary Index of Rivers

Anmerkung: Contents: 1 Introduction to the Handbook on Critical Political Economy and Public Policy 1 Christoph Scherrer, Ana Garcia and Joscha Wullweber PART I THEORIES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY WITH PUBLIC POLICY IMPLICATIONS 2 Plurality of political economy approaches to the global division of labor 20 Christoph Scherrer 3 The cultural political economy approach to public policy 36 Bob Jessop and Ngai-Ling Sum 4 Institutionalist, regulationist and dependency approaches to transition countries’ economic policies 49 Joachim Becker 5 COVID-19 and the gender dilemma: blind spots in both macroeconomics and feminist economics 65 Brigitte Young 6 Ordoliberalism’s advice for economic policymaking 80 Pavlos Roufos 7 What is neoliberal about new public management? 95 Sahil Jai Dutta, Samuel Knafo and Ian Lovering PART II METHODS 8 Historical-materialist policy analysis of climate change policies 110 Etienne Schneider, Alina Brad, Ulrich Brand, Mathias Krams and Valerie Lenikus 9 Beyond methodological Fordism: the case for incorporated comparisons 127 Alexander Gallas PART III ENVIRONMENT 10 Land grabbing, financialization and dispossession in the 21st century: new and old forms of land control in Latin America 144 Karina Kato and Sergio Leite 11 Extractive economies and public policies: critical perspectives from Latin America 159 Bruno Milanez and Ana Garcia 12 Ecological perspectives on sustainability in China 176 Lau Kin Chi 13 Looking south: megaprojects, borders and (in)mobilities 186 Ana Esther Ceceña and Sergio Prieto Díaz PART IV FINANCE 14 Challenges for monetary policies in the 21st century: financial crises and shadow banking 204 Joscha Wullweber 15 Governance of the eurozone in the face of transnational crises dynamics 219 Hans-Jürgen Bieling 16 Chinese capitalism and the global economic order: the impact of China’s rise on global economic regulation 232 Jenny Simon 17 Taming dollarization hysteresis: evidence from post-socialist countries 247 Ia Eradze PART V LABOUR 18 Global exploitation chains in agriculture 262 Praveen Jha and Paris Yeros 19 The development of labor policies in China: from passive revolution to eroding hegemony 279 Elaine Sio-ieng Hui 20 The political economy of minimum wage policies 293 Hansjörg Herr 21 Just transitions: a historical relations analysis 310 Dimitris Stevis PART VI TAXATION 22 Critical political economy of taxation 327 Hanna Lierse 23 Global tax governance 341 Matti Ylönen and Lauri Finér 24 Globalization, international tax policy and the OECD 356 Lyne Latulippe PART VII TRADE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 25 Postcolonial critique of economic development 374 Aram Ziai 26 Economic cycles and rural policies in the People’s Republic of China 387 Sit Tsui, Yan Xiaohui, He Zhixiong and Wen Tiejun 27 Trade and investment agreements from a critical international political economy perspective 402 Luciana Ghiotto 28 South Africa’s failed privatization, commercialization and deregulation of network infrastructure 413 Greg Ruiters and Patrick Bond PART VIII WELFARE 29 Care in global value chains 430 Christa Wichterich 30 The cultural political economy of housing policy in the era of the Islamist Justice and Development Party in Turkey 446 Ismail Doga Karatepe 31 The financialization of social policy: an overview 461 Lena Lavinas, Lucas Bressan, Pedro Rubin and Ana Carolina Cordilha 32 The political economy of global health and public policies 476 Jameson Martins and Deisy de Freitas Lima Ventura Index

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2024 , Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 The Arctic sea-ice cover 1.1.1 Sea ice in the coupled Arctic climate system 1.1.2 Recent changes of the Arctic sea ice 1.2 The atmosphere as driver of sea-ice variability 1.2.1 Large-scale circulation patterns 1.2.2 Role of cyclones 1.3 Thesis structure and research questions 2 Theory and methods 2.1 Synoptic cyclones 2.1.1 Related fundamentals of atmospheric dynamics 2.1.2 Cyclone activity in the Arctic 2.2 Cyclone tracking and cyclone occurrence mask 2.3 Dynamic and thermodynamic sea-ice variability related to cyclones 3 New insights into cyclone impacts on sea ice in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic Ocean in winter 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Data and methods 3.3.1 Database and cyclone identification 3.3.2 Quantification of cyclone impacts on SIC 3.4 Cyclone impacts on SIC 3.4.1 Effects of different time scales and regions 3.4.2 Effects of SIC conditions and cyclone depth 3.4.3 Spatial variability of SIC response to cyclones 3.4.4 Relation to near-surface wind and surface energy budget 3.5 Signature of ’New Arctic’ conditions 3.6 Conclusions 3.7 Supplementary material 4 Impact of three intense winter cyclones on the sea ice cover in the Barents Sea: A case study with a coupled regional climate model 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Data and methods 4.3.1 HIRHAM–NAOSIM simulation 4.3.2 Supplementary evaluation data 4.3.3 Dynamic and thermodynamic contributions to sea-ice changes 4.4 Results 4.4.1 Cyclone cases 4.4.2 Cyclone impacts on SEB 4.4.3 Cyclone impacts on sea-ice concentration (SIC) 4.4.4 Cyclone impacts on sea-ice thickness (SIT) 4.4.5 Context to other cyclone cases during the MOSAiC winter 4.5 Discussion and conclusions 4.6 Supplementary material 5 Cyclone impacts on sea ice concentration in the Atlantic Arctic Ocean: Annual cycle and recent changes 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Data and methods 5.4 Changes in cyclones and traversed sea ice 5.5 Cyclone impacts on SIC 5.5.1 Annual cycle in the old Arctic 5.5.2 Changes in the new Arctic 5.5.3 Regional changes in autumn 5.6 Conclusions 5.7 Supplementary material 6 Conclusions and Outlook 6.1 What is the statistical impact of cyclone passages on sea-ice concentration (SIC) in the Atlantic Arctic Ocean? 6.2 What are the individual contributions of dynamic and thermodynamic processes to sea-ice changes related to cyclones? 6.3 Do the SIC impacts of cyclones change in a warming Arctic and what are the related mechanisms? 6.4 Ways forward Appendix: Cyclones modulate the control of the North Atlantic Oscillation on transports into the Barents Sea Bibliography

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2024 , Table of Contents Summary Deutsche Zusammenfassung 1 Introduction 1.1 Arctic ecosystems under global warming 1.2 The plant-associated microbiome 1.3 Drivers of soil development 1.4 Ancient DNA to unravel past ecosystems 1.4.1 Lake sediments as archives of past community changes 1.4.2 Metabarcoding for targeting specific communities 1.4.3 Shotgun sequencing for broader overview 1.5 Thesis objective 1.6 Thesis outline and author contributions 2 Manuscript I 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Materials and Methods 2.3.1 Primer design and evaluation In silico analyses Evaluation of lake sediment core DNA for analyses of fungal paleoecology 2.4 Results Primer design and evaluation Evaluation of lake sediment core DNA for fungal paleoecology 2.4.1 Taxonomic resolution across the cores 2.4.2 Comprehensiveness: Rarefaction and accumulation curves 2.4.3 Amplicon length and GC content to assess bias through degradation 2.4.4 General taxonomic composition of fungi in Siberian lake sediment cores Diversity of fungal paleocommunities from lake CH12 2.5 Discussion 2.5.1 Preservation biases and potential contamination 2.5.2 Characteristics of the optimized sedaDNA ITS1 metabarcoding assay 2.5.3 Potential of lake sediment fungal DNA for paleoecology 2.6 Author contributions 2.7 Acknowledgements 2.8 Conflict of interest 2.9 References 3 Manuscript II 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Geographic setting and study sites 3.4 Materials and Methods 3.4.1 Sampling 3.4.2 DNA extraction and amplification 3.4.3 Bioinformatic analysis 3.4.4 Assessment of negative controls and contamination 3.4.5 Statistical analysis and visualization 3.5 Results 3.5.1 Fungi: sedaDNA sequencing results and overall patterns of alpha diversity and taxonomic composition 3.5.2 Vegetation: sedaDNA sequencing results and overall patterns of alpha diversity and taxonomic composition 3.5.3 Site-specific plant-fungus covariation 3.5.3.1 Fungus and plant covariation in arctic Siberia from MIS3 to the Holocene 3.5.3.2 Quantitative relationships between fungi and plant richness and composition 3.6 Discussion 3.6.1 Fungus and plant diversity along a spatiotemporal gradient in Siberia 3.6.2 Changes in ecosystem functioning over a spatiotemporal gradient 3.6.3 Implications of our results for ecosystem functioning and future research avenues 3.7 Conclusions Funding Availability of data and material Author contribution Declaration of competing interest Acknowledgements 3.8 References 4 Manuscript III 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Results and Discussion 4.3.1 Compositional changes of plants, fungi, and bacteria in ancient metagenomic datasets 4.3.2 Long-term soil development: a trajectory or environmentally driven processes? 4.3.3 Bioweathering supported by lichens and mycorrhiza 4.3.4 Turnover in carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur cycling 4.3.5 Tracing podzolization 4.4 Implications and conclusions 4.5 Material and methods 4.5.1 Geographical setting and study site 4.5.2 X-ray fluorescence scanning of the sediment core 4.5.3 Core sub-sampling 4.5.4 DNA extraction 4.5.5 Single stranded DNA library build 4.5.6 Bioinformatic pipeline for the analysis of the sequencing results 4.5.7 Data analysis 4.5.8 Analysis of the ancient patterns 4.5.9 Statistical analysis of the dataset Acknowledgements 4.6 References Declarations 5 Discussion and synthesis 5.1 Long-term rhizosphere establishment in tundra and taiga areas 5.1.1 SedaDNA as a proxy for soil microbiome 5.1.1.1 Fungal DNA metabarcoding 5.1.1.2 Targeting soil communities with shotgun sequencing 5.1.1.3 Comparison between metabarcoding and shotgun sequencing for the soil microbiome 5.1.2 Fungi-vegetation interaction changes over time 5.1.3 Soil development on a temporal gradient 5.2 Conclusion and future perspectives 6 References 7 Appendix 7.1 Appendix to manuscript I 7.2 Appendix to manuscript II 7.3 Appendix to manuscript III 7.4 Manuscript IV 7.4.1 Abstract 7.4.2 Introduction 7.4.3 Geographical setting and study sites 7.4.4 Material & Methods 7.4.4.1 Sub-sampling of the sediment cores 7.4.4.2 DNA extraction 7.4.4.3 Single stranded DNA library built 7.4.4.4 Bioinformatic pipeline for the analysis of the sequencing data 7.4.4.5 Data analysis 7.4.4.6 Statistical analysis of the datasets 7.4.5 Results 7.4.5.1 Compositional changes of representative plant taxa alongside dynamics in fungal ecologies and bacterial element cycling in ancient metagenomic datasets 7.4.5.2 Impact of abiotic and biotic drivers on soil establishment across geographical locations 7.4.5.3 Relative positive correlations of functional soil taxa with plants across the locations 7.4.5.4 Assessment of the plant taxon-specific microbiome across the locations 7.4.6 Discussion 7.4.6.1 Site-specific soil development 7.4.6.2 Differences in the bedrock 7.4.6.3 Correlation between the lake biota 7.4.6.3.1 General Trends in positively correlated rhizosphere taxa 7.4.6.3.2 Plant taxa specific microbiome 7.4.7 Implications and future directions 7.4.8 References 7.4.9 Supplement to manuscript IV Acknowledgements Eidesstattliche Erklärung Damage pattern analysis – Auflagen Doktorarbeit Summary Main References

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2023 , CONTENTS 1 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1.1 Extreme events and attribution 1.2 Arctic climate change and mid-latitude linkages 1.3 Research questions 2 FOUNDATIONS 2.1 Atmospheric basics 2.1.1 Governing equations 2.1.2 Zonal wind and temperature profiles 2.1.3 Atmospheric waves and instabilities 2.1.4 Large-scale variability patterns and blocking 2.2 Atmospheric circulation regimes 2.2.1 Dynamical concepts 2.2.2 Regime computation 2.2.3 Regime number 2.3 Arctic climate change 2.3.1 Recent trends in Arctic sea ice and temperatures 2.3.2 Surface fluxes and energy balance in Arctic regions 2.3.3 Polar amplification mechanisms 2.3.4 Arctic-mid-latitude linkages 2.4 Weather and climate extremes 2.4.1 Recent trends 2.4.2 Dynamical driver of temperature extremes 3 DATA AND METHODS 3.1 ERA5 reanalysis 3.2 Model experiments 3.2.1 The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM6 3.2.2 Polar Amplification Intercomparison Project data 3.3 Methods 3.3.1 Statistical significance 3.3.2 Extreme definition 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Mean circulation in ERA5 and ECHAM6 experiments 4.1.1 Climatological mean states in ERA5 and the reference simulation 4.1.2 Climatological responses in ECHAM6 sensitivity experiments 4.2 Circulation regimes and sea ice-induced frequency changes 4.2.1 Regime structures in ERA5 and ECHAM6 experiments 4.2.2 Regime frequency changes in ERA 4.2.3 Regime frequency changes in ECHAM6 experiments 4.3 Changes in Northern Hemispheric temperature extremes induced by sea ice loss 4.3.1 Extreme occurrence frequency changes 4.3.2 Temperature return level changes 4.4 Links between circulation regimes and extremes over Europe 4.4.1 Winter temperature extremes 4.4.2 Summer heat extremes 4.4.3 Winter wind extremes 4.5 Decomposition of sea ice-induced frequency changes in European winter extremes 4.5.1 Midwinter cold extremes along a SCAN storyline 4.5.2 January warm extremes along a ATl- storyline 4.5.3 February warm extremes along a NAO+ storyline 4.5.4 Comparison with futSST 4.5.5 January wind extremes along a ATL- storyline 4.6 Circulation Analogue-based approach for summer season 4.6.1 ERA5 event definitions 4.6.2 Reference flows and analogues in ERA5 4.6.3 Circulation analogues in ECHAM6 experiments 4.6.4 Decomposition of sea ice-induced changes in European heat extremes 5 CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary 5.2 Final discussion and outlook Appendix A METHODS A.1 Principal Component Analysis A.2 𝑘-Means clustering A.2.1 Algorithm A.2.2 Computation of circulation regimes A.3 Taylor diagram A.4 Regression model for describing ERA5 regime frequency changes A.4.1 General setup A.4.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression A.4.3 Linear predictor A.5 Definition and calculation of return levels A.5.1 Block maxima approach and Generalized Extreme Value distribution A.5.2 Return level estimation A.6 Framework for conditional extreme event attribution Appendix B ADDITIONAL FIGURES B.1 Circulation regimes and sea ice-induced frequency changes B.2 Changes in Northern Hemispheric temperature extremes induced by sea ice loss B.3 Links between circulation regimes and extremes over Europe B.3.1 Conditioned vs. unconditioned ERA5 and wind extreme probabilities B.3.2 Wind and synoptic-scale activity anomalies B.4 Decomposition of sea ice-induced frequency changes in European winter extremes B.5 Circulation Analogue-based approach for summer season B.6 Miscellaneous B.6.1 Recent Arctic sea ice trends B.6.2 futSST forcing field B.6.3 Fluxes over sea ice and ocean surfaces in ECHAM6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Using Lake Sedimentary DNA to Reconstruct Biodiversity Changes / Eric Capo, Cécilia Barouillet, and John P. Smol 2 The Sources and Fates of Lake Sedimentary DNA / Charline Giguet-Covex, Stanislav Jelavić, Anthony Foucher, Marina A. Morlock, Susanna A. Wood, Femke Augustijns, Isabelle Domaizon, Ludovic Gielly, and Eric Capo 3 The Sedimentary Ancient DNA Workflow / Peter D. Heintzman, Kevin Nota, Alexandra Rouillard, Youri Lammers, Tyler J. Murchie, Linda Armbrecht, Sandra Garcés-Pastor, and Benjamin Vernot 4 Bacterial and Archaeal DNA from Lake Sediments / Aurèle Vuillemin, Marco J. L. Coolen, Jens Kallmeyer, Susanne Liebner, and Stefan Bertilsson 5 Cyanobacterial DNA from Lake Sediments / Marie-Eve Monchamp and Frances R. Pick 6 Protist DNA from Lake Sediments / Cécilia Barouillet, Isabelle Domaizon, and Eric Capo 7 Diatom DNA from Lake Sediments / Katharina Dulias, Laura S. Epp, and Kathleen R. Stoof-Leichsenring 8 Aquatic Vegetation DNA from Lake Sediments / Aloïs Revéret, Inger G. Alsos, and Peter D. Heintzman 9 Aquatic Animal DNA from Lake Sediments / Irene Gregory-Eaves, Marie-Eve Monchamp, and Zofia E. Taranu 10 Terrestrial Plant DNA from Lake Sediments / Sandra Garcés-Pastor, Kevin Nota, Dilli P. Rijal, Sisi Liu, Weihan Jia, Maria Leunda, Christoph Schwörer, Sarah E. Crump, Laura Parducci, and Inger G. Alsos 11 Terrestrial Fauna and Hominin DNA from Sedimentary Archives / Tyler J. Murchie, Charline Giguet-Covex, Peter D. Heintzman, Viviane Slon, and Yucheng Wang 12 An Overview of Biodiversity and Network Modeling Approaches: Applications to Sedimentary DNA Records / Zofia E. Taranu, Irene Gregory-Eaves, and Marie-Eve Monchamp 13 Perspectives and Future Developments Within Sedimentary DNA Research / Luke E. Holman, Yi Wang, Rikai Sawafuji, Laura S. Epp, Kristine Bohmann, and Mikkel Winther Pedersen Glossary, Acronyms and Abbreviations Index

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2024 , Table of contents ABSTRACT ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND 1.1.1 ARCTIC GROUND 1.1.2 THE PHENOMENON OF PERMAFROST 1.1.3 ARCTIC NON - PERMAFROST AREAS 1.1.4 HYPOTHESIS 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1.3 METHODS 1.3.1 FIELD METHODS AND SAMPLING APPROACH 1.3.2 STUDY AREA SELECTION 1.3.3 LABORATORY METHODS 1.4 THESIS ORGANISATION CHAPTER 2: LARGE HERBIVORES ON PERMAFROST – A PILOT STUDY OF GRAZING IMPACTS ON PERMAFROST SOIL CARBON STORAGE IN NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA 2.1 ABSTRACT 2.2 I NTRODUCTION 2.3 STUDY AREA 2.4 METHODS 2.4.1 FIELD SAMPLING APPROACH 2.4.2 LABORATORY WORK 2.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND EXTERNAL DATA 2.5 RESULTS 2.5.1 VEGETATION ASSESSMENT 2.5.2 SEASONAL THAW DEPTH 2.5.3 CARBON PARAMETERS (TOC, TOC/TN RATIOS , AND Δ13 C RATIOS ) 2.5.4 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND WATER CONTENT 2.5.5 STATISTICS AND CORRELATION ANALYSIS 2.6 DISCUSSION 2.6.1 EFFECTS OF GRAZING ON VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND PERMAFROST THAW 2.6.2 CARBON ACCUMULATION UNDER GRAZING IMPACT 2.6.3 METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS OF THE PILOT STUDY 2.7 CONCLUSION 2.8 DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 2.9 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS 2.10 FUNDING 2.11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2.12 CONFLICT OF INTERESTS CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS OF REINDEER ON SOIL CARBON STORAGE IN THE SEASONALLY FROZEN GROUND OF NORTHERN FINLAND: A PILOT STUDY 3.1 ABSTRACT 3.2 I NTRODUCTION 3.3 STUDY AREA 3.4 METHODS 3.4.1 FIELD WORK 3.4.2 LABORATORY ANALYSIS 3.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND CALCULATIONS 3.5 RESULTS 3.5.1 CORE DESCRIPTIONS 3.5.2 VEGETATION 3.5.3 CARBON PARAMETERS 3.5.6 COMPARATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 3.6 DISCUSSION 3.6.1 REINDEER IMPACT ON SOIL CARBON STORAGE 3.6.2 REINDEER IMPACT ON VEGETATION 3.6.3 REINDEER IMPACT ON GROUND CHARACTERISTICS 3.6.4 SOC DENSITY AND STOCKS ACROSS THE KUTUHARJU STATION AREA 3.6.5 METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS OF THE PILOT STUDY DESIGN 3.6.6 IMPLICATIONS OF THE PILOT STUDY FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 3.7 CONCLUSION 3.8 DATA AVAILABILITY 3.9 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION 3.10 COMPETING INTERESTS 3.11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3.12 FUNDING TABLE 3-1 TABLE 3-2 TABLE 3-3 CHAPTER 4: LIPID BIOMARKER SCREENING TO TRACE RECENT LARGE HERBIVORE INFLUENCE ON SOIL CARBON IN PERMAFROST AND SEASONALLY FROZEN ARCTIC GROUND 4.1 ABSTRACT 4.2 I NTRODUCTION 4.3 STUDY AREA 4.4 METHODS 4.4.1 SAMPLING APPROACH 4.4.2 LABORATORY ANALYSIS 4.4.3 LIPID BIOMARKER INDICES 4.4.4 STATISTICS 4.5 RESULTS 4.5.1 TOC 4.5.2 C/N RATIO 4.5.3 STABLE CARBON ISOTOPE RATIO 4.5.4 ABSOLUTE N- ALKANE CONCENTRATION 4.5.5 AVERAGE CHAIN LENGTH 4.5.6 CARBON PREFERENCE INDEX 4.5.7 HIGHER - PLANT ALCOHOL INDEX 4.5.8 STATISTICAL RESULTS 4.6 DISCUSSION 4.6.1 EFFECTS OF GRAZING INTENSITY ON BIOMARKER SIGNALS 4.6.2 EFFECTS OF GROUND THERMAL REGIME ON SOIL OM DEGRADATION 4.6.3 I MPACT OF HERBIVORY ON PERMAFROST OM STORAGE 4.7 CONCLUSION 4.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4.9 COMPETING INTERESTS 4.10 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION 4.11 FUNDING 4.12 DATA AVAILABILITY CHAPTER 5: SYNTHESIS 5.1 ECOSYSTEM CHANGES UNDER THE IMPACT OF LARGE HERBIVORES 5.2 GRAZING EFFECTS ON SOIL ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION 5.3 F EASIBILITY OF UTILISING HERBIVORY IN THE ARCTIC 5.4 RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL PLANNING AND USE OF ARCTIC HERBIVORY REFERENCES 93 FINANCIAL AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX I ORGANIC CARBON CHARACTERISTICS IN ICE - RICH PERMAFROST IN ALAS AND YEDOMA DEPOSITS , CENTRAL YAKUTIA, SIBERIA APPENDIX II WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF HERBIVORE DIVERSITY ON TUNDRA ECOSYSTEMS ? A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (ABSTRACT) APPENDIX III SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL TO CHAPTER 2: LARGE HERBIVORES ON PERMAFROST – A PILOT STUDY OF GRAZING IMPACTS ON PERMAFROST SOIL CARBON STORAGE IN NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA APPENDIX IV SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL TO CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS OF REINDEER ON SOIL CARBON STORAGE IN THE SEASONALLY FROZEN GROUND OF NORTHERN FINLAND : A PILOT STUDY APPENDIX V SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL TO CHAPTER 4: A PILOT STUDY OF LIPID BIOMARKERS TO TRACE RECENT LARGE HERBIVORE INFLUENCE ON SOIL CARBON IN PERMAFROST AND SEASONALLY ROZEN ARCTIC GROUND APPENDIX VI SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL TO APPENDIX IV: ORGANIC CARBON CHARACTERISTICS IN ICE - RICH PERMAFROST IN ALAS AND YEDOMA DEPOSITS , CENTRAL YAKUTIA, SIBERIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - DANKSAGUNG

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2023 , Contents 1. Introduction 2. Boundary Layers Types of the Atmosphere 2.1. The Convective Boundary Layer (CBL) 2.2. The Neutral Boundary Layer (NBL) 2.3. The Stable Boundary Layer (SBL) 3. The Closure problem 4. Model description 4.1. Applied model versions 4.2. Governing equations 4.3. Horizontal grid 4.4. Vertical grid 4.5. Lateral boundaries 4.6. Parametrizations 4.6.1. Radiation scheme 4.6.2. Microphysics 4.6.3. Mellor-Yamada scheme 4.6.4. Smagorinsky scheme 4.6.5. Sea ice scheme 4.7. Difference to classical LES Models 5. Experimental Setup 6. MOSAiC Measurements 6.1. ARM Meteorological tower 6.2. Radiosondes 7. Model evaluation for the central Arctic 7.1. Impact of the horizontal resolution 7.1.1. Under cold, light wind conditions 7.1.2. Under stormy conditions 7.2. Impact of the sea-ice scheme 7.3. Impact of the lower boundary conditions 7.4. Impact of the parametrization schemes under cold, light wind conditions 7.4.1. Near-surface variables 7.4.2. Vertical profiles 7.4.3. Surface fluxes 7.4.4. Boundary Layer Height 7.5. Impact of the parametrization schemes under stormy conditions 7.5.1. Near-surface variables 7.5.2. Vertical profiles 7.5.3. Surface fluxes 7.5.4. Boundary Layer height 8. Discussion and Summary Acknowledgements Appendix

Anmerkung: Contents Foreword Prologue Earth’s Freezer: Introduction to Permafrost Frozen grounds: Permafrost in the Arctic Permafrost in profile: Landscape features Frozen in time: The history of permafrost An icy balance: Arctic permafrost physiography What lies within: Organic carbon in permafrost When ice grows up: Pingo Canadian Landmark Drilling down: Learning the secrets of permafrost Portrait: Annett Bartsch Un/settled: Life on frozen ground Frozen States I: Russian Federation Portrait: Vyacheslav Shadrin Frozen States II: North America Portrait: Jessi Pascal Frozen States III: Nordic region Portrait: Palle Jeremiassen Awakening Giant: Permafrost and Climate Change Warming up, warming down: Increasing ground temperatures The chill is gone: Thickening of the active layer Disappearing act: Declining permafrost extent Microorganisms, macro effects: Permafrost carbon cycle Faster, deeper, stronger I: Speed of thaw in North America Faster, deeper, stronger II: Speed of thaw in Scandinavia and the Russian Federation Crossing the threshold: Future scenarios of carbon release Portrait: Dmitry Streletskiy Moving Grounds: Permafrost Changes Frost and flora: The role of vegetation in permafrost landscapes Fire on ice: Peat, permafrost, and fire State of matter: Water, snow, and permafrost The rivers run through it: Arctic rivers, deltas and hydrology Along the edge of the world: Arctic coastal classification Wear and tear: Erosion of Arctic permafrost coasts Eating into the landscape: Retrogressive thaw slumps Portrait: Angus Alunik Losing ground: Projected rates of Arctic coastal erosion Beneath the waves: Changes in subsea permafrost Arctic Ripples: Impacts of Permafrost Thaw Feeling the heat: Permafrost thaw impacts on infrastructure Risky business I: North American Arctic and Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland) Risky business II: The Russian Federation and Scandinavian Arctic Terra infirma I: Coastal infrastructure in Yamalo-Nenets Portrait: Susanna Gartler Terra infirma II: Reinforcing runways in Paulatuk Terra infirma III: Keeping cold food cold in Alaska Terra infirma IV: Urban planning in Ilulissat Nothing in isolation: Health and wellness and permafrost Portrait: Gwen Healey Akearok Toxic grounds: Contaminants and environmental health Coming back to life: Reemerging pathogens Frozen assets I: The formal economy Frozen assets II: Traditional and subsistence activities Cultural homeland: Alaas landscapes in Yakutia Holding Tight: Adaptation to Permafrost Thaw Bumpy road ahead: Transportation infrastructure and permafrost Undermined: Mining infrastructure and permafrost Keeping the light on: Energy infrastructure and permafrost No time to waste: Waste management and permafrost Modern history: Preserving Svalbard’s cultural heritage Portrait: Ingrid Rekkavik Going South: Permafrost in Other Areas A planetary perspective: Permafrost outside the Arctic Frozen giants: Permafrost in the mountains The view from the top: The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Hindu Kush Himalaya, and Andes Europe’s frozen heart: Permafrost in the Alps The ends of the Earth I: Permafrost in Antarctica The ends of the Earth II: Antarctic Peninsula The ends of the Earth III: Queen Maud Land, Victoria Land, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys Over the Horizon Authors and contributors Acknowledgments Artist spotlight: Olga Borjon-Privé (Oluko) Artist spotlight: Katie Orlinsky Glossary Acronyms References

Anmerkung: 1 Introduction: the geopolitics of the energy transition 1 Daniel Scholten PART I ENERGY GEOPOLITICS AND THE ENERGY TRANSITION 2 Geopolitics, geoeconomics and energy security in an age of transition towards renewables 20 David Criekemans 3 Energy systems – making energy services available 44 Aad Correljé 4 The political history of fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas in global perspective 67 Per Högselius 5 The facts and figures of the energy transition 84 Dolf Gielen and Francisco Boshell 6 US–China rivalry and its impact on the energy transformation: difficult cooperation fraught with dilemmas 107 Jacopo Maria Pepe, Julian Grinschgl, and Kirsten Westphal PART II TWO STEPS FORWARD, ONE STEP BACK: THE GEOPOLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE ENERGY TRANSITION 7 Transition to renewable energy and the reshaping of consumer–producer power relations 125 Kamila Pronińska 8 The geopolitics of energy transportation and carriers: from fossil fuels to electricity and hydrogen 141 Karen Smith Stegen, Julia Kusznir, and Cäcilia Riederer 9 Industrial competition – who is winning the renewable energy race? 158 Thomas Sattich and Stella Huang 10 Barrels, booms, and busts: the future of petrostates in a decarbonizing world 183 Thijs Van de Graaf 11 Critical materials – new dependencies and resource curse? 197 Emmanuel Hache, Gondia Sokhna Seck, Fernanda Guedes, and Charlene Barnet 12 Changing energy systems and markets from the ground up – citizens, cooperatives and cities 217 Colin Nolden 13 Exploring the geopolitical impacts of energy justice: an interdisciplinary research agenda 232 Christine Milchram and Morena Skalamera 14 The politics of sustainability: energy efficiency, carbon pricing, and the circular economy 247 Michaël Aklin and Patrick Bayer PART III NEW TECHNOLOGIES, NEW INTERDEPENDENCIES 15 Solar powers – renewables and sustainable development around the world or geostrategic competition? 264 Thomas Sattich, Stephen Agyare, and Oluf Langhelle 16 Wind energy – experiences with onshore and offshore projects 282 Yaroslava Marusyk 17 A new life for old giants: hydropower and geothermal 300 Victor R. Vasquez 18 The potential of biomass 334 Joana Portugal-Pereira, Francielle Carvalho, Régis Rathmann, Alexandre Szklo, Pedro Rochedo, and Roberto Schaeffer 19 Hydrogen as carbon-free energy carrier and commodity 351 Ad van Wijk 20 A new hope for nuclear? 372 Elina Brutschin PART IV RECALIBRATING ENERGY, INDUSTRY, FOREIGN, AND SECURITY POLICY 21 US defense strategy: forging an industrial orientation towards energy security and foreign policy 388 Amy Myers Jaffe 22 The EU’s external energy governance in the age of the energy transition 404 Marco Giuli and Sebastian Oberthür 23 China and the geopolitics of the energy transition 420 Duncan Freeman 24 The India story: ensuring energy access, security, justice, and sustainability for a fifth of humanity 431 Shuva Raha, Nandini Harihar, and Tulika Gupta 25 Energy transition dynamics in Southeast Asia 449 Muhamad Izham Abd Shukor, Nurjuanis Zara Zainuddin, and Noor Miza Razali 26 A renewable power in waiting? Australia’s changing energy geopolitics 468 Christian Downie 27 The global energy transition and Russian structural power: scenarios and strategic options 483 Filippos Proedrou 28 Geopolitical challenges of renewable energy adoption in MENA 498 Emre Hatipoglu, Aisha Al-Sarihi, and Brian Efird 29 Energy transformation and energy challenges in sub-Saharan African countries: a new paradigm for the 21st century? 513 Gondia Sokhna Seck, Emmanuel Hache, Edi Assoumou, and Rebecca Martin 30 Renewable energies in Latin America: resources, public policies, and geopolitics 535 Gonzalo Escribano, Lara Lázaro, and Eva Pardo Index 551

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2023 , TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Summary Zusammenfassung 1 General introduction 1.1 A changing world 1.1.1 Global changes of anthropogenic origin 1.1.2 Amplified crisis in the high latitudes 1.2 The past is the key to the future 1.2.1 The Quaternary glacial and interglacial stages 1.2.2 The Beringia study case 1.3 Investigating past biodiversity 1.3.1 Traditional tools 1.3.2 Newest sedaDNA proxies 1.4 Motivation and aims of the thesis 1.5 Structure of the thesis 1.6 Author’s contributions 2 Manuscript I 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Materials and Methods 2.3.1 Geographical settings 2.3.2 Fieldwork and subsampling 2.3.3 Core splicing and dating 2.3.4 Sediment-geochemical analyses 2.3.5 Pollen analysis 2.3.6 Molecular genetic preparation 2.3.7 Processing of sedaDNA data 2.3.8 Statistical analysis and visualization 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Age model 2.4.2 Sediment-geochemical core composition 2.4.3 Pollen stratigraphy 2.4.4 sedaDNA composition 2.4.5 Comparison between pollen and sedaDNA 2.4.6 Taxa richness investigation 2.5 Discussion 2.5.1 Proxy validation 2.5.2 Vegetation compositional changes in response to climate inferred from pollen and sedaDNA records 2.5.3 The steppe-tundra of the Late Pleistocene 2.5.4 The disrupted Pleistocene-Holocene transition 2.5.5 The boreal forest of the Holocene 2.5.6 Changes in vegetation richness through the Pleistocene/Holocene transition inferred from the sedaDNA record 2.6 Conclusion Data availability statement Funding References 3 Manuscript II 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Material and Method 3.3.1 Site description and timeframe 3.3.2 Sampling, DNA extraction and PCR 3.3.3 Filtering and cleaning dataset 3.3.4 Identification of taxa – species signal 3.3.5 Resampling 3.3.6 Assessment of the species pool stability 3.3.7 Quantification of extinct and extirpated taxa 3.3.8 Characterisation of species and candidate species 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Changes in the composition and species pool at the Pleistocene - Holocene transition 3.4.2 Decrease in the regional plant species richness between the Pleistocene and the Holocene 3.4.3 Identification of loss taxa events 3.4.4 Characterisation of lost taxa 3.5 Discussion 3.5.1 Biotic and abiotic changes in the ecosystem - a cocktail for extinction 3.5.2 Identification and quantification of potential plant taxa loss 3.5.3 Characterisation of potential taxa loss 3.5.4 Limits of the method 3.5.5 Conclusions and perspectives Funding References 4 Manuscript III 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Material & Methods 4.3.1 Fieldwork and subsampling 4.3.2 Chronology 4.3.3 Pollen analysis 4.3.4 Isolation of sedimentary ancient DNA 4.3.5 Metabarcoding approach 4.3.6 Shotgun approach 4.3.7 Bioinformatic processing 4.4 Results 4.4.1 General results of the three approaches: pollen, metabarcoding and shotgun sequencing 4.4.2 Plants (Viridiplantae) 4.4.3 Fungi 4.4.4 Mammals (Mammalia) 4.4.5 Birds (Aves) 4.4.6 Insects (Insecta) 4.4.7 Prokaryotes (Bacteria, Archaea) and Viruses 4.5 Discussion 4.5.1 Interglacial communities 4.5.2 Glacial communities 4.5.3 Potential and limitations of the sedaDNA shotgun approach applied to ancient permafrost sediments 4.6 Conclusions Data availability statement Funding References 5 Synthesis 5.1 Ecological changes between glacial and interglacial stages 5.1.1 Changes in the compositional structure 5.1.2 Loss of plant diversity 5.1.3 Potential drivers of change 5.2 High potential of sedaDNA for past biodiversity reconstruction 5.3 Conclusions and future perspectives Bibliography Appendices Appendix 1: Supplementary material for Manuscript I Appendix 2: Supplementary material for Manuscript II Appendix 3: Supplementary material for Manuscript III Appendix 4: Manuscript IV Eidesstattliche Erklärung

Anmerkung: Contents Foreword Prologue Earth’s Freezer: Introduction to Permafrost Frozen grounds: Permafrost in the Arctic Permafrost in profile: Landscape features Frozen in time: The history of permafrost An icy balance: Arctic permafrost physiography What lies within: Organic carbon in permafrost When ice grows up: Pingo Canadian Landmark Drilling down: Learning the secrets of permafrost Portrait: Annett Bartsch Un/settled: Life on frozen ground Frozen States I: Russian Federation Portrait: Vyacheslav Shadrin Frozen States II: North America Portrait: Jessi Pascal Frozen States III: Nordic region Portrait: Palle Jeremiassen Awakening Giant: Permafrost and Climate Change Warming up, warming down: Increasing ground temperatures The chill is gone: Thickening of the active layer Disappearing act: Declining permafrost extent Microorganisms, macro effects: Permafrost carbon cycle Faster, deeper, stronger I: Speed of thaw in North America Faster, deeper, stronger II: Speed of thaw in Scandinavia and the Russian Federation Crossing the threshold: Future scenarios of carbon release Portrait: Dmitry Streletskiy Moving Grounds: Permafrost Changes Frost and flora: The role of vegetation in permafrost landscapes Fire on ice: Peat, permafrost, and fire State of matter: Water, snow, and permafrost The rivers run through it: Arctic rivers, deltas and hydrology Along the edge of the world: Arctic coastal classification Wear and tear: Erosion of Arctic permafrost coasts Eating into the landscape: Retrogressive thaw slumps Portrait: Angus Alunik Losing ground: Projected rates of Arctic coastal erosion Beneath the waves: Changes in subsea permafrost Arctic Ripples: Impacts of Permafrost Thaw Feeling the heat: Permafrost thaw impacts on infrastructure Risky business I: North American Arctic and Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland) Risky business II: The Russian Federation and Scandinavian Arctic Terra infirma I: Coastal infrastructure in Yamalo-Nenets Portrait: Susanna Gartler Terra infirma II: Reinforcing runways in Paulatuk Terra infirma III: Keeping cold food cold in Alaska Terra infirma IV: Urban planning in Ilulissat Nothing in isolation: Health and wellness and permafrost Portrait: Gwen Healey Akearok Toxic grounds: Contaminants and environmental health Coming back to life: Reemerging pathogens Frozen assets I: The formal economy Frozen assets II: Traditional and subsistence activities Cultural homeland: Alaas landscapes in Yakutia Holding Tight: Adaptation to Permafrost Thaw Bumpy road ahead: Transportation infrastructure and permafrost Undermined: Mining infrastructure and permafrost Keeping the light on: Energy infrastructure and permafrost No time to waste: Waste management and permafrost Modern history: Preserving Svalbard’s cultural heritage Portrait: Ingrid Rekkavik Going South: Permafrost in Other Areas A planetary perspective: Permafrost outside the Arctic Frozen giants: Permafrost in the mountains The view from the top: The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Hindu Kush Himalaya, and Andes Europe’s frozen heart: Permafrost in the Alps The ends of the Earth I: Permafrost in Antarctica The ends of the Earth II: Antarctic Peninsula The ends of the Earth III: Queen Maud Land, Victoria Land, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys Over the Horizon Authors and contributors Acknowledgments Artist spotlight: Olga Borjon-Privé (Oluko) Artist spotlight: Katie Orlinsky Glossary Acronyms References

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Potsdam, Universität Potsdam, 2022 , Contents Abstract Zusammenfassung Contents Abbreviations Motivation 1 Introduction 1.1 Scientific background 1.2 Study region 1.3 Aims and objectives 2 Materials and methods 3.1 Section 4 - Strong shrub expansion in tundra-taiga, tree infilling in taiga and stable tundra in central Chukotka (north-eastern Siberia) between 2000 and 2017 3.2 Section 5 - Recent above-ground biomass changes in central Chukotka (NE Siberia) combining field-sampling and remote sensing 3.3 Section 6 - Future spatially explicit tree above-ground biomass trajectories revealed for a mountainous treeline ecotone using the individual-based model LAVESI 4 Strong shrub expansion in tundra-taiga, tree infilling in taiga and stable tundra in central Chukotka (north-eastern Siberia) between 2000 and 2017 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Field data collection and processing 2.2 Landsat data, pre-processing and spectral indices processing 2.3 Redundancy analysis (RDA) and classification approaches 3 Results 3.1 General characteristics of the vegetation field data 3.2 Relating field data to Landsat spectral indices in the RDA model 3.3 Land-cover classification 3.4 Land-cover change between 2000 and 2017 4 Discussion 4.1 Dataset limitations and optimisation 4.2 Vegetation changes from 2000/2001/2002 to 2016/2017 Conclusions Acknowledgements Data availability statement References Appendix A. Detailed description of Landsat acquisitions Appendix B. MODIS NDVI time series from 2000 to 2018 Appendix C. Landsat Indices values for each analysed vegetation site Appendix D. Fuzzy c-means classification for interpretation of uncertainties for land-cover mapping Appendix E. Validation of land-cover maps Appendix F. K-means classification results Appendix G. Heterogeneity of natural landscapes and mixed pixels of satellite data Appendix H. Distribution of land-cover classes and their changes by study area 5 Recent above-ground biomass changes in central Chukotka (NE Siberia) combining field-sampling and remote sensing Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Study region and field surveys 2.2 Above-ground biomass upscaling and change derivation 3 Results 3.1 Vegetation composition and above-ground biomass 3.2 Upscaling above-ground biomass using GAM 3.3 Change of above-ground biomass between 2000 and 2017 in the four focus areas 4 Discussion 4.1 Recent state of above-ground biomass at the field sites 4.2 Recent state of above-ground biomass upscaled for central Chukotka 4.3 Change in above-ground biomass within the investigated 15–16 years in central Chukotka 5 Conclusions Data availability statement Author contributions Competing interests Acknowledgements References Appendix A. Sampling and above-ground biomass (AGB) calculation protocol for field data 6 Future spatially explicit tree above-ground biomass trajectories revealed for a mountainous treeline ecotone using the individual-based model LAVESI Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Study region 2.2 LAVESI model setup, parameterisation, and validation 2.2.4 LAVESI simulation setup for this study 2.2.5 Validation of the model’s performance 3 Results 3.1 Dynamics and spatial distribution changes of tree above-ground-biomass 3.2 Spatial and temporal validation of the contemporary larch AGB 4 Discussion 4.1 Future dynamics of tree AGB at a plot level 4.2 What are the future dynamics of tree AGB at the landscape level? 5 Conclusions Data availability Acknowledgements References Appendix B. Permutation tests for tree presence versus topographical parameters Appendix C. Landsat-based, field, and simulated estimations of larch above-ground biomass (AGB). 7 Synthesis 7.1 What changes in vegetation composition have happened from 2000 to 2017 in central Chukotka? 7.2 How have the above-ground biomass (AGB) distribution and rates changed from 2000 to 2017 in central Chukotka? 7.3 What are the spatial dynamics and rates of tree AGB change in the upcoming centuries in the northern tundra-taiga from 2020 to 3000 CE on the plot level and landscape level? References Acknowledgements

Anmerkung: Part I. The Long View: The case for longtermism -- You can shape the course of history -- Part II. Trajectory Changes: Moral change -- Value lock-in -- Part III. Safeguarding Civilisation: Extinction -- Collapse -- Stagnation -- Part IV. Assessing the End of the World: Is it good to make happy people? -- Will the future be good or bad? -- Part V. Taking Action: What to do

Anmerkung: Table of Contents Abstract Zusammenfassung Samenvatting Acknowledgements List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Aims and research questions 1.3 Scientific background 1.3.1 The Arctic in a changing climate 1.3.2 Northern Hemisphere permafrost region 1.3.3 Permafrost degradation 1.3.3.1 Thermokarst development 1.3.3.2 Retrogressive thaw slumps 1.3.4 Organic matter in permafrost deposits 1.4 Material and methods 1.4.1 Study sites 1.4.2 Main laboratory methods 1.5 Thesis structure 1.6 Overview of publications 1.6.1 Publication “n-Alkane Characteristics of Thawed Permafrost Deposits Below a Thermokarst Lake on Bykovsky Peninsula, Northeastern Siberia” 1.6.2 Publication “Greenhouse gas production and lipid biomarker distribution in Yedoma and Alas thermokarst lake sediments in Eastern Siberia” 1.6.3 Publication “Organic matter characteristics of a rapidly eroding permafrost cliff in NE Siberia (Lena Delta, Laptev Sea region)” 1.6.4 Publication “Molecular biomarkers in Batagay megaslump permafrost deposits reveal clear differences in organic matter preservation between glacial and interglacial periods” 1.6.5 Contributions to complementary research 2 Bykovsky Peninsula 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Study area 2.4 Material and methods 2.4.1 Field work 2.4.2 Laboratory analyses 2.4.2.1 Biomarker analysis 2.4.2.2 Biomarker indices 2.5 Results 2.5.1 Bulk sediment 2.5.1.1 Long core PG2412 2.5.1.2 Short core PG2420 2.5.2 Hydrochemistry 2.5.3 n-Alkane distributions 2.6 Discussion 2.6.1 Depositional history at the study site 2.6.1.1 Unit I - Early Weichselian fluvial sedimentation 2.6.1.2 Unit II – Yedoma deposition in wetland landscapes dominated by low-centered polygons 2.6.1.3 Unit III/Unit A – Yedoma deposition under cold-dry conditions during the Late Weichselian 2.6.1.4 Unit IV/Unit B – Holocene thermokarst lake formation and lacustrine sedimentation 2.6.2 Organic matter degradation 2.7 Conclusion 2.8 Acknowledgements 3 Yukechi Alas 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Methods and materials 3.3.1 Study area 3.3.2 Field work 3.3.3 Laboratory analyses 3.3.3.1 Organic carbon content 3.3.3.2 Lipid biomarkers 3.3.4 Incubations 3.3.5 Statistical analysis 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Organic matter characteristics 3.4.1.1 Alas lake sediment core YU-L7 3.4.1.2 Yedoma lake sediment core YU-L15 3.4.2 Greenhouse gas production 3.4.2.1 Alas lake sediment core YU-L7 3.4.2.2 Yedoma lake sediment core YU-L15 3.4.2.3 Carbon mineralization 3.4.3 Statistical correlation and regression 3.5 Discussion 3.5.1 Organic matter degradation potential 3.5.1.1 Organic carbon quantity 3.5.1.2 Organic matter preservation and talik formation 3.5.1.3 Presence of methanogenic communities 3.5.2 Greenhouse gas production 3.5.2.1 Carbon dioxide production 3.5.2.2 Methane production 3.5.3 GHG links with other parameters and outlook 3.6 Conclusion 3.7 Acknowledgements 4 Sobo-Sise cliff 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Study area 4.4 Methods 4.4.1 Fieldwork 4.4.2 Sedimentological organic matter parameters 4.4.3 Lipid biomarkers 4.4.3.1 Extraction and fraction separation 4.4.3.2 GC-MS measurements and compound quantification 4.4.4 Biomarker indices 4.4.4.1 Average Chain Length 4.4.4.2 Carbon Preference Index 4.4.4.3 Higher Plant Fatty Acids 4.4.5 Data analysis 4.5 Results 4.5.1 Sedimentological organic matter parameters 4.5.2 Biomarkers 4.5.2.1 n-Alkanes 4.5.2.2 Fatty acids 4.5.3 Clustering 4.6 Discussion 4.6.1 Terrestrial depositional environment 4.6.1.1 Organic matter source 4.6.1.2 Organic matter quality 4.6.2 Implications and outlook 4.7 Conclusion 4.8 Acknowledgements 5 Batagay thaw slump 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Study site 5.4 Methods 5.4.1 Sample collection 5.4.2 Laboratory analyses 5.5 Results 5.5.1 Detected biomolecules 5.5.2 Lower Ice Complex 5.5.3 Lower Sand Unit 5.5.4 Woody Layer 5.5.5 Upper Ice Complex - Yedoma 5.5.6 Holocene Cover 5.6 Discussion 5.6.1 Biogeochemical legacy of glacial periods 5.6.2 Biogeochemical legacy of interglacial periods 5.6.3 Modern organic matter mobilization in the Batagay megaslump 5.7 Conclusion 5.8 Acknowledgements 6 Synthesis 6.1 Lipid biomarkers to characterize permafrost organic matter 6.1.1 Organic matter source 6.1.2 Organic matter quality 6.2 Mobilization of organic matter in thawing permafrost 6.2.1 Methane production vs. emission 6.2.2 Using the data in models 6.2.3 Transport of OM into aquatic systems 6.3 Recommendations for future research References Appendix A Supporting information for Chapter 2 Appendix B Supporting information for Chapter 3 Appendix C Supporting information for Chapter 4 Appendix D Supporting information for Chapter 5

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Defining the Problem 1 Introduction 1.1 A Comment on the Guide 1.2 If You Are Studying for a PhD 1.3 If You Are a PhD Supervisor or PhD Course Coordinator 1.4 If You Are a Concerned Friend or Family Member References 2 Challenging Perceptions: What Is Mental Health Anyway? 2.1 The Mental Health Continuum 2.2 Barriers to Seeking Help 2.3 Recognising the Signs 2.4 Helping Others 2.5 What Mental Health Isn’t 2.6 To Declare or Not to Declare?: That Is the Question References 3 Setting the Scene: Understanding the PhD Mental Health Crisis 3.1 Exploring the Data 3.2 What Is the Cause? 3.3 Research Culture 3.4 The Ups and Downs of the PhD Journey 3.5 There Is Hope References Part II Mindset Matters 4 Self-Care: Without You There Is No PhD 4.1 Setting the Foundations 4.2 Establishing a Good Sleep Schedule 4.3 Eat Nutritious Food 4.4 Physical Exercise 4.5 Managing Finances 4.6 Examples of Self-Care 4.7 Putting Self-Care in Context of a PhD 4.8 Acknowledging There May Be a Problem: Addiction 4.9 Setting Boundaries 4.10 What to Do If You Reach Burnout 4.11 Navigating Self-Care as a Part-Time PhD Student References 5 Not Another Yoga Session: University Wellbeing Programs and Why They so Often Miss the Mark 5.1 Reactive Not Proactive 5.2 Trying Something New 5.3 Building Resilience 5.4 The Darker Side of Resilience References 6 “I’ll Read It Later” and Other Lies We Tell Ourselves: Managing Expectations and Guilt 6.1 Starting Out 6.2 Changing the World 6.3 Planning Your PhD 6.4 You Are Entitled to (and Deserve) Breaks 6.5 Becoming an Expert 6.6 First Time Failing 6.7 Be Grateful (or Else) 6.8 Productivity and Time Management 6.9 Prioritising References 7 Why You Earned It: Fighting the Impostor 7.1 Understanding the Value You Bring 7.2 Receiving Recognition 7.3 Receiving Critique 7.4 Comparing Yourself With Others 7.5 Asking for Help 7.6 Redefining Your Self-Worth 7.7 Perfectionism 7.8 Email ‘Anxiety’ 7.9 Presentation Nerves 7.10 Fighting Back 7.11 Discriminatory Gaslighting References Part III Environmental Stressors 8 Dismantling the Ivory Tower: Systemic Issues That Might Impact Your Mental Health 8.1 The Ivory Tower 8.2 Systemic Racism 8.3 Gender Discrimination 8.4 Sexual Harassment 8.5 Bullying 8.6 LGBT+ Discrimination 8.7 Being “First Generation” 8.8 Classism 8.9 Financial Concerns 8.10 Ableism, Disability and Neurodivergence 8.11 Ageism 8.12 Isolation and Culture Shock 8.13 A Comment on Intersectionality 8.14 Changing the Research Culture 8.15 In the Meantime, What Can You Do? 8.16 Finding Light in a Dark Place References 9 Perhaps It’s Not You It’s Them: PhD Student-Supervisor Relationships 9.1 Choosing Your Supervisor 9.2 The Role of a PhD Supervisor 9.3 Understanding What Makes a Supportive Supervisor 9.4 At Odds 9.5 The Flaw in the System 9.6 Identifying Your Supervisor’s Working Style 9.7 Pervasive, Damaging Biases 9.8 When Things Go Seriously Wrong (and It Is Definitely not Your Fault) 9.9 What You Can Do If Your Supervisor Is Abusive 9.10 Effective Communication 9.11 What to Do if You Have a Disagreement References 10 Publish or Perish: On the Myth of Meritocracy 10.1 It Is Not an Equal Playing Field 10.2 The Publication Process 10.3 Managing Reviewer 2 10.4 Publishing Options 10.5 Who Is Perishing, Anyway? 10.6 Perfectionism 10.7 Writing Your Thesis 10.8 Research Misconduct 10.9 What to Do if You Realise Research Misconduct Is Happening References 11 The High-Walled Rose Garden: Understanding There Is Life Outside the Academy 11.1 So What Does This Mean for You and Surviving Your PhD? 11.2 Finding Out What You Truly Enjoy 11.3 Reframing Your Skillsets 11.4 Transitioning from Your PhD 11.5 Debunking the Myths 11.6 Should I Stay or Should I Go? References Part IV Seeking Help 12 Thriving, Not Just Surviving 12.1 Identifying the Problem Set 12.2 Sharing the Hypothesis with Others 12.3 Conversation Starters 12.4 Finding a Support Network 12.5 Online Communities 12.6 Speaking About Your Mental Health with Your PhD Superviso 12.7 Lack of Understanding 12.8 Seeking External Assistance to Achieve Your Goal 12.9 If You Are at Crisis Point 12.10 The Elephant in the Room 12.11 Leading the Change 12.12 Not Just Surviving References Resources

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Introduction The Arctic Region and Its Inhabitants / Anastasia Emelyanova A Holistic Approach to One Health in the Arctic / Arleigh Reynolds, Susan Kutz, Tessa Baker Seasonal Animal Migrations and the Arctic: Ecology, Diversity, and Spread of Infectious Agents / Øystein Varpe, Silke Bauer Part II Major Health Threats to Arctic Animals and People Climate Change in Northern Regions / Bob van Oort, Marianne Tronstad Lund, Anouk Brisebois Loss of Untouched Land / Roland Pape Arctic Ecosystems, Wildlife and Man: Threats from Persistent Organic Pollutants and Mercury / Christian Sonne, Robert James Letcher, Bjørn Munro Jenssen, Rune Dietz Oil Spills in the Arctic / Sadie K. Wright, Sarah Allan, Sarah M. Wilkin, Michael Ziccardi Nuclear Radiation / Birgitta Åhman Part III Arctic Zoonoses: Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Man Rabies in the Arctic / Karsten Hueffer, Morten Tryland, Svetlana Dresvyanikova Brucellosis in the Arctic and Northern Regions / Xavier Fernandez Aguilar, Ingebjørg H. Nymo, Kimberlee Beckmen, Svetlana Dresvyanikova, Irina Egorova, Susan Kutz Anthrax in the North / Karsten Hueffer, Svetlana Dresvyanikova, Irina Egorova Cystic and Alveolar Echinococcosis Caused by Echinococcus canadensis and E. multilocularis in the Arctic / Temitope U. Kolapo, Antti Oksanen, Rebecca Davidson, Emily J. Jenkins Toxoplasmosis in Northern Regions / Émilie Bouchard, Pikka Jokelainen, Rajnish Sharma, Heather Fenton, Emily J. Jenkins Trichinella spp. in the North / Rajnish Sharma, Edoardo Pozio, Émilie Bouchard, Emily J. Jenkins Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiosis in the Arctic: Increasing Threats in a Warmer World? / Lucy J. Robertson, John J. Debenham Erysipelas in Arctic and Northern Regions / Fabien Mavrot, O. Alejandro Aleuy, Taya Forde, Susan J. Kutz Tularemia in the Arctic / Cristina M. Hansen, Svetlana Dresvyannikova Orthohantaviruses in the Arctic: Present and Future / Frauke Ecke, Magnus Magnusson, Barbara A. Han, Magnus Evander Zoonotic Marine Helminths: Anisakid Nematodes and Diphyllobothriid Cestodes / Heather Fenton Parapoxvirus Infections in Northern Species and Populations / Morten Tryland Part IV Harvesting the Arctic: Potential Health Threats for Arctic People Hunting with Lead Ammunition: A One Health Perspective / Jon M. Arnemo, Boris Fuchs, Christian Sonne, Sigbjørn Stokke Traditional Conservation Methods and Food Habits in the Arctic / Raphaela Stimmelmayr, Gay Sheffield Part V Working with Arctic Communities Wildlife Health Surveillance in the Arctic / Sylvia L. Checkley, Matilde Tomaselli, Nigel Caulkett Dogs and People: Providing Veterinary Services to Remote Arctic Communities / Tessa Baker, Laurie Meythaler-Mullins, Arleigh Reynolds, Susan Kutz Semi-Domesticated Reindeer, Health, and Animal Welfare / Morten Tryland

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2023 (publikationsbasierte Dissertation) , CONTENTS 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction to climate reconstructions 1.1.1 Radiocarbon as a tracer of time 1.1.2 Environmental information stored in snow 1.2 Challenges of climate reconstructions 1.2.1 The particle flux 1.2.2 Modifications after the initial deposition 1.2.3 Sampling and measurement uncertainty 1.3 Objectives and overview of the thesis 1.4 Author contributions to the Manuscripts 2 Age-heterogeneity in marine sediments revealed by three-dimensional high-resolution radio-carbon measurements 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Study approach 2.2.2 Core setup and sampling 2.2.3 Estimation of the sediment accumulation rate 2.2.4 Estimation of the sediment mixing strength 2.2.5 Estimation of the net sediment displacement 2.2.6 Visual assessment of mixing 2.3 Results 2.3.1 Radiocarbon measurements 2.3.2 Sediment accumulation rate 2.3.3 Sediment mixing estimates 2.3.4 Spatial structure of sediment mixing 2.3.5 Components of age uncertainty 2.4 Discussion 2.4.1 Spatial scale of sediment heterogeneity 2.4.2 Potential implications for palaeo-reconstructions 2.4.3 Suggested 14C measurement strategy 2.5 Conclusions 2.6 Supplementary Material 2.6.1 Supplementary figures and tables 2.6.2 Supplementary table 3 Local-scale deposition of surface snow on the Greenland ice sheet 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Data and methods 3.2.1 Study site 3.2.2 SfM photogrammetry 3.2.3 Additional snow height and snowfall data 3.2.4 Estimation of surface roughness 3.3 Results 3.3.1 Relative snow heights from DEMs 3.3.2 Temporal snow height evolution 3.3.3 Day-to-day variations of snowfall 3.3.4 Changes in surface roughness 3.3.5 Implied internal structure of the snowpack 3.4 Discussion 3.4.1 Changes of surface structures 3.4.2 Implications for proxy data 3.4.3 Implications for snow accumulation 3.4.4 SfM as an efficient monitoring tool 3.5 Conclusions 3.6 Appendix 3.6.1 Additional information 3.6.2 Accuracy estimates and validation 3.6.3 Validation 3.6.4 Overall snow height evolution 3.6.5 Surface roughness 4 A snapshot on the buildup of the stable water isotopic signal in the upper snowpack at east-grip, Geenland ice sheet 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methods and data 4.2.1 Study site 4.2.2 DEM generation 4.2.3 Isotope measurements 4.2.4 Simulation of the snowpack layering 4.2.5 Expected uncertainty 4.3 Results 4.3.1 Snow height evolution 4.3.2 Mean isotopic records 4.3.3 Combining isotopic data with snow height information 4.3.4 Observed vs. simulated composition 4.3.5 Changes in the isotope signal over time 4.4 Discussion 4.4.1 Evolution of the snow surface 4.4.2 Two-dimensional view of isotopes in snow 4.4.3 Buildup of the snowpack isotopic signal 4.5 Conclusion 5 General discussion and conclusions 5.1 Heterogeneity in sedimentary archives 5.1.1 Quantifying archive-internal heterogeneity 5.1.2 Relation between signal and heterogeneity 5.2 Methods to improve climate reconstructions 5.3 Implications for climate reconstructions 5.4 Concluding remarks Bibliography A the role of sublimation as a driver of climate signals in the water isotope content of surface snow: laboratory and field experimental results A.1 Introduction A.2 Methods A.2.1 Laboratory experimental methods A.2.2 Field experimental methods A.3 Results A.3.1 Laboratory experiments A.3.2 Field experiments A.4 Discussion A.5 Conclusions B Atmosphere-snow exchange explains surface snow isotope variability Acknowledgments Eidesstattliche Erklärung

Anmerkung: Contents: Introduction / Valentí Rull, Christopher Stevenson Transpacific Voyaging and Settlement Ex Oriente Lux: Amerindian Seafaring and Easter Island Contact Revisited / Atholl Anderson Commensals/Domesticates on Rapa Nui: What Can Their Phylogeographic Patterns Tell Us About the Discovery and Settlement of the Island? / Vicki A. Thomson, Michael Herrera, Jeremy J. Austin Sweet Potato on Rapa Nui: Insights from a Monographic Study of the Genus Ipomoea / Pablo Muñoz-Rodríguez, John R. I. Wood, Robert W. Scotland Pre-European Contact Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) at Rapa Nui: Macrobotanical Evidence from Recent Excavations in Rano Raraku Quarry, Rapa Nui / Jo Anne Van Tilburg, Jennifer M. Huebert, Sarah C. Sherwood, Casey R. Barrier Anakena Re-visited: New Perspectives on Old Problems at Anakena, Rapa Nui / Paul Wallin, Helene Martinsson-Wallin The Ancient Rapanui Culture A Behavioral Assessment of Refuge Caves (ana kionga) on Rapa Nui / Christopher Stevenson, José Miguel Ramrez-Aliaga, Juan Gongalves Borrega Vinapū Area Re-visited / Helene Martinsson-Wallin Undelivered Moai or Unidentified Monument? / Nicolas Cauwe, Morgan De Dapper Platforms in Motion: A Genealogical Architecture / Nicolas Cauwe Climatic and Environmental Change Climatology of Rapa Nui (Isla de Pascua, Easter Island) / Raymond S. Bradley, William J. D’Andrea, Henry F. Diaz, Liang Ning Prehistoric Paleoecology of Easter Island / Valentí Rull Geological and Climatic Features, Processes and Interplay Determining the Human Occupation and Habitation of Easter Island / Alberto Sáez, Olga Margalef, Laura Becerril, Christian Herrera, James Goff, Sergi Pla-Rabes et al. Deforestation and Extinctions The Flora and Vegetation of Easter Island: Past and Present / Georg Zizka, Alexander Zizka Palms for the Archaeologist / Daniel W. Ingersoll Jr., Kathleen B. Ingersoll, Fred W. Stauffer Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Deforestation, Settlement, and Land Use on Easter Island Prior to European Arrivals / Peter Steiglechner, Agostino Merico Economic Causes and Consequences of Deforestation on Easter Island / James A. Brander Palm Forest to Gardens and Grassland: A Study of Environmental and Geomorphological Changes of the Te Niu, Rapa Nui Landscape / Joan A. Wozniak Collapse or Resilience? Environmental Change and Cultural Continuity: Extraordinary Achievements of the Rapanui Society after Deforestation / Andreas Mieth, Annette Kühlem, Burkhard Vogt, Hans-Rudolf Bork Ecology Limits Population, But Interaction with Culture Defines It: Carrying Capacity on Rapa Nui / Cedric O. Puleston, Thegn N. Ladefoged Population Principles, Climate Change, and the “Collapse” of the Rapa Nui Society / Mauricio Lima, Eugenia M. Gayo, Sergio A. Estay, Nils Chr. Stenseth Claims and Evidence in the Population History of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) / Carl P. Lipo, Robert J. DiNapoli, Terry L. Hunt European Contact The Human Giants of Easter Island (Rapa Nui) / Jan J. Boersema Synthesis Towards a Holistic Approach to Easter Island’s Prehistory / Valentí Rull, Christopher Stevenson

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2022 , Table of Contents Summary Deutsche Zusammenfassung Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Larix forests in a changing climate 1.2 The genus Larix 1.3 Larix distribution in the world and their dominance in northern Asia 1.4 Methods to study past species dynamics 1.4.1 Modern genetic marker studies 1.4.2 Lake sediments as archives of the past 1.4.3 Pollen and macrofossils 1.4.4 Metabarcoding of sedimentary ancient DNA 1.4.5 Metagenomic shotgun sequencing 1.4.6 Target enrichment by hybridization capture 1.5 Thesis Objectives 1.6 Thesis outline & author contributions 2 Manuscript I 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Material and methods 2.3.1 Bioclimatic limits 2.3.2 Pollen, macrofossil, and DNA datasets 2.3.3 Ice sheets 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Bioclimatic limits of Larix and its distribution on permafrost 2.4.2 Glacial occurrence patterns of Larix 2.5 Discussion 2.5.1 Are differences in species bioclimatic limits responsible for disparity in Larix distribution across continents? 2.5.2 Do high latitude glacial refugia guarantee larch dominance? 2.5.3 What role does postglacial migration play in larch dominance? 2.5.4 Fire as an additional factor 2.5.5 Outlook 2.6 Conclusion 2.7 Acknowledgements 2.8 Author contributions 2.9 References 3 Manuscript II 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Methods 3.3.1 Sample material 3.3.2 Laboratory work 3.3.3 Data analysis 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Overview of the shotgun and hybridization capture data sets 3.4.2 Ancient DNA authenticity 3.4.3 Retrieval of the Larix chloroplast genome 3.5 Discussion 3.5.1 Taxonomic classification—conservative approach results in low numbers of assignment 3.5.2 Target enrichment success—Larix reads increased by orders of magnitude along with other taxonomic groups 3.5.3 Complete retrieval of ancient Larix chloroplast genomes 3.5.4 Larix sibirica variants present over time 3.5.5 Larch forest decline over the last 7000 years 3.6 Conclusion 3.7 Acknowledgments 3.8 Author contributions 3.9 References 4 Manuscript III 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Results & Discussion 4.3.1 Chloroplast and repetitive DNA enrichment in the sedaDNA samples 4.3.2 A wider pre-glacial distribution of L. sibirica 4.3.3 Larix gmelinii formed northern LGM refugia across Siberia 4.3.4 Postglacial colonization history - differences among larch species 4.3.5 Environment likely plays a more important role than biogeography 4.4 Conclusion 4.5 Material & methods 4.5.1 Sample material 4.5.2 Sequence data analysis 4.6 Data availability 4.7 Acknowledgments 4.8 Author contributions 4.9 References 5 Discussion and synthesis 5.1 Hybridization capture is a well-suited method to study ancient species dynamics 5.1.1 Advantages and limitations of shotgun sequencing 5.1.2 Successful hybridization capture enrichment using chloroplast DNA 5.1.3 Challenges in single-copy target enrichment 5.1.4 Limitations and potentials to improve sedaDNA capture studies 5.2 Factors promoting Asian larch dominance 5.3 Drivers of Larix species distribution 5.3.1 Implications for larch forests under climate warming 5.4 Conclusion 5.5 Outlook 6 References 7 Appendix 7.1 Appendix to manuscript I 7.2 Appendix to manuscript II 7.3 Appendix to manuscript III 7.3.1 Material and Methods 7.3.2 Additional Results & Discussions 7.3.3 References Acknowledgements Eidesstattliche Erklärung

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2022 (kumulative Dissertation) , TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Zusammenfassung Allgemeinverständliche Zusammenfassung List of Figures List of Tables Funding Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Scientific Background 1.1.1 Arctic Climate Change 1.1.2 The Arctic Nearshore Zone 1.1.3 Ocean Color Remote Sensing 1.2 Objectives 1.3 Study Area 1.4 Methods 1.4.1 Field Sampling 1.4.2 Data Processing 1.4.3 Satellite Imagery Processing 1.5 Thesis Structure 1.6 Author Contributions Chapter 2 Long-Term High-Resolution Sediment and Sea Surface Temperature Spatial Patterns in Arctic Nearshore Waters retrived using 30-year Landsat Archive Imagery 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Material and Methods 2.3.1 Regional Setting 2.3.2 Landsat Images Acquisition and Processing 2.3.3 Landsat Turbidity Retrieval 2.3.4 Transects in the nearshore zone 2.3.5 Wind Data 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Brightness Temperature 2.4.2 Surface Reflectance and Turbidity Mapping 2.4.3 Gradients in the nearshore zone 2.5 Discussion 2.6 Conclusion Appendix A Chapter 3 The Arctic Nearshore Turbidity Algorithm (ANTA) - A Multi Sensor Turbidity Algorithm for Arctic Nearshore Environments 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Methods 3.3.1 Regional setting 3.3.2 In-situ sampling 3.3.3 Optical data processing 3.3.4 Algorithm tuning 3.3.5 Satellite imagery processing 3.4 Results and Discussion 3.4.1 Turbidity and SPM 3.4.2 ANTA performance 3.4.3 Comparison with the Dogliotti et al., (2015) algorithm 3.4.4 Test and transfer of the ANTA 3.5 Conclusion Chapter 4 Drivers of Turbidity and its Seasonal Variability in the Nearshore Zone of Herschel Island Qikiqtaruk (western Canadian Arctic) 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Methods 4.3.1 Study Area 4.3.2 Satellite Imagery 4.3.3 In-situ data 4.3.4 Reanalysis data 4.4 Results and Discussion 4.4.1 Time Series Analysis 4.4.2 Drivers of turbidity 4.5 Conclusion Chapter 5 Synthesis 5.1 Applicability of Remote Sensing Algorithms in the Arctic Nearshore Zone 5.2 Drivers of Nearshore Turbidity 5.3 Spatial Variations of Nearshore Turbidity 5.4 Challenges and Outlook List of Acronyms Bibliography Danksagung

Anmerkung: Contents: 1 Introduction ; I Continuous predictors ; 2 Continuous predictors: Linear ; 3 Continuous predictors: Polynomials ; 4 Continuous predictors: Piecewise models ; 5 Continuous by continuous interactions ; 6 Continuous by continuous by continuous interactions ; II Categorical predictors ; 7 Categorical predictors ; 8 Categorical by categorical interactions ; 9 Categorical by categorical by categorical interactions ; III Continuous and categorical predictors ; 10 Linear by categorical interactions ; 11 Polynomial by categorical interactions ; 12 Piecewise by categorical interactions ; 13 Continuous by continuous by categorical interactions ; 14 Continuous by categorical by categorical interactions ; IV Beyond ordinary linear regression ; 15 Multilevel models ; 16 Time as a continuous predictor ; 17 Time as a categorical predictor ; 18 Nonlinear models ; 19 Complex survey data ; V Appendices ; A Customizing output from estimation commands ; B The margins command ; C The marginsplot command ; D The contrast command ; E The pwcompare command ; References

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Arctic Climate and Greenland 1 Arctic Climate Change, Variability, and Extremes / John E. Walsh 2 Precipitation Characteristics and Changes / Hengchun Ye, Daqing Yang, Ali Behrangi, Svetlana L. Stuefer, Xicai Pan, Eva Mekis, Yonas Dibike, and John E. Walsh 3 Snow Cover - Observations, Processes, Changes, and Impacts on Northern Hydrology / Ross Brown, Philip Marsh, Stephen Déry, and Daqing Yang 4 Evaporation Processes and Changes Over the Northern Regions / Yinsheng Zhang, Ning Ma, Hotaek Park, John E. Walsh, and Ke Zhang 5 Greenland Ice Sheet and Arctic Mountain Glaciers / Sebastian H. Mernild, Glen E. Liston, and Daqing Yang Part II Hydrology and Biogeochemistry 6 Regional and Basin Streamflow Regimes and Changes: Climate Impact and Human Effect / Michael Rawlins, Daqing Yang, and Shaoqing Ge 7 Hydrologic Extremes in Arctic Rivers and Regions: Historical Variability and Future Perspectives / Rajesh R. Shrestha, Katrina E. Bennett, Daniel L. Peters, and Daqing Yang 8 Overview of Environmental Flows in Permafrost Regions / Daniel L, Peters, Donald J. Baird, Joseph Culp, Jennifer Lento, Wendy A. Monk, and Rajesh R. Shrestha 9 Yukon River Discharge Response to Seasonal Snow Cover Change / Daqing Yang, Yuanyuan Zhao, Richard Armstrong, Mary J. Brodzik, and David Robinson 10 Arctic River Water Temperatures and Thermal Regimes / Daqing Yang, Hoteak Park, Amber Peterson, and Baozhong Liu 11 Changing Biogeochemical Cycles of Organic Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Trace Elements in Arctic Rivers / Jonathan O'Donnell, Thomas Douglas, Amanda Barker, and Laodong Guo 12 Arctic Wetlands and Lakes-Dynamics and Linkages / Kathy L. Young, Laura Brown, and Yonas Dibike 13 River Ice Processes and Changes Across the Northern Regions / Daqing Yang, Hotaek Park, Terry Prowse, Alexander Shiklomanov, and Ellie McLeod Part III Permafrost and Frozen Ground 14 Permafrost Features and Talik Geometry in Hydrologic System / Kenji Yoshikawa and Douglas L. Kane 15 Ground Temperature and Active Layer Regimes and Changes / Lin Zhao, Cangwei Xie, Daqing Yang, and Tingjun Zhang 16 Permafrost Hydrology: Linkages and Feedbacks / Tetsuya Hiyama, Daqing Yang, and Douglas L. Kane 17 Permafrost Hydrogeology / Barret L. Kurylyk and Michelle A. Walvoord Part IV Ecosystem Change and Impact 18 Greenhouse Gases and Energy Fluxes at Permafrost Zone / Masahito Ueyama, Hiroki Iwata, Hideki Kobayashi, Eugénie Euskirchen, Lutz Merbold, Takeshi Ohta, Takashi Machimura, Donatella Zona, Walter C. Oechel, and Edward A. G. Schuur 19 Spring Phenology of the Boreal Ecosystems / Nicolas Delbart 20 Diagnosing Environmental Controls on Vegetation Greening and Browning Trends Over Alaska and Northwest Canada Using Complementary Satellite Observations / Youngwook Kim, John S. Kimball, Nicholas Parazoo, and Peter Kirchner 21 Boreal Forest and Forest Fires / Yongwon Kim, Hideki Kobayashi, Shin Nagai, Masahito Ueyama, Bang-Yong Lee, and Rikie Suzuki 22 Northern Ecohydrology of Interior Alaska Subarctic / Jessica M. Young-Robertson, W. Robert Bolton, and Ryan Toohey 23 Yukon River Discharge-NDVI Relationship / Weixin Xu and Daqing Yang Part V Cross-System Linkage and Integration 24 River Freshwater Flux to the Arctic Ocean / Alexander Shiklomanov, Stephen Déry, Mikhail Tretiakov, Daqing Yang, Dmitry Magritsky, Alex Georgiadi, and Wenqing Tang 25 River Heat Flux into the Arctic Ocean / Daqing Yang, Shaoqing Ge, Hotaek Park, and Richard L. Lammers 26 Cold Region Hydrologic Models and Applications / Hotaek Park, Yonas Dibike, Fengge Su, and John Xiaogang Shi 27 Regional Climate Modeling in the Northern Regions / Zhenhua Li, Yanping Li, Daqing Yang, and Rajesh R. Shrestha 28 High-Resolution Weather Research Forecasting (WRF) Modeling and Projection Over Western Canada, Including Mackenzie Watershed / Yanping Li and Zhenhua Li 29 Responses of Boreal Forest Ecosystems and Permafrost to Climate Change and Disturbances: A Modeling Perspective / Shuhua Yi and Fengming Yuan 30 Future Trajectory of Arctic System Evolution / Kazuyuki Saito, John E. Walsh, Arvid Bring, Ross Brown, Alexander Shiklomanov, and Daqing Yang Correction to: Arctic Hydrology, Permafrost and Ecosystems / Daqing Yang, and Douglas L. Kane

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2021 , Table of Contents Abstract Zusammenfassung List of Figures List of Tables Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Scientific background and motivation 1.1.1 Permafrost and climate change 1.1.2 Permafrost thaw and disturbances 1.1.3 Abrupt permafrost disturbances 1.1.4 Remote sensing 1.1.5 Remote sensing of permafrost disturbances 1.2 Aims and objectives 1.3 Study area 1.4 General data and methods 1.4.1 Landsat and Sentinel-2 1.4.2 Google Earth Engine 1.5 Thesis structure 1.6 Overview of publications and authors’ contribution 1.6.1 Chapter 2 - Comparing Spectral Characteristics of Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Same-Day Data for Arctic-Boreal Regions 1.6.2 Chapter 3 - Mosaicking Landsat and Sentinel-2 Data to Enhance LandTrendr Time Series Analysis in Northern High Latitude Permafrost Regions 1.6.3 Chapter 4 - Remote Sensing Annual Dynamics of Rapid Permafrost Thaw Disturbances with LandTrendr 2 Comparing Spectral Characteristics of Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Same-Day Data for Arctic-Boreal Regions 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Materials and Methods 2.3.1 Study Sites 2.3.2 Data 2.3.3 Data Processing 2.3.3.1 Filtering Image Collections 2.3.3.2 Creating L8, S2, and Site Masks 2.3.3.3 Preparing Sentinel-2 Surface Reflectance Images in SNAP 2.3.3.4 Applying Site Masks 2.3.4 Spectral Band Comparison and Adjustment 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Spectral Band Comparison 2.4.2 Spectral Band Adjustment 2.4.3 ES and HLS Spectral Band Adjustment 2.5 Discussion 2.6 Conclusions 2.7 Acknowledgements 2.8 Appendix Chapter 2 3 Mosaicking Landsat and Sentinel-2 Data to Enhance LandTrendr Time Series Analysis in Northern High Latitude Permafrost Regions 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Materials and Methods 3.3.1 Study Sites 3.3.2 Data 3.3.3 Data Processing and Mosaicking Workflow 3.3.4 Data Availability Assessment 3.3.5 Mosaic Coverage and Quality Assessment 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Data Availability Assessment 3.4.2 Mosaic Coverage and Quality Assessment 3.5 Discussion 3.6 Conclusions 4 Remote Sensing Annual Dynamics of Rapid Permafrost Thaw Disturbances with LandTrendr 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Study Area and Methods 4.3.1 Study area 4.3.2 General workflow and ground truth data 4.3.3 Data and LandTrendr 4.3.4 Index selection 4.3.5 Temporal Segmentation 4.3.6 Spectral Filtering 4.3.7 Spatial masking and filtering 4.3.8 Machine-learning object filter 4.4 Results 4.4.1 Focus sites 4.4.2 North Siberia 4.5 Discussion 4.5.1 Mapping of RTS 4.5.2 Spatio-temporal variability of RTS dynamics 4.5.3 LT-LS2 capabilities and limitations 4.6 Conclusion 4.7 Appendix 5 Synthesis and Discussion 5.1 Google Earth Engine 5.2 Landsat and Sentinel-2 5.3 Image mosaics and disturbance detection algorithm 5.4 Mapping RTS and their annual temporal dynamics 5.5 Limitations and technical considerations 5.6 Key findings 5.7 Outlook References Acknowledgements

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Slow Viscous Flow 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Coordinate Systems and the Material Derivative 1.2.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Coordinates 1.2.2 The Material Derivative 1.3 Mass Conservation 1.4 The Stress Tensor and Momentum Conservation 1.4.1 The Stress Tensor 1.4.2 Momentum Conservation 1.4.3 Rheology 1.4.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 1.4.5 Stokes Flow 1.5 Boundary Conditions 1.5.1 The No-Slip Condition and the Sliding Law 1.5.2 Dynamic Boundary Conditions 1.5.3 Kinematic Boundary Conditions 1.6 Temperature and Energy Conservation 1.7 Glacier and Ice Sheet Flow 1.8 Examples 1.8.1 Uniform Flow on a Slope 1.8.2 Spreading Flow at an Ice Divide 1.8.3 Small-Amplitude Perturbations 1.9 The Shallow Ice Approximation 1.10 Conclusions and Outlook 1.11 Appendix: Non-dimensionalisation Exercises 2 Thermal Structure 2.1 Temperature Profiles 2.2 Boundary Conditions 2.2.1 The Thermal Near-Surface Wave 2.3 Models: Simple to Complicated 2.4 Basal Conditions 2.4.1 Polythermal Ice 2.5 Modelling Issues 2.5.1 Non-dimensionalisation 2.5.2 Thermomechanical Coupling 2.5.3 Thermal Runaway Exercises 3 Sliding, Drainage and Subglacial Geomorphology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sliding Over Hard Beds 3.2.1 Weertman Sliding 3.2.2 Nye-Kamb Theory 3.2.3 Sub-temperate Sliding 3.2.4 Nonlinear Sliding Laws 3.2.5 Cavitation 3.2.6 Comparison with Experiment 3.3 Subglacial Drainage Theory 3.3.1 Weertman Films 3.3.2 Röthlisberger Channels (or ‘R-Channels’) 3.3.3 Jökulhlaups 3.3.4 Subglacial Lakes 3.3.5 Linked Cavities 3.3.6 Drainage Transitions and Glacier Surges 3.3.7 Ongoing Developments 3.4 Basal Processes and Geomorphology 3.4.1 Soft Glacier Beds 3.4.2 Drainage Over Till 3.4.3 Geomorphological Processes Exercises 4 Tidewater Glaciers 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Calving 4.3 Tidewater Glacier Dynamics 4.3.1 Tidewater Glacier Retreat and Instability 4.3.2 Tidewater Glacier Advance 4.3.3 Flow Variability of Tidewater Glaciers 4.4 The Link to Climate: Triggers for Retreat 4.4.1 Ice Shelf Collapse and Backstress 4.4.2 Grounded Calving Fronts 4.5 Outlook 5 Interaction of Ice Shelves with the Ocean 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Impact of Melting Ice on the Ocean 5.3 Processes at the Ice-Ocean Interface 5.4 Buoyancy-Driven Flow on Geophysical Scales 5.5 Sensitivity to Ocean Temperature 5.6 Impact of Meltwater Outflow at the Grounding Line 5.7 Fundamentals of the Three-Dimensional Ocean Circulation 5.8 Some Properties and Limitations of the Geostrophic Equations 5.9 Effects of Stratification 5.10 Three-Dimensional Circulation in Sub-Ice-Shelf Cavities Exercises 6 Polar Meteorology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Shortwave and Longwave Radiation 6.3 Radiation Climate at the Top of the Atmosphere 6.4 Large Scale Circulation 6.5 Surface Energy Balance 6.5.1 Shortwave Radiation 6.5.2 Surface Albedo 6.5.3 Longwave Radiation 6.5.4 Turbulent Fluxes 6.6 Temperature Inversion and Katabatic Winds 6.6.1 Surface Temperature Inversion and Deficit 6.6.2 Katabatic Winds 6.7 Precipitation 6.8 Notes and References Exercises 7 Mass Balance 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Definitions 7.3 Methods 7.3.1 In Situ Observations 7.3.2 Satellite/Airborne Altimetry 7.3.3 Satellite Gravimetry 7.3.4 Mass Budget Method 7.4 Valley Glaciers and Ice Caps 7.4.1 In Situ Observations 7.4.2 Modelling 7.4.3 Dynamical Response 7.4.4 Remote Sensing 7.5 Antarctic Ice Sheet 7.5.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.5.2 Blue Ice Areas 7.5.3 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6 Greenland Ice Sheet 7.6.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.6.2 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6.3 Role of the Liquid Water Balance 8 Numerical Modelling of Ice Sheets, Streams, and Shelves 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ice Flow Equations 8.2.1 The Shallow Ice Approximation 8.2.2 Analogy with the Heat Equation 8.3 Finite Difference Numerics 8.3.1 Explicit Scheme for the Heat Equation 8.3.2 A First Implemented Scheme 8.3.3 Stability Criteria and Adaptive Time Stepping 8.3.4 Implicit Schemes 8.3.5 Numerical Solution of Diffusion Equations 8.4 Numerically Solving the SIA 8.5 Exact Solutions and Verification 8.5.1 Exact Solution of the Heat Equation 8.5.2 Halfar’s Exact Similarity Solution to the SIA 8.5.3 Using Halfar’s Solution 8.5.4 A Test of Robustness 8.6 Applying Our Numerical Ice Sheet Model 8.7 Shelves and Streams 8.7.1 The Shallow Shelf Approximation (SSA) 8.7.2 Numerical Solution of the SSA 8.7.3 Numerics of the Linear Boundary Value Problem 8.7.4 Solving the Stress Balance for an Ice Shelf 8.7.5 Realistic Ice Shelf Modelling 8.8 A Summary of Numerical Ice Flow Modelling 8.9 Notes Exercises 9 Least-Squares Data Inversion in Glaciology 9.1 Preamble 9.2 Introduction 9.3 The Roots of GPS in Glaciology 9.4 Introduction to GPS 9.4.1 History 9.4.2 Coarse Acquisition (C/A) Code 9.5 The Equations of Pseudorange 9.6 Least-Squares Solution of an Overdetermined System of Linear Equations 9.7 Observational Techniques to Improve GPS Accuracy 9.7.1 The Ionosphere-Free Combination 9.7.2 Carrier-Phase Determined Range and Integer Wavelength Ambiguity 9.7.3 Resolving Range Ambiguity by Phase Tracking 9.7.4 Differential GPS Exercises 10 Analytical Models of Ice Sheets and Ice Shelves 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Perfectly-Plastic Ice Sheet Model 10.3 The Height–Mass Balance Feedback 10.4 Ice-Sheet Profile for Plane Shear with Glen’s Law 10.5 Ice Shelves Exercise 11 Firn 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Firn Densification 11.2.1 Mechanisms of Firn Densification 11.2.2 Firn Densification Models 11.2.3 Firn Layering and Microstructure 11.3 Applications of Firn Models 11.3.1 Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance from Altimetry 11.3.2 Delta Age Calculations in Deep Ice Cores 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 12 Ice Cores: Archive of the Climate System 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Dating Ice Cores 12.3 Stable Water Isotopes 12.3.1 Basics and Nomenclature 12.3.2 The Isotope Proxy Thermometer 12.3.3 Examples of Isotope Records 12.3.4 Isotope Diffusion in Firn and Ice 12.3.5 Diffusion Thermometry 12.4 Aerosols in Ice 12.4.1 Introduction and Origin of Aerosols in Ice 12.4.2 Aerosol Sources and Transport 12.4.3 Post-depositional Modification 12.4.4 Seasonal Cycles in Aerosol and Particle Constituents in Ice 12.4.5 The Volcanic Signal in Ice and Its Use for Chronological Control 12.4.6 Marine Biogenic MSA and Sea Salt as Sea-Ice Proxies 12.4.7 The Record of Anthropogenic Pollution 12.4.8 Long Aerosol Records from Greenland and Antarctica 12.4.9 Electrical Properties of Ice and Their Relationship to Chemistry 12.5 Gases Enclosed in Ice 12.5.1 Firn Gas and Gas Occlusion 12.5.2 Trace Gases 12.6 Timing of Climate Events Exercises 13 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glaciers and Ice Sheets 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Optical Sensors and Applications 13.2.1 Sensors and Satellites 13.2.2 Applications 13.3 SAR Methods and Applications 13.3.1 Radar Signal Interaction with Snow and Ice 13.3.2 SAR Sensor and Image Characteristics 13.3.3 InSAR Measurement Principles and Applications 13.4 Satellite Altimetry 13.4.1 Altimetry Missions 13.4.2 Measuring Elevation Change 14 Geophysics 14.1 Geophysical Methods: Overview 14.2 Passive Methods 14.2.1 Gravimetry 14.2.2 Magnetics 14.2.3 Seismology 14.3 Active Methods: Basics 14.3.1 Propagation Properties and Reflection Origin 14.3.2 Seismic System Set-Up 14.3.3 Radar System Set-Up 14.4 Data Acquisition and Processing 14.5 Seismic Applications in Ice 14.5.1 Ice Thickness and Basal Topography 14.5.2 Subglacial Structure and Properties 14.5.3 Rheological and Other Englacial Properties 14.6 Radar Applications in Ice 14.6.1 Internal Layer Architecture and Ice Dynamics 14.6.2 Subglacial Conditions 14.6.3 Englacial Conditions 14.7 Notes and References 14.7.1 Further Reading 14.7.2 Gravimetry 14.7.3 General Wave Equation and Solution 14.7.4 Seismic Waves 14.7.5 Electromagnetic Waves Exercises 15 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Earth Response to Loading 15.2.1 Rheology of the Earth 15.2.2 Building an Earth Model 15.2.3 Earth Models Used in Glaciology and Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.3 The Cryosphere and Sea Level 15.3.1 Factors Affecting Sea-Level Change 15.3.2 Eu

Anmerkung: Contents: Introduction Section I - Arctic Seas 1 Loss of Sea Ice 2 Rising Sea Surface Temperatures 3 Changes in Ocean Circulation Patterns 4 Sea Level Change 5 Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Arctic Marine Ecosystems 6 Impacts of Chemical Pollution on Marine Ecosystems 7 Impacts of Overfishing in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Waters 8 Impacts of Global Shipping to Arctic Ocean Ecosystems Section II Arctic ice 9 Decline in Arctic glaciers Section III Arctic Lands 10 Greenland Ice Sheet 11 Changes in terrestrial environments 12 Impacts of global change 13 Impacts of oil and mineral extraction Section IV Arctic people 14 Impacts of permafrost degradation 15 Threats to native ways of life 16 Changing political landscape of the Arctic Index

Anmerkung: Intro Contents Preface 1. The water in the oceans 2. Density and density flows 3. Ocean waves 4. Flow in the oceans 5. The tides 6. Stratification and fronts in shelf seas 7. Light in the oceans 8. Biology of the oceans 9. Chemistry of the oceans 10. Primary production in the oceans 11. Ocean food webs 12. Biology at the ocean extremes 13 Changing oceans 14. Sampling the oceans Glossary Further Reading

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Using CTM Method / Hind Meziane, Noura Ouerdi, Mohammed Amine Kasmi, and Sanae Mazouz Exploring the Power of Computation Technologies for Entity Matching / Youssef Aassem, Imad Hafidi, and Noureddine Aboutabit Smart Sustainable Cities: A Chatbot Based on Question Answering System Passing by a Grammatical Correction for Serving Citizens / Bghiel Afrae, Ben Ahmed Mohamed, and Boudhir Anouar Abdelhakim Enhancing Wireless Transmission Efficiency for Sensors in Wireless Body Area Sensor Networks / Rahat Ali Khan, Shahzad Memon, and Qin Xin Study of Websocket Parent-Teachers/Qualified Teachers in Rural Areas: Case of Central African Republic / Ghislain Mervyl Saint-Juste Kossingou, Nadege Gladys Ndassimba, Edgard Ndassimba, Kéba Gueye, and Samuel Ouya A Comparison of QoS-Based Architecture Solutions for IoT/Edge Computing Environment / Nogaye Lo and Ibrahima Niang Towards Sustainable e-Learning Systems Using an Adaptive Learning Approach / El Miloud Smaili, Soukaina Sraidi, Salma Azzouzi, and My El Hassan Charaf Toward a Mobile Remote Controlled Robot for Early Childhood in Algeria / Ehlem Zigh, Ayoub Elhoucine, Abderrahmane Mallek, and Belcacem Kouninef Multi-Directional Total Variation and Wavelet Transform Based Methods: Application for Correlation Fringe Patterns Denoising and Demodulation / Mustapha Bahich and Mohammed Bailich A Multi-Agent System for Color Video Decomposition / Insaf Bellamine Serious Games for Sustainable Education in Emerging Countries: An Open-Source Pipeline and Methodology / Younes Alaoui, Lotfi El Achaak, Amine Belahbib, and Mohammed Bouhorma

Anmerkung: Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Part I Overview of Satellite Datasets -- Chapter 1 A Tour of Current Satellite Missions and Products -- 1.1 History of Computational Scientific Visualization -- 1.2 Brief Catalog of Current Satellite Products -- 1.2.1 Meteorological and Atmospheric Science -- 1.2.2 Hydrology -- 1.2.3 Oceanography and Biogeosciences -- 1.2.4 Cryosphere -- 1.3 The Flow of Data from Satellites to Computer -- 1.4 Learning Using Real Data and Case Studies -- 1.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 2 Overview of Python -- 2.1 Why Python? -- 2.2 Useful Packages for Remote Sensing Visualization -- 2.2.1 NumPy -- 2.2.2 Pandas -- 2.2.3 Matplotlib -- 2.2.4 netCDF4 and h5py -- 2.2.5 Cartopy -- 2.3 Maturing Packages -- 2.3.1 xarray -- 2.3.2 Dask -- 2.3.3 Iris -- 2.3.4 MetPy -- 2.3.5 cfgrib and eccodes -- 2.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 3 A Deep Dive into Scientific Data Sets -- 3.1 Storage -- 3.1.1 Single Values -- 3.1.2 Arrays -- 3.2 Data Formats -- 3.2.1 Binary -- 3.2.2 Text -- 3.2.3 Self-Describing Data Formats -- 3.2.4 Table-Driven Formats -- 3.2.5 geoTIFF -- 3.3 Data Usage -- 3.3.1 Processing Levels -- 3.3.2 Product Maturity -- 3.3.3 Quality Control -- 3.3.4 Data Latency -- 3.3.5 Reprocessing -- 3.4 Summary -- References -- Part II Practical Python Tutorials for Remote Sensing -- Chapter 4 Practical Python Syntax -- 4.1 "Hello Earth" in Python -- 4.2 Variable Assignment and Arithmetic -- 4.3 Lists -- 4.4 Importing Packages -- 4.5 Array and Matrix Operations -- 4.6 Time Series Data -- 4.7 Loops -- 4.8 List Comprehensions -- 4.9 Functions -- 4.10 Dictionaries -- 4.11 Summary -- References -- Chapter 5 Importing Standard Earth Science Datasets -- 5.1 Text -- 5.2 NetCDF -- 5.2.1 Manually Creating a Mask Variable Using True and False Values. -- 5.2.2 Using NumPy Masked Arrays to Filter Automatically -- 5.3 HDF -- 5.4 GRIB2 -- 5.5 Importing Data Using Xarray -- 5.5.1 netCDF -- 5.5.2 Examining Vertical Cross Sections -- 5.5.3 Examining Horizontal Cross Sections -- 5.5.4 GRIB2 using Cfgrib -- 5.5.5 Accessing Datasets Using OpenDAP -- 5.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 6 Plotting and Graphs for All -- 6.1 Univariate Plots -- 6.1.1 Histograms -- 6.1.2 Barplots -- 6.2 Two Variable Plots -- 6.2.1 Converting Data to a Time Series -- 6.2.2 Useful Plot Customizations -- 6.2.3 Scatter Plots -- 6.2.4 Line Plots -- 6.2.5 Adding Data to an Existing Plot -- 6.2.6 Plotting Two Side-by-Side Plots -- 6.2.7 Skew-T Log-P -- 6.3 Three Variable Plots -- 6.3.1 Filled Contour Plots -- 6.3.2 Mesh Plots -- 6.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 7 Creating Effective and Functional Maps -- 7.1 Cartographic Projections -- 7.1.1 Geographic Coordinate Systems -- 7.1.2 Choosing a Projection -- 7.1.3 Some Common Projections -- 7.2 Cylindrical Maps -- 7.2.1 Global Plots -- 7.2.2 Changing Projections -- 7.2.3 Regional Plots -- 7.2.4 Swath Data -- 7.2.5 Quality Flag Filtering -- 7.3 Polar Stereographic Maps -- 7.4 Geostationary Maps -- 7.5 Creating Maps from Datasets Using OpenDAP -- 7.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8 Gridding Operations -- 8.1 Regular One-Dimensional Grids -- 8.2 Regular Two-Dimensional Grids -- 8.3 Irregular Two-Dimensional Grids -- 8.3.1 Resizing -- 8.3.2 Regridding -- 8.3.3 Resampling -- 8.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 9 Meaningful Visuals through Data Combination -- 9.1 Spectral and Spatial Characteristics of Different Sensors -- 9.2 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) -- 9.3 Window Channels -- 9.4 RGB -- 9.4.1 True Color -- 9.4.2 Dust RGB -- 9.4.3. Fire/Natural RGB -- 9.5 Matching with Surface Observations -- 9.5.1 With User-Defined Functions -- 9.5.2 With Machine Learning. -- 9.6 Summary -- References -- Chapter 10 Exporting with Ease -- 10.1 Figures -- 10.2 Text Files -- 10.3 Pickling -- 10.4 NumPy Binary Files -- 10.5 NetCDF -- 10.5.1 Using netCDF4 to Create netCDF Files -- 10.5.2 Using Xarray to Create netCDF Files -- 10.5.3 Following Climate and Forecast (CF) Metadata Conventions -- 10.6 Summary -- Part III Effective Coding Practices -- Chapter 11 Developing a Workflow -- 11.1 Scripting with Python -- 11.1.1 Creating Scripts Using Text Editors -- 11.1.2 Creating Scripts from Jupyter Notebook -- 11.1.3 Running Python Scripts from the Command Line -- 11.1.4 Handling Output When Scripting -- 11.2 Version Control -- 11.2.1 Code Sharing though Online Repositories -- 11.2.2 Setting up on GitHub -- 11.3 Virtual Environments -- 11.3.1 Creating an Environment -- 11.3.2 Changing Environments from the Command Line -- 11.3.3 Changing Environments in Jupyter Notebook -- 11.4 Methods for Code Development -- 11.5 Summary -- References -- Chapter 12 Reproducible and Shareable Science -- 12.1 Clean Coding Techniques -- 12.1.1 Stylistic Conventions -- 12.1.2 Tools for Clean Code -- 12.2 Documentation -- 12.2.1 Comments and Docstrings -- 12.2.2 README File -- 12.2.3 Creating Useful Commit Messages -- 12.3 Licensing -- 12.4 Effective Visuals -- 12.4.1 Make a Statement -- 12.4.2 Undergo Revision -- 12.4.3 Are Accessible and Ethical -- 12.5 Summary -- References -- Conclusion -- Appendix A Installing Python -- A.1. Download Tutorials for This Book -- A.2. Download and Install Anaconda -- A.3. Package Management in Anaconda -- Appendix B Jupyter Notebook -- B.1. Running on a Local Machine (New Coders) -- B.2. Running on a Remote Server (Advanced) -- B.3. Tips for Advanced Users -- B.3.1. Customizing Notebooks with Configuration Files -- B.3.2. Starting and Ending Python Scripts -- B.3.3. Creating Git Commit Templates. -- Appendix C Additional Learning Resources -- Appendix D Tools -- D.1. Text Editors and IDEs -- D.2. Terminals -- Appendix E Finding, Accessing, and Downloading Satellite Datasets -- E.1. Ordering Data from NASA EarthData -- E.2. Ordering Data from NOAA/CLASS -- Appendix F Acronyms -- Index -- EULA.

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction and Physical Oceanography 1 Geostrophic and Wind-Driven Components of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current / Nikolay A. Diansky, Varvara V. Bagatinskaya, Anatoly V. Gusev, and Eugene G. Morozov 2 Multi-jet Structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current / Roman Yu Tarakanov 3 Frontal Zone Between Relatively Warm and Cold Waters in the Northern Weddell Sea / Eugene G. Morozov, Viktor A. Krechik, Dmitry I. Frey, Alexander A. Polukhin, Vladimir A. Artemiev, Valentina V. Kasyan, Philipp V. Sapozhnikov, and Rinat Z. Mukhametianov 4 Water Masses, Currents, and Phytoplankton in the Bransfield Strait in January 2020 / Eugene G. Morozov, Dmitry I. Frey, Viktor A. Krechik, Alexander A. Polukhin, and Philipp V. Sapozhnikov 5 Intra-annual Variability of Water Structure in the Atlantic Sector of the Southern Ocean Based on the ECMWF ORA-S3 and OI SST Reanalysis / Yuri V. Artamonov, Elena A. Skripaleva, Alexander V. Fedirko, and Nikolay V. Nikolsky 6 The Circulation and Mixing Zone in the Antarctic Sound in February 2020 / Alexander V. Krek, Elena V. Krek, and Viktor A. Krechik 7 Rogue Waves in the Drake Passage: Unpredictable Hazard / Ekaterina G. Didenkulova, Tatiana G. Talipova, and Efim N. Pelinovsky 8 Water Mass Transformation in the Powell Basin / Alina A. Fedotova and Svetlana V. Stepanova 9 Interannual Variations of Water Mass Properties in the Central Basin of the Bransfield Strait / Alina A. Fedotova and Sergey V. Kashin 10 Sea Surface Temperature and Ice Concentration Analysis Based on the NOAA Long-Term Satellite and Sea-Truth Data in the Atlantic Antarctic / Viktor V. Zamshin and Vladislav A. Shliupikov Part II Chemical Oceanography, Seawater Optical Properties, Productivity and Microbial Processes 11 Hydrochemical Structure of Waters in the Northern Weddell Sea in Austral Summer 2020 / Svetlana V. Stepanova, Alexander A. Polukhin, Gennadii V. Borisenko, Anna L. Chultsova, Evgeniia N. Marina, Oleg S. Popov, Anna M. Seliverstova, Anna V. Vidnichuk, and Petr P. Tishchenko 12 Features and Processes of the Oxygen and pCO2 Dynamics in the Surface Waters in the Western Parts of the Weddell and Scotia Seas (Southern Ocean) / Natalia A. Orekhova, Anna V. Vidnichuk, and Sergey K. Konovalov 13 Earth’s Insolation and Spatiotemporal Variability of Albedo in the Antarctic / Anton A. Bukatov and Margarita V. Babiy 14 Quantitative and Productional Characteristics of Microplankton in the Powell Basin and Bransfield Strait in Summer / Nadezda D. Romanova, Sergey A. Mosharov, Olga V. Vorobieva, and Elena V. Bardyukova 15 Detection of Thermophilic Methanotrophic Microbial Communities in the Water Column of the Bransfield Strait (Antarctica) / Anna L. Ponomareva, Nikita S. Polonik, Aleksandra V. Kim, and Renat B. Shakirov 16 Spectral Bio-optical Properties of Waters in the Bransfield Strait and Powell Basin / Tanya Ya Churilova, Nataliia A. Moiseeva, Tatiana V. Efimova, Vladimir A. Artemiev, Elena Y. Skorokhod, and Anatoly S. Buchelnikov 17 Variability of Seawater Optical Properties in the Adjacent Water Basins of the Antarctic Peninsula in January and February 2020 / Alexandr A. Latushkin, Vladimir A. Artemiev, Anton V. Garmashov, Pavel A. Salyuk, Inna V. Sahling, and Dmitry I. Glukhovets 18 Bio-Optical Models for Estimating Euphotic Zone Depth in the Western Atlantic Sector of the Southern Ocean in the Antarctic Summer / Pavel A. Salyuk, Vladimir A. Artemiev, Dmitry I. Glukhovets, Alexander N. Khrapko, Anatoly V. Grigoriev, Alexandr A. Latushkin, and Nadezda D. Romanova 19 Phycoerythrin Pigment Distribution in the Upper Water Layer Across the Weddell-Scotia Confluence Zone and Drake Passage / Pavel A. Salyuk, Dmitry I. Glukhovets, Alexander Yu. Mayor, Natalia A. Moiseeva, Vladimir A. Artemiev, and Alexander N. Khrapko 20 Nanophytoplankton in the Bransfield Strait: Contribution of Cryptophyta to the Community Abundance and Biomass During Austral Summer / Vladimir S. Mukhanov, Evgeny G. Sakhon, Aleksander A. Polukhin, and Vladimir A. Artemiev Part III Section Marine Ecosystems and Their Oceanographical Background 21 Phytopelagic Communities of the Powell Basin in the Summer of 2020 / Philipp V. Sapozhnikov, Olga Yu. Kalinina, and Tatiana V. Morozova 22 Bioluminescence in the Atlantic Sector of the Southern Ocean Based on the Field Observations and Sounding Data / Aleksandr V. Melnik, Viktor V. Melnikov, Lidiya A. Melnik, Olga V. Mashukova, and Sergei V. Kapranov 23 Parasites as an Inseparable Part of Antarctic and Subantarctic Marine Biodiversity / Tatyana A. Polyakova and Ilya I. Gordeev 24 Spatial Distribution, Species Composition, and Number of Seabirds in the Argentine Basin, Drake Passage, East of Antarctic Peninsula, and Powell Basin in January–March 2020 / Sergey P. Kharitonov, Alexander L. Mischenko, Nikolai B. Konyukhov, Alexander E. Dmitriyev, Andrey V. Tretyakov, Gleb Yu. Pilipenko, Svetlana M. Artemyeva, and Matvey S. Mamayev 25 Spatial Distribution, Species Composition, and Number of Marine Mammals in the Argentine Basin, Drake Passage, East of Antarctic Peninsula, and Powell Basin in January–March 2020 / Sergey P. Kharitonov, Andrey V. Tretyakov, Alexander L. Mischenko, Nikolai B. Konyukhov, Svetlana M. Artemyeva, Gleb Yu. Pilipenko, Matvey S. Mamayev, and Alexander E. Dmitriyev 26 Meat in the Ocean: How Much and Who Is to Blame? / Sergey P. Kharitonov, Andrey V. Tretyakov, and Alexander L. Mischenko 27 Macro- and Mesozooplankton in the Powell Basin (Antarctica): Species Composition and Distribution of Abundance and Biomass in February 2020 / Vladimir A. Yakovenko, Vassily A. Spiridonov, Konstantin M. Gorbatenko, Nickolai V. Shadrin, Ernest Z. Samyshev, and Natalia I. Minkina 28 Application of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles for Research of Ecosystems in the Southern Ocean / Alexander Yu. Konoplin, Alexey I. Borovik, Denis N. Mikhailov, Yuriy V. Vaulin, Alexander F. Scherbatyuk, Alexey A. Boreiko, Roman A. Babaev, Dmitriy A. Bolovin, and Dmitriy I. Tregubenko 29 Heavy Metals and Anthropogenic Radionuclides in the Region of the Antarctic Peninsula / Artem A. Paraskiv, Natalia Yu. Mirzoeva, Nataliya N. Tereshchenko, Vladislav Yu. Proskurnin, Ilya G. Sidorov, Svetlana I. Arkhipova, and Eugene G. Morozov

Anmerkung: Contents Contributors Editorial foreword Preface CHAPTER 1 Snow and ice-related hazards, risks, and disasters: Facing challenges of rapid change and long-term commitments / Wilfried Haeberli and Colin Whiteman 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Costs and benefits: Living with snow and ice 1.3 Small and large, fast and slow, local to global: Dealing with constraints 1.4 Beyond historical experience: Monitoring, modeling, and managing rapid and irreversible changes Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 2 Physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of snow, ice, and permafrost / Lukas Arenson (U.), William Colgan, and Hans Peter Marshall 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Density and structure 2.2.1 Snow 2.2.2 Ice 2.2.3 Frozen ground/permafrost 2.3 Thermal properties 2.3.1 Snow 2.3.2 Ice 2.3.3 Frozen ground 2.4 Mechanical properties 2.4.1 Brittle behavior 2.4.2 Ductile behavior 2.5 Electromagnetic and wave properties 2.5.1 Snow 2.5.2 Ice 2.5.3 Frozen ground 2.6 Summary Acknowledgment References.. CHAPTER 3 Snow and ice in the climate system / Atsumu Ohmura 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Physical extent of the cryosphere 3.3 Climatic conditions of the cryosphere 3.3.1 Snow cover 3.3.2 Sea ice 3.3.3 Permafrost 3.3.4 Glaciers References CHAPTER 4 Snow and ice in the hydrosphere / Jan Seibert, Michal Jenicek, Matthias Huss, Tracy Ewen, and Daniel Viviroli 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Snow accumulation and melt 4.2.1 Snowpack description 4.2.2 Snow accumulation 4.2.3 Snow redistribution, metamorphism, and ripening process 4.2.4 Snowpack development 4.2.5 Snowmelt 4.3 Glaciers and glacial mass balance 4.3.1 Glacier mass balance 4.3.2 Glacial drainage system 4.3.3 Modeling glacier discharge 4.4 Hydrology of snow- and ice-covered catchments 4.4.1 Influence of snow on discharge 4.4.2 Snowmelt runoff and climate change 4.4.3 Influence of glaciers on discharge 4.4.4 River ice 4.4.5 Seasonally frozen soil and permafrost 4.5 Concluding remarks References CHAPTER 5 Snow, ice, and the biosphere / Terry V. Callaghan and Margareta Johansson 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Adaptations to snow, ice, and permafrost. 5.3 Snow and ice as habitats 5.4 Snow as a moderator of habitat 5.4.1 Modification of winter habitat 5.4.2 Modification of nonwinter habitat 5.4.3 Effects of changing snow on the biosphere 5.5 Ice as a moderator of habitat 5.5.1 Mechanical effects of ice 5.5.2 Effects of changing lake and river ice on the biosphere 5.5.3 Effects of changing sea ice on the biosphere 5.6 Permafrost as a moderator of habitat 5.6.1 Effects of changing permafrost on the biosphere 5.6.2 Snow-permafrost-vegetation interactions 5.7 Vegetation as a moderator of snow, ice, and permafrost habitats 5.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 6 Ice and snow as land-forming agents / Darrel A. Swift, Simon Cook, Tobias Heckmann, Isabelle Gärtner-Roer, Oliver Korup, and Jeffrey Moore 6.1 Glacial processes and landscapes 6.1.1 Erosion mechanisms and their controls 6.1.2 Landforms and associated hazards 6.1.3 Landscape evolution and rates of glacial incision 6.1.4 Recommended avenues for further research 6.2 Periglacial and permafrost processes and landforms 6.2.1 Landforms and processes related to seasonal frost and permafrost 6.3 The role of snow in forming landscapes 6.3.1 Influence of snow cover on geomorphic processes 6.3.2 Snow-related geomorphic processes and landforms 6.3.3 Potential impacts of global change on snow-related geomorphic processes 6.3.4 Quantifying rates 6.3.5 Modeling 6.4 Conclusions and outlook Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 7 Mountains, lowlands, and coasts: The physiography of cold landscapes / Tobias Bolch and Hanne H. Christiansen 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Physiography of the terrestrial cryosphere 7.2.1 High altitudes/mountains 7.2.2 Cold lowlands 7.2.3 Cold coasts 7.3 Glaciers and ice sheets: Extent and distribution 7.4 Permafrost types, extent, and distribution 7.5 Glacier-permafrost interactions References CHAPTER 8 A socio-cryospheric systems approach to glacier hazards, glacier runoff variability, and climate change / Mark Carey, Graham McDowell, Christian Huggel, Becca Marshall, Holly Moulton, Cesar Portocarrero, Zachary Provant, John M. Reynolds, and Luis Vicuña 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Integrated adaptation in dynamic socio-cryospheric systems 8.3 Glacier and glacial lake hazards 8.3.1 Cordillera Blanca, Peru 8.3.2 Santa Teresa, Peru 8.3.3 Nepal 8.4 Volcano-ice hazards 8.5 Glacier runoff, hydrologic variability, and water use hazards 8.5.1 Nepal 8.5.2 Peru 8.6 Coastal resources and hazards 8.7 Discussion and conclusions Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 9 Integrative risk management: The example of snow avalanches / Michael Bründl and Stefan Margreth 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Risk analysis 9.2.1 Hazard analysis 9.2.2 Exposure and vulnerability analysis 9.2.3 Consequence analysis and calculation of risk 9.3 Risk evaluation 9.3.1 Evaluation of individual risk 9.3.2 Evaluation of collective risk 9.4 Mitigation of risk 9.4.1 Meaning of mitigation of risk 9.4.2 Technical avalanche mitigation measures 9.4.3 Land-use planning 9.4.4 Biological measures and protection forests 9.4.5 Organizational measures 9.5 Methods and tools for risk assessment and evaluation of mitigation measures 9.6 Case study “Evaluation of avalanche mitigation measures for Juneau, Alaska” 9.6.1 Introduction 9.6.2 Avalanche situation 9.6.3 Hazard analysis 9.6.4 Consequence analysis and risk evaluation 9.6.5 Protection measures 9.6.6 Conclusions 9.7 Final remarks References CHAPTER 10 Permafrost degradation / Dmitry Streletskiy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Drivers of permafrost and active-layer change across space and time 10.2.1 Role of climate: Air temperature and liquid precipitation 10.2.2 Role of topography 10.2.3 Role of vegetation and snow 10.2.4 Role of soil properties 10.3 Observed permafrost and active-layer changes 10.4 Permafrost modeling and forecasting 10.5 Permafrost degradation and infrastructure hazards 10.5.1 Buildings on permafrost 10.5.2 Pipelines on permafrost 10.5.3 Railroads, roads, and utility on permafrost 10.6 Coastal erosion and permafrost 10.7 Summary Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 11 Radioactive waste under conditions of future ice ages / Urs H. Fischer, Anke Bebiolka, Jenny Brandefelt, Denis Cohen, Joel Harper, Sarah Hirschorn, Mark Jensen, Laura Kennell, Johan Liakka, Jens-Ove Näslund, Stefano Normani, Heidrun Stück, and Axel Weitkamp 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Timing of future glacial inception 11.2.1 Introduction 11.2.2 Definition of glacial inception 11.2.3 Controlling factors of glacial inception 11.2.4 Future long-term variations of insolation and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations 11.2.5 Modeling of future glacial inception 11.2.6 Timing of future glacial inception and concluding remarks 11.3 The glacier ice-groundwater interface: Constraints from a transect of the modern Greenland Ice Sheet 11.3.1 Background 11.3.2 Basal thermal state 11.3.3 Framework of the ice-bed interface 11.3.4 Basal water 11.3.5 Summary 11.4 Deep glacial erosion in the Alpine Foreland of northern Switzerland 11.4.1 Background 11.4.2 Ice age conditions 11.4.3 Processes of glacial erosion and glacial overdeepening 11.4.4 Water flow in overdeepenings 11.4.5 Deep glacial erosion in the Swiss Plateau 11.4.6 Future research focus 11.5 Tunnel valleys in Germany and their relevance to the long-term safety of nuclear waste repositories 11.5.1 Background 11.5.2 Formation of tunnel valleys 11.5.3 Tunnel valleys in Northern Germany 11.5.4 Tunnel valleys in the German North Sea 11.5.5 Glacial overdeepening in Southern Germany 11.5.6 Impact of tunnel valley formation on host rocks 11.6 Assessment of glacial impacts on geosphere stability and barrier capacity—Canadian perspective 11.6.1 Background 11.6.2 Bruce Nuclear Site—Location and geologic setting Acknowledgments References CHAPTER 12 Snow avalanches / Jürg Schweizer, Perry Bartelt, and Alec van Herwijnen 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The avalanche phenomenon 12.3 Avalanche release 12.3.1 Dry-snow avalanches 1

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Complexity of the Climate System 1.2 Data Exploration, Data Mining and Feature Extraction 1.3 Major Concern in Climate Data Analysis 1.3.1 Characteristics of High-Dimensional Space Geometry 1.3.2 Curse of Dimensionality and Empty Space Phenomena 1.3.3 Dimension Reduction and Latent Variable Models 1.3.4 Some Problems and Remedies in Dimension Reduction 1.4 Examples of the Most Familiar Techniques 2 General Setting and Basic Terminology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Simple Visualisation Techniques 2.3 Data Processing and Smoothing 2.3.1 Preliminary Checking 2.3.2 Smoothing 2.3.3 Simple Descriptive Statistics 2.4 Data Set-Up 2.5 Basic Notation/Terminology 2.5.1 Centring 2.5.2 Covariance Matrix 2.5.3 Scaling 2.5.4 Sphering 2.5.5 Singular Value Decomposition 2.6 Stationary Time Series, Filtering and Spectra 2.6.1 Univariate Case 2.6.2 Multivariate Case 3 Empirical Orthogonal Functions 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Eigenvalue Problems in Meteorology: Historical Perspective 3.2.1 The Quest for Climate Patterns: Teleconnections 3.2.2 Eigenvalue Problems in Meteorology 3.3 Computing Principal Components 3.3.1 Basis of Principal Component Analysis 3.3.2 Karhunen–Loéve Expansion 3.3.3 Derivation of PCs/EOFs 3.3.4 Computing EOFs and PCs 3.4 Sampling, Properties and Interpretation of EOFs 3.4.1 Sampling Variability and Uncertainty 3.4.2 Independent and Effective Sample Sizes 3.4.3 Dimension Reduction 3.4.4 Properties and Interpretation 3.5 Covariance Versus Correlation 3.6 Scaling Problems in EOFs 3.7 EOFs for Multivariate Normal Data 3.8 Other Procedures for Obtaining EOFs 3.9 Other Related Methods 3.9.1 Teleconnectivity 3.9.2 Regression Matrix 3.9.3 Empirical Orthogonal Teleconnection 3.9.4 Climate Network-Based Methods 4 Rotated and Simplified EOFs 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Rotation of EOFs 4.2.1 Background on Rotation 4.2.2 Derivation of REOFs 4.2.3 Computing REOFs 4.3 Simplified EOFs: SCoTLASS 4.3.1 Background 4.3.2 LASSO-Based Simplified EOFs 4.3.3 Computing the Simplified EOFs 5 Complex/Hilbert EOFs 5.1 Background 5.2 Conventional Complex EOFs 5.2.1 Pairs of Scalar Fields 5.2.2 Single Field 5.3 Frequency Domain EOFs 5.3.1 Background 5.3.2 Derivation of FDEOFs 5.4 Complex Hilbert EOFs 5.4.1 Hilbert Transform: Continuous Signals 5.4.2 Hilbert Transform: Discrete Signals 5.4.3 Application to Time Series 5.4.4 Complex Hilbert EOFs 5.5 Rotation of HEOFs 6 Principal Oscillation Patterns and Their Extension 6.1 Introduction 6.2 POP Derivation and Estimation 6.2.1 Spatial Patterns 6.2.2 Time Coefficients 6.2.3 Example 6.3 Relation to Continuous POPs 6.3.1 Basic Relationships 6.3.2 Finite Time POPs 6.4 Cyclo-Stationary POPs 6.5 Other Extensions/Interpretations of POPs 6.5.1 POPs and Normal Modes 6.5.2 Complex POPs 6.5.3 Hilbert Oscillation Patterns 6.5.4 Dynamic Mode Decomposition 6.6 High-Order POPs 6.7 Principal Interaction Patterns 7 Extended EOFs and SSA 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Dynamical Reconstruction and SSA 7.2.1 Background 7.2.2 Dynamical Reconstruction and SSA 7.3 Examples 7.3.1 White Noise 7.3.2 Red Noise 7.4 SSA and Periodic Signals 7.5 Extended EOFs or Multivariate SSA 7.5.1 Background 7.5.2 Definition and Computation of EEOFs 7.5.3 Data Filtering and Oscillation Reconstruction 7.6 Potential Interpretation Pitfalls 7.7 Alternatives to SSA and EEOFs 7.7.1 Recurrence Networks 7.7.2 Data-Adaptive Harmonic Decomposition 8 Persistent, Predictive and Interpolated Patterns 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background on Persistence and Prediction of Stationary Time Series 8.2.1 Decorrelation Time 8.2.2 The Prediction Problem and Kolmogorov Formula 8.3 Optimal Persistence and Average Predictability 8.3.1 Derivation of Optimally Persistent Patterns 8.3.2 Estimation from Finite Samples 8.3.3 Average Predictability Patterns 8.4 Predictive Patterns 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Optimally Predictable Patterns 8.4.3 Computational Aspects 8.5 Optimally Interpolated Patterns 8.5.1 Background 8.5.2 Interpolation and Pattern Derivation 8.5.3 Numerical Aspects 8.5.4 Application 8.6 Forecastable Component Analysis 9 Principal Coordinates or Multidimensional Scaling 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Dissimilarity Measures 9.3 Metric Multidimensional Scaling 9.3.1 The Problem of Classical Scaling 9.3.2 Principal Coordinate Analysis 9.3.3 Case of Non-Euclidean Dissimilarity Matrix 9.4 Non-metric Scaling 9.5 Further Extensions 9.5.1 Replicated and Weighted MDS 9.5.2 Nonlinear Structure 9.5.3 Application to the Asian Monsoon 9.5.4 Scaling and the Matrix Nearness Problem 10 Factor Analysis 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Factor Model 10.2.1 Background 10.2.2 Model Definition and Terminology 10.2.3 Model Identification 10.2.4 Non-unicity of Loadings 10.3 Parameter Estimation 10.3.1 Maximum Likelihood Estimates 10.3.2 Expectation Maximisation Algorithm 10.4 Factor Rotation 10.4.1 Oblique and Orthogonal Rotations 10.4.2 Examples of Rotation Criteria 10.5 Exploratory FA and Application to SLP Anomalies 10.5.1 Factor Analysis as a Matrix Decomposition Problem 10.5.2 A Factor Rotation 10.6 Basic Difference Between EOF and Factor Analyses 10.6.1 Comparison Based on the Standard Factor Model 10.6.2 Comparison Based on the Exploratory Factor Analysis Model 11 Projection Pursuit 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Definition and Purpose of Projection Pursuit 11.2.1 What Is Projection Pursuit? 11.2.2 Why Projection Pursuit? 11.3 Entropy and Structure of Random Variables 11.3.1 Shannon Entropy 11.3.2 Differential Entropy 11.4 Types of Projection Indexes 11.4.1 Quality of a Projection Index 11.4.2 Various PP Indexes 11.4.3 Practical Implementation 11.5 PP Regression and Density Estimation 11.5.1 PP Regression 11.5.2 PP Density Estimation 11.6 Skewness Modes and Climate Application of PP 12 Independent Component Analysis 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background and Definition 12.2.1 Blind Deconvolution 12.2.2 Blind Source Separation 12.2.3 Definition of ICA 12.3 Independence and Non-normality 12.3.1 Statistical Independence 12.3.2 Non-normality 12.4 Information-Theoretic Measures 12.4.1 Entropy 12.4.2 Kullback–Leibler Divergence 12.4.3 Mutual Information 12.4.4 Negentropy 12.4.5 Useful Approximations 12.5 Independent Component Estimation 12.5.1 Choice of Objective Function for ICA 12.5.2 Numerical Implementation 12.6 ICA via EOF Rotation and Weather and Climate Application 12.6.1 The Standard Two-Way Problem 12.6.2 Extension to the Three-Way Data 12.7 ICA Generalisation: Independent Subspace Analysis 13 Kernel EOFs 13.1 Background 13.2 Kernel EOFs 13.2.1 Formulation of Kernel EOFs 13.2.2 Practical Details of Kernel EOF Computation 13.2.3 Illustration with Concentric Clusters 13.3 Relation to Other Approaches 13.3.1 Spectral Clustering 13.3.2 Modularity Clustering 13.4 Pre-images in Kernel PCA 13.5 Application to An Atmospheric Model and Reanalyses 13.5.1 Application to a Simplified Atmospheric Model 13.5.2 Application to Reanalyses 13.6 Other Extensions of Kernel EOFs 13.6.1 Extended Kernel EOFs 13.6.2 Kernel POPs 14 Functional and Regularised EOFs 14.1 Functional EOFs 14.2 Functional PCs and Discrete Sampling 14.3 An Example of Functional PCs from Oceanography 14.4 Regularised EOFs 14.4.1 General Setting 14.4.2 Case of Spatial Fields 14.5 Numerical Solution of the Full Regularised EOF Problem 14.6 Application of Regularised EOFs to SLP Anomalies 15 Methods for Coupled Patterns 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Canonical Correlation Analysis 15.2.1 Background 15.2.2 Formulation of CCA 15.2.3 Computational Aspect 15.2.4 Regularised CCA 15.2.5 Use of Correlation Matrices 15.3 Canonical Covariance Analysis 15.4 Redundancy Analysis 15.4.1 Redundancy Index 15.4.2 Redundancy Analysis 15.5 Application: Optimal Lag Between Two Fields and Other Extensions 15.5.1 Application of CCA 15.5.2 Application of Redundancy 15.6 Principal Predictors 15.7 Extension: Functional Smooth CCA 15.7.1 Introduction 15.7.2 Functional Non-smooth CCA and Indeterminacy 15.7.3 Smooth CCA/MCA 15.7.4 Application of SMCA to Space–Time Fields 15.8 Some Points on Coupled Patterns and Multiva

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Cryosphere and Cryospheric Science 2 Classification and Geographical Distribution of Cryosphere 3 Formation and Development of the Cryosphere 4 Physical Properties of the Cryosphere 5 Chemical Characteristics of the Cryosphere 6 Climatic and Environmental Record in Cryosphere 7 Cryospheric Evolutions at Different Time Scales 8 Interactions Between Cryosphere and the Other Spheres 9 Cryosphere Change Impact, Adaptation and Sustainable Development 10 Field Observations and Measurements for Cryospheric Science References

Anmerkung: Contents Volume 1 1 The Climate System: Its Functioning and History / Sylvie Joussaume and Jean-Claude Duplessy 2 The Changing Face of the Earth Throughout the Ages / Frédéric Fluteau and Pierre Sepulchre 3 Introduction to Geochronology / Hervé Guillou 4 Carbon-14 / Martine Paterne, Élisabeth Michel, and Christine Hatté et Jean-Claude Dutay 5 The 40 K/ 40 Ar and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar Methods / Hervé Guillou, Sébastien Nomade, and Vincent Scao 6 Dating of Corals and Other Geological Samples via the Radioactive Disequilibrium of Uranium and Thorium Isotopes / Norbert Frank and Freya Hemsing 7 Magnetostratigraphy: From a Million to a Thousand Years / Carlo Laj, James E. T. Channell, and Catherine Kissel 8 Dendrochronology / Frédéric Guibal and Joël Guiot 9 The Dating of Ice-Core Archives / Frédéric Parrenin 10 Reconstructing the Physics and Circulation of the Atmosphere / Valérie Masson-Delmotte and Joël Guiot 11 Air-Ice Interface: Polar Ice / Valérie Masson-Delmotte and Jean Jouzel 12 Air-Vegetation Interface: Pollen / Joël Guiot 13 Ground-Air Interface: The Loess Sequences, Markers of Atmospheric Circulation / Denis-Didier Rousseau and Christine Hatté 14 Air-Ground Interface: Reconstruction of Paleoclimates Using Speleothems / Dominique Genty and Ana Moreno 15 Air-Interface: d18O Records of Past Meteoric Water Using Benthic Ostracods from Deep Lakes / Ulrich von Grafenstein and Inga Labuhn 16 Vegetation-Atmosphere Interface: Tree Rings / Joël Guiot and Valérie Daux 17 Air-Vegetation Interface: An Example of the Use of Historical Data on Grape Harvests / Valérie Daux 18 Air-Ground Interface: Sediment Tracers in Tropical Lakes / David Williamson 19 Air-water Interface: Tropical Lake Diatoms and Isotope Hydrology Modeling / Florence Sylvestre, Françoise Gasse, Françoise Vimeux, and Benjamin Quesada 20 Air-Ice Interface: Tropical Glaciers / Françoise Vimeux 21 Climate and the Evolution of the Ocean: The Paleoceanographic Data / Thibaut Caley, Natalia Vázquez Riveiros, Laurent Labeyrie, Elsa Cortijo, and Jean-Claude Duplessy Volume 2 22 Climate Evolution on the Geological Timescale and the Role of Paleogeographic Changes / Frédéric Fluteau and Pierre Sepulchre 23 Biogeochemical Cycles and Aerosols Over the Last Million Years / Nathaelle Bouttes, Laurent Bopp, Samuel Albani, Gilles Ramstein, Tristan Vadsaria, and Emilie Capron 24 The Cryosphere and Sea Level / Catherine Ritz, Vincent Peyaud, Claire Waelbroeck, and Florence Colleoni 25 Modeling and Paleoclimatology / Masa Kageyama and Didier Paillard 26 The Precambrian Climate / Yves Goddéris, Gilles Ramstein, and Guillaume Le Hir 27 The Phanerozoic Climate / Yves Goddéris, Yannick Donnadieu, and Alexandre Pohl 28 Climate and Astronomical Cycles / Didier Paillard 29 Rapid Climate Variability: Description and Mechanisms / Masa Kageyama, Didier M. Roche, Nathalie Combourieu Nebout, and Jorge Alvarez-Solas 30 An Introduction to the Holocene and Anthropic Disturbance / Pascale Braconnot and Pascal Yiou 31 From the Climates of the Past to the Climates of the Future / Sylvie Charbit, Nathaelle Bouttes, Aurélien Quiquet, Laurent Bopp, Gilles Ramstein, Jean-Louis Dufresne, and Julien Cattiaux

Anmerkung: Contents 1 The World Hidden Beneath Us - Structure and Composition of the Earth 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Xenoliths, Meteorites, Earthquakes: Witnesses of the Underground World 1.3 The Structure and Composition of the Earth 1.3.1 The Compositional Layering: Core, Mantle, and Crust 1.3.2 The Mechanical Layering: Inner Core, Outer Core, Convective Mantle, and Lithosphere 1.4 Summary 1.5 Box 1.1 - Minerals and Rocks References 2 Air, Water, Earth - The Exogenic Geological Processes 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Rocks and Soils 2.3 The Atmosphere 2.4 The Hydrosphere 2.5 The Sedimentary Cycle: Air, Water and Earth at Work 2.5.1 Rocks Breakdown 2.5.2 Removal and Transportation of Weathering Products 2.5.3 Sediment Deposition 2.5.4 Diagenesis: Back to Rocks 2.6 The Remains of Mountains 2.7 The Fate of the Organic Matter 2.8 Summary 2.9 Box 2.1 - Water-Air-Earth Interaction: Some Basic Geochemistry 2.10 Box 2.2 - Limestone, a Most Meritorious Rock References 3 Fire - How Magmatism Shaped the Earth 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Magmas: What They Are, How They Form 3.3 Magmatism and the Structure of the Earth 3.3.1 From Chaos to Order 3.4 Volcanism 3.4.1 Types of Volcanic Eruptions 3.4.2 Volcanism and the Terrestrial Environment 3.4.3 Large Igneous Provinces and Mass Extinctions 3.5 Global Distribution of Magmatism 3.6 Summary 3.7 Box 3.1 - Magmatism: How and Why 3.7.1 Main Types of Magma 3.7.2 Ascent, Diversification and Solidification of Magmas 3.8 Box 3.2 - Heat Flow and Geothermal Energy 3.9 Box 3.3 - Magmatism and Ore Deposits References 4 Geomagnetism - The Space Shield of the Planet Earth 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Earth’s Magnetic Field 4.3 Palaeomagnetism: The Magnetic Memory of Rocks 4.3.1 Magnetic Reversal 4.4 Palaeomagnetism, Continental Drift, and Ocean Floor Spreading 4.5 Summary 4.6 Box 4.1 - Geomagnetism: A Historical Perspective 4.7 Box 4.2 - Geomagnetism and the Biosphere References 5 Seismicity—The Breath of a Restless Earth 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rock Failure, Earthquakes, and Faults 5.2.1 Stress and Rock Deformation 5.2.2 Earthquakes and Faults 5.3 Seismic Waves 5.4 Seismographs and Seismograms 5.5 Earthquake Magnitude, Intensity and Frequency 5.6 Global Distribution of Earthquakes 5.7 Summary 5.8 Box 5.1- Earthquake Effects, Prediction, Forecasting, and Mitigation References 6 Plate Tectonics - The Great Unifying Theory 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fixism Versus Mobilism 6.2.1 The Theory of Continental Drift 6.2.2 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics 6.3 Plate Tectonics: The Framework 6.4 The Plate Boundaries 6.4.1 Divergent Boundaries 6.4.2 Convergent Boundaries 6.4.3 Transform Boundaries 6.5 Why Do Plates Move? 6.6 Where, When and Why Does Subduction Start 6.7 Summary 6.8 Box 6.1 - Linear Volcanism and Hotspots 6.9 Box 6.2 - The Continents References 7 Geochemical Cycles - The Circulatory System of Planet Earth 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Geochemical Cycles: Some Definitions 7.3 The Water Cycle 7.4 The Sodium Cycle 7.5 The Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle 7.6 The Phosphorus Biogeochemical Cycle 7.7 The Nitrogen Biogeochemical Cycle 7.8 The Oxygen Cycle 7.9 The Iron Cycle 7.10 The Geochemical Cycles of Lead and Arsenic 7.11 Summary 7.12 Box 7.1 The Rock Cycle 7.13 Box 7.2 The Geochemical Cycles and the Age of the Earth References 8 The Geochemical Cycles and the Environment - How Man is Changing the Earth 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Geochemical Cycles and Environmental Pollution 8.2.1 Toxic Elements 8.2.2 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Compounds 8.3 Environmental Aspects of the Carbon Cycle 8.3.1 CO2 and the Ocean Acidification 8.3.2 CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect 8.3.3 CO2 and Climatic Change: A Geological Perspective 8.3.4 A Lesson for the Future 8.4 Plastic Waste Pollution 8.5 Summary 8.6 Box 8.1 - Stable Isotopes: Measuring the Temperature of the Past 8.6.1 Some Basics of Isotope Geochemistry 8.6.2 The Delta Notation 8.6.3 Oxygen-Hydrogen Isotope Geothermometry 8.7 Box 8.2 - CO2 Sequestration: The message from Decameron References 9 From Hadean to Anthropocene - The Endless Story of a Lucky Planet 9.1 Introduction 9.2 From the Solar Nebula to the Formation of Planets 9.3 Hadean: The Hellish Aeon (~4600–4000 Ma) 9.4 Archaean (4000–2500 Ma): The Dawn of Life and the Start of Modern Plate Tectonics 9.5 Proterozoic (2500–541 Ma): Oxygen, Eukaryotes, Supercontinents 9.6 Phanerozoic: The explosion of Complex Organisms (541–0 Ma) 9.6.1 The Spread of Animals and Plants 9.7 Finally, The Anthropocene 9.8 The Gaia Hypothesis 9.9 Summary 9.10 Box 9.1 - Geochronology: How Ages of Rocks, Fossils and Geologic Events Are Determined 9.10.1 Relative Age of Rocks and Fossils 9.10.2 Absolute Age References 10 Epilogue 10.1 The Earth Anomaly 10.2 The Best of All Possible Worlds 10.3 Historical Times, Geological Times 10.4 Technology, Natural Resources and Environmental Impact 10.5 Natura, Non Nisi Parendo Vincitur Correction to: Air, Water, Earth, Fire Further Reading Index

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Pigments and Pigment Organelles 1 Pigments in Insects / Ryo Futahashi and Mizuko Osanai-Futahashi 2 Melanins in Vertebrates / Kazumasa Wakamatsu and Shosuke Ito 3 Body Color Expression in Birds / Toyoko Akiyama and Keiji Kinoshita 4 Pigments in Teleosts and their Biosynthesis / Tetsuaki Kimura 5 Bioluminescence and Pigments / José Paitio and Yuichi Oba Part II Pigment Cell and Patterned Pigmentation 6 Development of Melanin-Bearing Pigment Cells in Birds and Mammals / Heinz Arnheiter and Julien Debbache 7 Pigment Cell Development in Teleosts / Hisashi Hashimoto, Makoto Goda, and Robert N. Kelsh 8 Pigment Patterning in Teleosts / Jennifer Owen, Christian Yates, and Robert N. Kelsh 9 Theoretical Studies of Pigment Pattern Formation / Seita Miyazawa, Masakatsu Watanabe, and Shigeru Kondo 10 Evolution of Pigment Pattern Formation in Teleosts / David M. Parichy and Yipeng Liang 11 Mechanisms of Feather Structural Coloration and Pattern Formation in Birds / Shinya Yoshioka and Toyoko Akiyama 12 Mechanism of Color Pattern Formation in Insects / Yuichi Fukutomi and Shigeyuki Koshikawa Part III Color Changes 13 Physiological and Morphological Color Changes in Teleosts and in Reptiles / Makoto Goda and Takeo Kuriyama 14 Color Change in Cephalopods / Yuzuru Ikeda 15 Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms of Insect Color Change Towards Understanding Molecular Links / Minoru Moriyama

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 What is Deep Learning? 1.2 Pros and Cons of Deep Learning 1.3 Recent Applications of Deep Learning in Hydrometeorological and Environmental Studies 1.4 Organization of Chapters 1.5 Summary and Conclusion References 2 Mathematical Background 2.1 Linear Regression Model 2.1.1 Simple Linear Regression 2.1.2 Multiple Linear Regression 2.2 Time Series Model 2.2.1 Autoregressive Model (AR) 2.3 Probability Distributions 2.3.1 Normal Distributions 2.3.2 Gamma Distribution 2.4 Exercises References 3 Data Preprocessing 3.1 Normalization 3.2 Data Splitting for Training and Testing 3.3 Exercises 4 Neural Network 4.1 Terminology in Neural Network 4.1.1 Components of Neural Network 4.1.2 Activation Functions 4.1.3 Error and Loss Function 4.1.4 Softmax and One-Hot Encoding 4.2 Artificial Neural Network 4.2.1 Simplest Network 4.2.2 Feedforward and Backward Propagation 4.2.3 Network with Multiple Input and Output Variables 4.2.4 Python Coding of the Simple Network 4.3 Exercises 5 Training a Neural Network 5.1 Initialization 5.2 Gradient Descent 5.3 Backpropagation 5.3.1 Simple Network 5.3.2 Full Neural Network 5.3.3 Python Coding of Network 5.4 Exercises Reference 6 Updating Weights 6.1 Momentum 6.2 Adagrad 6.3 RMSprop 6.4 Adam 6.5 Nadam 6.6 Python Coding of Updating Weights 6.7 Exercises References 7 Improving Model Performance 7.1 Batching and Minibatch 7.2 Validation 7.2.1 Python Coding of K-Fold Cross-Validation 7.3 Regularization 7.3.1 L-Norm Regularization 7.3.2 Dropout 7.3.3 Python Coding of Regularization 7.4 Exercises Reference 8 Advanced Neural Network Algorithms 8.1 Extreme Learning Machine (ELM) 8.1.1 Basic ELM 8.1.2 Generalized ELM 8.1.3 Python Coding 8.2 Autoencoder 8.2.1 Vanilla Autoencoder 8.2.2 Regularized Autoencoder 8.2.3 Python Coding of Regularized AE 8.3 Exercises Reference 9 Deep Learning for Time Series 9.1 Recurrent Neural Network 9.1.1 Backpropagation 9.1.2 Backpropagation Through Time (BPTT) 9.2 Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) 9.2.1 Basics of LSTM 9.2.2 Example of LSTM 9.2.3 Backpropagation of a Simple LSTM 9.2.4 Backpropagation Through Time (BPTT) 9.3 Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) 9.3.1 Basics of GRU 9.3.2 Example of GRU 9.3.3 Backpropagation of a Simple GRU Model 9.4 Exercises References 10 Deep Learning for Spatial Datasets 10.1 Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) 10.1.1 Definition of Convolution 10.1.2 Elements of CNN 10.2 Backpropagation of CNN 10.3 Exercises 11 Tensorflow and Keras Programming for Deep Learning 11.1 Basic Keras Modeling 11.2 Temporal Deep Learning (LSTM and GRU) 11.3 Spatial Deep Learning (CNN) 11.4 Exercises References 12 Hydrometeorological Applications of Deep Learning 12.1 Stochastic Simulation with LSTM 12.1.1 Mathematical Description for Stochastic Simulation with LSTM 12.1.2 Colorado Monthly Streamflow 12.1.3 Results of Colorado River 12.1.4 Python Coding 12.1.5 Matlab Coding 12.2 Forecasting Daily Temperature with LSTM 12.2.1 Preparing the Data 12.2.2 Methodology 12.2.3 Results 12.2.4 Python Coding 12.3 Exercises References 13 Environmental Applications of Deep Learning 13.1 Remote Sensing of Water Quality Using CNN 13.1.1 Introduction 13.1.2 Study Area and Monitoring 13.1.3 Field Data Collection 13.1.4 Point-Centered Regression CNN (PRCNN) 13.1.5 Results and Discussion 13.1.6 Conclusion 13.1.7 Python Coding References

Anmerkung: Contents New Tectonic Map of the Arctic / O. V. Petrov, M. Pubellier, S. P. Shokalsky, A. F. Morozov, Yu. B. Kazmin, S. N. Kashubin, V. A. Vernikovsky, M. Smelror, H. Brekke, V. D. Kaminsky, and I. I. Pospelov Deep Structures of the Circumpolar Arctic / S. N. Kashubin, O. V. Petrov, V. A. Poselov, S. P. Shokalsky, E. D. Milshtein, and T. P. Litvinova Arctic Sedimentary Cover Structure and Eastern Arctic Structure Maps / L. A. Daragan-Sushchova, E. O. Petrov, O. V. Petrov, and N. N. Sobolev Geological and Paleogeographic Map of the Eastern Arctic / O. V. Petrov, E. O. Petrov, N. N. Sobolev, D. I. Leontiev, and V. N. Zinchenko Study of the Arctic Seabed Rocks / O. V. Petrov, S. P. Shokalsky, T. Yu. Tolmacheva, O. L. Kossovaya, and S. A. Sergeev Geology of the Eastern Arctic Islands and Continental Fridge of the Arctic Seas / O. V. Petrov, N. N. Sobolev, S. D. Sokolov, A. V. Prokopiev, V. F. Proskurnin, E. O. Petrov, and T. Yu. Tolmacheva Correlation of Chukotka, Wrangel Island and the Mendeleev Rise / M. I. Tuchkova, S. P. Shokalsky, S. D. Sokolov, and O. V. Petrov Tectonic Model and Evolution of the Arctic / O. V. Petrov, S. N. Kashubin, S. P. Shokalsky, S. D. Sokolov, E. O. Petrov, and M. I. Tuchkova

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Introducing Sustainability in the Maritime Domain / Angela Carpenter, Tafsir M. Johansson, and Jon A. Skinner References Part I Moving to the Green-Blue Economy 2 Greening the Blue Economy: A Transdisciplinary Analysis / Mark J. Spalding, Angelica E. Braestrup, and Alexandra Refosco 1 Introduction 2 Sustainability Actions 2.1 Sustainability Action 1: Standardize Inspection and Enforcement 2.2 Sustainability Action 2: Promote Solutions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and Other Atmospheric Pollutant Emissions Generated by the Maritime Transportation Sector 2.3 Sustainability Action 3: Design and Build Greener Ships 2.4 Sustainability Action 4: Treating Ballast Water with Low (or No) Impact Technology 2.5 Sustainability Action 5: Making Onboard Water Treatment Systems Safer for People and the Ocean 2.6 Sustainability Action 6: Greening Port Facilities 2.7 Sustainability Action 7: Improve Ship Safety and Emergency Response to Shipping Accidents 2.8 Sustainability Action 8: Make the Ocean Quieter 2.9 Sustainability Action 9: Operate to Avoid Whale Strikes 2.10 Sustainability Action 10: Expand Maritime Transportation Sector Engagement in Oceanic Data Collection and Monitoring . 3 Looking Ahead: Establish a Framework for Maritime Transportation Governance That Supports All Life on Earth 4 Concluding Remarks References 3 Regional Marine Spatial Planning: A Tool for Greening Blue Economy in the Bay of Bengal / Asraful Alam 1 Introduction 2 Blue Economy 3 Marine Spatial Planning 4 Blue Economy and Marine Spatial Planning 5 The Current Management Framework for the Bay of Bengal 5.1 Bay of Bengal Program Inter-governmental Organization Agreement 2003 5.2 Action Plan for the Protection and Management of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the South Asian Region 1995 5.3 SAARC Charter, Environment Action Plan and Convention on Cooperation on Environment 5.4 Declaration on the Establishment of the Bangladesh- India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-Thailand for Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) 1997 6 The Management Framework, Blue Economy and Marine Spatial Planning in the Bay of Bengal 7 Conclusion References 4 Green Ports and Sustainable Shipping in the European Context / Ziaul Haque Munim and Rana Saha 1 Introduction 1.1 The North Sea and Baltic Sea Region 1.2 The Mediterranean Sea Region 1.3 The Black Sea Region 2 Maritime Regulation in the European Regions 2.1 MARPOL in European Regions 2.2 European Pollution Prevention Regulations 3 Green Port Management Practices 4 Green Shipping Practices 5 A Conceptual Framework for Maritime Sustainability 6 Conclusions and Future Research Directions References Part II Moving to a More Secure and Safe Maritime Regulatory Regime 5 Maritime Transport and Sustainable Fisheries: Breaking the Silos / Natalia Martini and Sandra Rita Allnutt 1 Overview of the Global Efforts for Sustainable Fisheries and Maritime Transport 1.1 The Global Effort for Sustainable Fisheries and Port State Control 1.2 Interagency Cooperation: A Global Approach to Deter IUU Fishing and Increase Maritime Safety 2 The Way Forward: How to Break the Silos 2.1 Fighting IUU Fishing: Enhanced Global Cooperation, Strengthened Ocean Governance, and Improved Regional Compliance 2.2 Enhancing Sustainable Maritime Transport and SDG 14’s Implementation: Environmental Issues Related to Fisheries and Sea-Based Marine Plastic Litter 3 Conclusions References 6 Maritime Security: Adapting for Mid-century Challenges / Jon A. Skinner 1 Introduction 2 Collaborative Maritime Security 2.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 2.2 Maritime Security and the International Regulatory Governance 2.3 Collaborative Hard Security 3 Benchmarking Maritime Security Strategies 3.1 IMO 3.2 European Union 4 Embracing Multi-causality 5 Identifying the Main Drivers and Threats 6 Geopolitics and Breaking the Rules 7 Energy Markets and Maritime Security 7.1 The Geopolitics of Oil and Gas 7.2 Scenarios and Back-Casting 8 The Covid-19 Pandemics Impact on 2050 CO2 Emission Goals 9 Security Flashpoints 2050 10 Conclusion References 7 ISPS Code Implementation: Overkill and Off-Target / Johnny Dalgaard 1 Introduction 2 ISPS Code Implementation in EU and Danish Legislation 2.1 Danish Implementation 2.2 Tactical Danish Method 3 Development of Plans 3.1 Ports and Port Facilities 3.2 Ship Security Assessment (SSA) 4 Nature of Security 4.1 Acceptance of Risk, Example Iraq Vs. USA 4.2 Consequence and Risk of Exposal 4.3 Red Teaming 4.4 Barriers and Capacity 4.5 A Thesis of How to Assess Potential Terrorists 5 Combining Consequence and Risk of Exposal with Barriers and Capacity 5.1 Evaluation of the Efficiency in Perspective on “Return on Investment” 6 Security as Part of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 7 Towards a Better Security to Support SDGs and Beyond 7.1 Appropriate Security Measures 7.2 Sustainable Development Goal 14 Combined with Goal 17 8 Conclusion References 8 Port and Maritime Security and Sustainability / Michael Edgerton 1 Introduction 2 Defining Sustainability and Resilience 3 Sustainable Development, Disruption, and the Maritime Domain 3.1 Threats to Maritime Security 3.2 Protection of Marine Resources 3.3 Enhancing the Focus on Cargo Security 3.4 Limitations of the ISPS Code 3.5 Expansion of Global Trade 3.6 “Just-in-Time” Delivery and the Sensitivity of Global Trade 3.7 The Convergence of Operational, Physical, and Digital Security 3.8 A Challenge of Governance 3.9 Maritime Security and Resilience 3.10 Protecting the Sea Lines of Communication 4 How Maritime and Port Security Can Support Sustainable Development References 9 Governance of International Sea Borders: Regional Approaches and Sustainable Solutions for Maritime Surveillance in the Mediterranean Sea / Marco Fantinato 1 Introduction 2 Traditional Maritime Surveillance Operations and Conventional Techniques Within Maritime Spaces Defined by the UNCLOS 3 The Interplay Between EU Maritime Security Policies and Surveillance Activities in the Mediterranean Sea 4 The Management of the External Sea Borders in the EU and the Concept of Integrated Maritime Surveillance 5 EU InterAgency Cooperation and the Development of Sustainable Technologies to Detect Unlawful Activities in the Mediterranean Sea 5.1 Copernicus Maritime Surveillance Service 5.2 Unmanned Aircraft Systems 5.3 Maritime Autonomous Vehicles 6 Exploring the Nexus Between Maritime Surveillance Activities in the Mediterranean and Sustainable Approaches 6.1 Flexibility 6.2 Interoperability 6.3 Complementarity 7 Concluding Remarks References Part III Improvements in Management/Technology of Best Practices for Sustainable Shipping 10 The Applicability of the International and Regional Efforts to Prevent Oil Pollution: Comparative Analysis Between the Arabian Gulf Region and the North Sea / Khalid R. Aldosari 1 Introduction 2 International Efforts to Curb Marine Oil Pollution 2.1 Importance of UNCLOS in Marine Pollution Prevention 2.2 Summary of International Conventions 2.3 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 3 Arabian Gulf Regional Marine Pollution Prevention Efforts 3.1 Summary of Regional Conventions to Curb Oil Marine Pollution 3.2 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 4 North Sea Regional Marine Pollution Prevention Efforts 4.1 Regional Efforts Towards Marine Pollution Prevention 4.2 Sources of Oil Pollution in the North Sea 4.3 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 5 Comparative Analysis Between the Arabian Gulf and North Sea Marine Pollution Prevention Activities 6 The Relation Between Oil Pollution Conventions, the SDGs, and Marine Transportation 6.1 SDGs and Maritime Transportation 6.2 Overview of the SDGs Role in Maritime Transportation 6.3 Linkages Between SDG 14, 17, and Transboundary Pollution 6.4 Transboundary Pollution in Accidental and Non-Accidental Oil Pollution 7 Conclusion References 11 Implications of Automation and Digitalization for Maritime Education and Training / Amit Sharma, Tae-Eun Kim, and Salman Nazir 1 Introduction 2 Maritime Auto

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2021 , Contents List of abbreviations Acknowledgements Summary Zusammenfassung 1 Scientific background 1.1 Motivation 1.2 The arctic-boreal ecotone in time and space 1.2.1 Terrestrial plants composition and biodiversity 1.2.2. Lake macrophytes and diatoms 1.3 Sedimentary DNA metabarcoding as an ecologicalproxy 1.4 Study area 1.5 Objectives of the thesis 1.6 Methods 1.7 Thesis organizations 1.7.1 Manuscripts and chapters 1.7.2 Non-finalized research 1.7.2 Author contributions 2 Manuscript I: Genetic and morphological diatom composition in surface sediments from glacial and thermokarst lakes in the Siberian Arctic 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Materials and methods 2.3.1 Sampling and collection of environmental data 2.3.2 Diatom genetic assessment 2.3.3 Raw sequence processing and taxonomic assignment 2.3.4 Morphological diatom identification 2.3.5 Statistical analyses 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Genetic-based diatom composition, diversityand diatom-environment relationship 2.4.2 Morphological-based diatom composition, diversity and diatom-environment relationship 2.4.3 Comparison of spatial diatom patterns obtained from the genetic and morphological approaches 2.5 Discussion 2.5.1 Genetic and morphological diatom composition and diversity 2.5.2 Diatom composition is affected by lake type and lake water parameters 2.6 Conclusions 2.7 Acknowledgments 3 Manuscript II: Plant sedimentary ancient DNA from Far East Russia covering the last 28 ka reveals different assembly rules in cold and warm climates 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Methods 3.3.1 Study area 3.3.2 Sampling and dating 3.3.3 Genetic laboratory works 3.3.4 Processing the sequence data 3.3.5 Statistical analyses 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Overview of the sequencing data and taxonomic composition 3.4.2 Taxonomic alpha and beta diversity 3.4.3 Phylogenetic alpha and beta diversity 3.4.4 Relationship between taxonomic composition and phylogenetic diversity 3.5 Discussion 3.5.1 Vegetation history revealed by sedaDNA 3.5.2 Patterns oftaxonomic alpha diversity and their relationship to community composition 3.5.3 Relationship between richness and phylogenetic alpha and beta diversity 4 Manuscript III: Sedimentary DNA identifies modem and past macrophyte diversity and its environmental drivers in high latitude and altitude lakes in Siberia and China 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Materialsand Methods 4.3.1 Field sampling of surface and core samples 4.3.2 Environmental data 4.3.3 Molecular genetic laboratory work 4.3.4 Bioinformatic analyses 4.3.5 Statistical analyses 4.4 Results 4.4.1 Macrophyte diversity in surface sediments inferred from sedDNA 4.4.2 Relationship of modem macrophyte richness and environmental variables 4.4.3 The relationship between modem macrophyte community and environmental variables 4.4.4 Past macrophyte richness and composition inferred from sedaDNA 4.4.5 Past macrophyte compositional changes and its environmental drivers 4.5 Discussion 4.5.1 Retrieval of aquatic plant diversity using the tmL P6 loop plant DNA metabarcode 4.5.2 Modem macrophyte diversity and its relation to environmental factors 4.5.3 Temporal macrophyte diversity as an indicator for past environmental change 4.6 Conclusion 5 Synopsis 5.1 Potential and limitations of sedimentary DNA in the applied study 5.1.1 Sedimentary DNA is a powerful proxy 5.1.2 Limitations in sedimentary DNA 5.2 Spatial patterns of vegetation, macrophytes and diatoms 5.2.1 Composition and diversity of vegetation 5.2.2 Composition and diversity of macrophytes 5.2.3 Composition and diversity of diatoms 5.3 Temporal patterns of vegetation, macrophytes and diatoms 5.3.1 Composition and diversity of vegetation 5.3.2 Composition and diversity of macrophytes 5.3.3 Composition and diversity of diatoms 5.4 Outlooks and conclusions Appendices Appendix 1 for Manuscript I Appendix 2 for Manuscript II Appendix 3 for Manuscript III References

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2021 , CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation: Aerosol and cloud relevance to Arctic amplification 1.2 Theoretical background 1.2.1 Atmospheric aerosol 1.2.2 Aerosol in the Arctic 1.2.3 Cirrus clouds 1.3 Research questions 2 METHODS 2.1 lidar remote sensing techniqu 2.1.1 Elastic and Raman lidar equations 2.1.2 lidar signal corrections 2.1.3 Derivation of particle optical properties and related uncertainties 2.2 Lidar systems 2.2.1 Ground-based system KARL 2.2.2 Air-borne system AMALi 2.2.3 Space-borne system CALIOP 2.3 Ancillary instrumentation 2.3.1 Radiosondes 2.3.2 Sun-photometers 2.3.3 Radiation sensors 2.4 Modeling tools 2.4.1 Air mass backward trajectories 2.4.2 Aerosol microphysics retrieval algorithm 2.4.3 Radiative transfer model SCIATRAN 2.4.4 Multiple-scattering correction model 2.4.5 Simplified cloud radiative effect model 3 ARCTIC AEROSOL PROPERTIES AND RADIATIVE EFFECT (CASE STUDIES) 3.1 Aerosol in the upper troposphere (Spring) 3.1.1 Overview of aerosol observations and air mass origin 3.1.2 Modification of aerosol optical and microphysical properties 3.1.3 Aerosol radiative effect (ARE) 3.2 Sensitivities of the spring-time Arctic ARE 3.2.1 Sensitivity on aerosol related parameters 3.2.2 Sensitivity on ambient conditions 3.3 Aerosol in the lower troposphere (Winter) 3.3.1 Overview of remote sensing and in-situ measurements 3.3.2 Aerosol properties from the remote sensing perspective: KARL and CALIOP 3.3.3 Aerosol microphysical properties from in-situ and remote sensing perspectives 3.4 Discussion and Conclusions 4 DEVELOPMENT OF A CIRRUS CLOUD RETRIEVAL SCHEME 4.1 Fine-scale cirrus cloud detection 4.1.1 Selection of cirrus clouds 4.1.2 Wavelet Covariance Transform method 4.1.3 Revised detection method: Dynamic Wavelet Covariance Transform 4.2 Comparison of dynamic and static cirrus detection 4.3 Cirrus cloud optical retrievals 4.3.1 Existing cirrus optical retrievals: double-ended Klett and Raman 4.3.2 Temporal averaging within stationary periods 4.3.3 Revised optical retrieval: constrained Klett method 4.4 Comparison to established optical retrievals 4.5 How uncertainties in cirrus detection affect the optical retrievals? 4.6 Discussion 4.6.1 Limitations of cirrus retrieval schemes 4.6.2 Strengths of the revised retrieval scheme 4.7 Conclusions 5 LONG-TERM ANALYSIS OF ARCTIC CIRRUS CLOUD PROPERTIES 5.1 Overview of cirrus occurrence and meteorological conditions over Ny-Ålesund 5.2 Quality assurance of optical properties 5.2.1 Specular reflection effect 5.2.2 Investigation of extreme cirrus lidar ratio values 5.2.3 Multiple-scattering correction 5.3 Overview of cirrus optical properties over Ny-Ålesund 5.4 Inter-relations of cirrus properties 5.5 Dependence on meteorological conditions 5.5.1 Cirrus clouds in the tropopause 5.6 CRE estimation at TOA: sensitivity analysis 5.7 Conclusions 6 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK A CIRRUS DETECTION SENSITIVITIES a.1 Wavelet Covariance Transform - dilation sensitivity a.2 Wavelet Covariance Transform - wavelength dependency B CIRRUS OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION SENSITIVITIES b.1 Reference value accuracy and limitations b.2 Inherent uncertainties of constrained Klett C MULTIPLE-SCATTERING CORRECTION FOR CIRRUS CLOUDS D SEASONAL CIRRUS PROPERTIES: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anmerkung: Contents Dedication List of contributors Acknowledgment Introduction Part 1: Phytoplankton taxonomy Introduction / Ruth S. Eriksen 1. Cyanobacterial diversity and taxonomic uncertainty: polyphasic pathways to improved resolution / Glenn B. McGregor and Barbara C. Sendall 2. Uses of molecular taxonomy in identifying phytoplankton communities from the Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey / Rowena Stern, Declan Schroeder, Andrea Highfield, Mana Al-Kandari, Luigi Vezzulli, Anthony Richardson 3. Impact of molecular approaches on dinoflagellate taxonomy and systematics / Christopher J.S. Bolch 4. From molecules to ecosystem functioning: insight into new approaches to taxonomy to monitor harmful algae diversity in Chile / Jorge I. Mardones, Bernd Krock, Lara Marcus, Catharina Alves-de-Souza, Satoshi Nagai, Kyoko Yarimizu, Alejandro Clément, Nicole Correa, Sebastian Silva, Javier Paredes-Mella Peter Von Dassow Part 2: Monitoring and sensing systems Introduction / Lesley A. Clementson 5. Integrating imaging and molecular approaches to assess phytoplankton diversity / Lisa Campbell, Chetan C. Gaonkar and Darren W. Henrichs 6. Advances in in situ molecular systems for phytoplankton research and monitoring / Matthew C. Smith, Levente Bodrossy and Pascal Craw 7. Applications of satellite remote sensing technology to the analysis of phytoplankton community structure on large scales / Astrid Bracher, Robert J. W. Brewin, Aurea M. Ciotti, Lesley A.Clementson, Takafumi Hirata, Tihomir S.Kostadinov, Colleen B. Mouw, Emanuele Organelli 8. Modeling phytoplankton processes in multiple functional types / Mark Baird, Stephanie Dutkiewicz, Anna Hickman, Mathieu Mongin, Monika Soja-Wozniak, Jennifer Skerratt, Karen Wild-Allen 9. Managing the societal uses of phytoplankton: technology applications and needs / Andrew D.L. Steven Part 3: Omics in aquatic ecology Introduction / Anusuya Willis 10. Current applications and technological advances in quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR): a versatile tool for the study of phytoplankton ecology / Kathryn J. Coyne, Yanfei Wang, Susanna A. Wood, Peter D. Countway, Sydney M. Greenlee 11. Phytoplankton diversity and ecology through the lens of high throughput sequencing technologies / Adriana Lopes dos Santos, Catherine Gérikas Ribeiro, Denise Ong, Laurence Garczarek, Xiao Li Shi, Scott D. Nodder, Daniel Vaulot, Andres Gutiérrez-Rodríguez 12. Comparative genomics for understanding intraspecific diversity: a case study of the cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii / Anusuya Willis, Jason N. Woodhouse, Brett A. Neil, Michele A. Burford 13. Transcriptomic and metatranscriptomic approaches in phytoplankton: insights and advances / Bethany C.Kolody, Matthew J.Harke, Sharon E. Hook, Andrew E. Allen 14. From genes to ecosystems: using molecular information from diatoms to understand ecological processes / John A. Berges, Erica B. Young, Kimberlee Thamatrakoln, Alison R. Taylor 15. Global marine phytoplankton revealed by the Tara Oceans expedition / Flora Vincent, Federico M. Ibarbalz and Chris Bowler Index

Anmerkung: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2021 , Contents List of Figures List of Tables I Preamble 1 Introduction 1.1.1 The Journey from Weather to Climate 1.1.2 The Climate Background 1.1.3 Pollen as Quantitative Indicators of Past Changes 1.2 Overview and Aims of Manuscripts 1.2.1 List of Manuscripts 1.2.2 Short Summaries of the Manuscripts 1.3 Author Contributions to the Manuscripts II Manuscripts 2 Comparing estimation of techniques for temporal Scaling 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Data and Methods 2.2.1 Scaling estimation methods 2.2.2 Evaluation of the estimators 2.2.3 Data 2.3 Results 2.3.1 Effect of Regular and Irregular Sampling 2.3.2 Effect of Time series length 2.3.3 Application to database 2.4 Discussion 2.5 Conclusions 3 Land temperature variability driven by oceans at millennial timescales 4 Variability of surface climate in simulations of past and future 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Data and Method 4.2.1 Model simulations 4.2.2 The Last Glacial Maximum experiment 4.2.3 The mid Holocene experiment (midHolocene) 4.2.4 The warming experiments 1pctCO2 and abrupt4xCO2 4.2.5 Preprocessing of model simulations 4.2.6 Comparisons across the ensemble 4.2.7 Diagnosing variability changes 4.2.8 Changes in precipitation extremes 4.2.9 Timescale-dependence of the variability changes 4.3 Results 4.3.1 Hydrological sensitivity across the ensemble 4.3.2 Changes in local interannual variability 4.3.3 Changes in modes of variability 4.3.4 Circulation patterns underlying extratropical precipitation extremes 4.3.5 Changes in. the spectrum of variability 4.4 Discussion 4.4.1 Changes in climate variability with global mean temperature 4.4.2 Temperature vs. precipitation scaling 4.4.3 Comparison to climate reconstructions and observations 4.4.4 Limitations 4.5 Conclusions 5 Holocene vegetation variability in the Northern Hemisphere 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Data and Methods 5.2.1 Pollen Database 5.2.2 Principal Component Analysis 5.2.3 Timescale-dependent Estimates of Variability 5.2.4 Biome Classification 5.3 Results 5.3.1 General Vegetation Variability Analysis 5.3.2 Comparison of Forested and Open Land Vegetations 5.3.3 Comparison of Broadleaf and Needleleaf Fore ts 5.3.4 Comparison of Temperate and Boreal Coniferous Forests 5.3.5 Comparison of Evergreen and Deciduous Boreal Forests 5.4 Discussion 5.5 Conclusion III Postamble 6 General discussion and conclusion 6.1 Overview 6.2 Timescale-Dependent Estimates of Variability 6.3 Climate and Vegetation Variabilities in the Holocene 6.4 Implications for the 21th Century 6.5 Outlook IV Appendix A Supplementary figures from "Comparing estimation techniques for temporal scaling in paleo-climate timeseries" A.1 Block Average Results A.2 First-Order Correction for the Effect of Interpolation A.3 Change in Bias and Standard Deviation B Methods and supplementary information from "Land temperature variability driven by oceans at millennial timescales" B.1 Methods B.1.1 Reconstructions B.1.2 Significance Testing B.1.3 Testing for Anthropogenic Impacts B.1.4 Instrumental Data B.1.5 Model Data B.1.6 Spectral Estimates B.1.7 Variance Ratios B.1.8 Sub-Decadal Variability Binning B.1.9 Correlation B.1.10 Moran's I B.2 Supplementary Information B.2.1 Tree Ring Data Analysis B.2.2 Energy-Balance Equations B.3 Extended Data Figures C Supplementary figures from "Variability of surface climate in simulations of past and future" D Supplementary figures from "Characterization of holocene vegetation variability in the Northern Hemisphere" Bibliography

Anmerkung: Contents Part I Measurement of Environmental Parameters Affecting Marine Plankton Physiology 1 Characteristics of Marine Chemical Environment and the Measurements and Analyses of Seawater Carbonate Chemistry / Weidong Zhai 2 Photosynthetically Active Radiation and Ultraviolet Radiation Measurements / Gang Li and Kunshan Gao Part II Plankton Culture Techniques 3 Manipulation of Seawater Carbonate Chemistry / Kunshan Gao 4 Microalgae Continuous and Semi-continuous Cultures / Shanwen Chen and Kunshan Gao 5 Culturing Techniques for Planktonic Copepods / Wei Li, Xin Liu, and Zengling Ma Part III Determination of Key Enzymes in Primary Producers 6 Carbonic Anhydrase / Jianrong Xia, Xiongwen Chen, and Mario Giordano 7 Rubisco / Cuimin Liu, Kaiyao Huang, and Jianrong Xia 8 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase / Fan Hu and Hanhua Hu 9 Nitrate Reductase / Dinghui Zou 10 Antioxidants and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Scavenging Enzymes / Yahe Li and Zengling Ma Part IV Measurements and Analyses of Pigments 11 Chlorophylls / Wenting Ke, Yanchao Yin, Xiongwen Chen, and Baosheng Qiu 12 Phycobiliproteins / Yiwen Yang, Juntian Xu, and Baosheng Qiu 13 Carotenoids / Fan Hu and Hanhua Hu 14 Phenolic Compounds and Other UV-Absorbing Compounds / Peng Jin and Kunshan Gao Part V Measurements and Analyses of Photosynthesis and Respiration 15 Photosynthetic Oxygen Evolution / Guozheng Dai, Hualing Mi, and Baosheng Qiu 16 Photosynthetic Carbon Fixation / Gang Li, Yaping Wu, and Guang Gao 17 Photorespiration and Dark Respiration / Dinghui Zou and Juntian Xu 18 Carbon Dioxide vs. Bicarbonate Utilisation / Sven Beer, Mats Björk, and John Beardall 19 Action Spectra of Photosynthetic Carbon Fixation / Yaping Wu, Gang Li, and Kunshan Gao 20 Determination of the Inorganic Carbon Affinity and CO2 Concentrating Mechanisms of Algae / Yaping Wu and Kunshan Gao 21 Methods for Measuring Algal Carbon Fixation in Flow-Through Seawater / Kunshan Gao and Juntian Xu 22 Application of Membrane-Inlet Mass Spectrometry to Measurements of Photosynthetic Processes / Kunshan Gao and Hualing Mi 23 SIMS and NanoSIMS Techniques Applied to Studies of Plankton Productivity / Helle Ploug 24 Measurements of Photoinactivation and Repair of Photosystem II / Gang Li, Yahe Li, Wanchun Guan, and Hongyan Wu Part VI Chlorophyll Fluorescence Techniques and Applications 25 Basic Concepts and Key Parameters of Chlorophyll Fluorescence / Sven Beer, Mats Björk, and John Beardall 26 Fluorescence Measurement Techniques / Sven Beer, Mats Björk, and John Beardall 27 Carbon Assimilation Capacity and Blue-Green Fluorescence / Hualing Mi and Baosheng Qiu 28 In Situ Measurement of Phytoplankton Photochemical Parameters / Guang Gao, Peng Jin, and Kunshan Gao Part VII Biochemical and Molecular Methods 29 Biochemical Inhibitors for Algae / Yaping Wu and Kunshan Gao 30 Measurements of Particulate Organic Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus / Kai Xu, Kunshan Gao, Fei-xue Fu, and David A. Hutchins 31 Isolation of Organelles / Min Xu and Hualing Mi 32 Measurements of Calcification and Silicification / Kai Xu, Kunshan Gao, and David A. Hutchins 33 Use of the Fluorochrome Calcein to Measure Growth and Calcification in Marine Organisms / Sam Dupont 34 The Application of Transcriptomics, Metagenomics, and Metatranscriptomics in Algal Research / Xin Lin 35 Methods for Nitrogen Fixation Measurement / Feixue Fu and Pingping Qu 36 Trace Metal Clean Culture Techniques / Yuanyuan Feng, Feixue Fu, and David A. Hutchins Part VIII Research Methods for Animals and Viruses 37 Electrophysiological Recording in Fish / Xiaojie Wang 38 Heart Rate Measurement in Mollusks / Yunwei Dong, Guodong Han, and Xiaoxu Li 39 Measuring the Feeding Rate of Herbivorous Zooplankton / Wei Li and Zengling Ma 40 Measurement of Virus-Induced Phytoplankton Mortality / Dapeng Xu, Yunlan Yang, and Rui Zhang

Anmerkung: 1 Introducing loss and damage 1 Meinhard Doelle and Sara L Seck PART I FRAMEWORKS 2 Equity considerations in loss and damage 18 Nathalie J. Chalifour 3 The sacrifice zones of carbon capitalism: race, expendability, and loss and damage 43 Carmen G. Gonzalez 4 Measuring the immeasurable: loss and damage from climate change in international law 60 Usha Natarajan PART II PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 5 Loss and damage under the Convention 75 Linda Siegele 6 Loss and damage under the Paris Agreement 100 Linda Siegele 7 Arrested development: the late and inequitable integration of loss and damage finance into the UNFCCC 127 Patricia Galvão Ferreira 8 Against the headwind: innovative sources of loss and damage finance 149 Patricia Galvão Ferreira 9 State responsibility for damages associated with climate change 166 Christina Voigt 10 Valuation of climate change loss and damage 184 Cymie R Payne 11 A rights-based approach to loss and damage due to climate change 201 Katherine Lofts, Sébastien Jodoin and Larissa Parker 12 Indigenous peoples, climate change loss and damage, and the responsibilities of states 223 Kyle Powys Whyte 13 Loss and damage, climate displacement and international law: addressing the protection gap 244 Sumudu Atapattu 14 Loss and damage, disaster law, and climate change 266 Anastasia Telesetsky 15 Solar radiation modification and loss & damage: mapping interactions between climate responses 286 Neil Craik PART III DOMESTIC, TRANSNATIONAL AND PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW 16 Atmospheric recovery litigation around the world: gaining natural resource damages against carbon majors to fund a sky cleanup for climate restoration 303 Mary Christina Wood 17 Loss and damage in European litigation 331 Roda Verheyen and Johannes Franke 18 Towards a civil liability regime for climate-related loss and damage 349 Sharon Mascher 19 Think globally, sue locally: challenges and opportunities in international climate litigation in domestic courts 368 Andrew Gage 20 Carbon major companies and liability for loss and damage 390 Lisa Benjamin 21 Class actions and climate change loss and damage litigation 409 C. Cameron and R. Weyman PART IV CONCLUSIONS 22 Pathways and prospects for loss & damage and climate justice 433 Sara L Seck and Meinhard Doelle Index

Anmerkung: Contents List of Abbreviations List of Symbols Part A Basics of Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 1 Introduction to Atmospheric Measurements / Thomas Foken, Frank Beyrich, Volker Wulfmeyer 1.1 Measuring Meteorological Elements 1.2 History 1.3 The Structure of the Atmosphere 1.4 Devices, Systems, and Typical Specifications 1.5 Applications 1.6 Future Developments 1.7 Further Reading References 2 Principles of Measurements / Wolfgang Foken 2.1 Basics of Measurements 2.2 History 2.3 Errors in Measurement 2.4 Regression Analysis 2.5 Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Signals and Systems 2.6 Dynamics of Measuring Systems 2.7 Analog and Digital Signal Processing 2.8 Hardware for Digital Measurement Systems 2.9 Further Reading References 3 Quality Assurance and Control / Cove Sturtevant, Stefan Metzger, Sascha Nehr, Thomas Foken 3.1 Principles and Definition 3.2 History 3.3 Elements of Quality Management 3.4 Application 3.5 Future Developments 3.6 Further Reading References 4 Standardization in Atmospheric Measurements / Simon Jäckel, Annette Borowiak, Brian Stacey 4.1 Background and Definitions 4.2 History 4.3 Principles and Procedures 4.4 Standardization in the Field of Atmospheric Measurements 4.5 Future Developments 4.6 Further Reading References 5 Physical Quantities / Thomas Foken, Olaf Hellmuth, Bernd Huwe, Dietrich Sonntag 5.1 Selection of Parameters 5.2 History and Thermodynamic Standards 5.3 Units and Constants 5.4 Parameters of Air, Water Vapor, Water, and Ice 5.5 Parameterization of Optical Properties of Clouds 5.6 Absorption Coefficients for Water Vapor, Ozone, and Carbon Dioxide 5.7 Parameters of Soil 5.8 Time and Astronomical Quantities 5.9 Tables in Other Chapters 5.10 Future Developments 5.11 Further Reading References Part B In situ Measurement Techniques 6 Ground-Based Platforms / Olaf Kolle, Norbert Kalthoff, Christoph Kottmeier, J. William Munger 6.1 Principles of Platforms 6.2 History 6.3 Theory 6.4 Platforms and Sensor Installations 6.5 Specification 6.6 Quality Control and Safety 6.7 Maintenance 6.8 Applications 6.9 Future Developments 6.10 Further Reading References 7 Temperature Sensors / Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 7.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 7.2 History 7.3 Theory 7.4 Devices and Systems 7.5 Specifications 7.6 Quality Control 7.7 Maintenance 7.8 Applications. 7.9 Future Developments 7.10 Further Reading References 8 Humidity Sensors / Dietrich Sonntag, Thomas Foken, Holger Vömel, Olaf Hellmuth 8.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 8.2 History 8.3 Theory 8.4 Devices and Systems 8.5 Specifications 8.6 Quality Control 8.7 Maintenance 8.8 Application 8.9 Future Developments 8.10 Further Readings References 9 Wind Sensors / Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 9.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 9.2 History 9.3 Theory 9.4 Devices and Systems 9.5 Specifications 9.6 Quality Control 9.7 Maintenance 9.8 Application 9.9 Future Developments 9.10 Further Reading References 10 Pressure Sensors / Anni Torri, Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 10.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 10.2 History 10.3 Theory 10.4 Devices and Systems 10.5 Specifications 10.6 Quality Control 10.7 Maintenance 10.8 Application 10.9 Future Developments 10.10 Further Reading References 11 Radiation Sensors / Klaus Behrens 11.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 11.2 History 11.3 Theory 11.4 Devices and Systems 11.5 Specifications 11.6 Quality Control 11.7 Maintenance 11.8 Applications 11.9 Future Developments 11.10 Further Reading References 12 In-situ Precipitation Measurements / Arianna Cauteruccio, Matteo Colli, Mattia Stagnaro, Luca G. Lanza, Emanuele Vuerich 12.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 12.2 History 12.3 Theory 12.4 Devices and Systems 12.5 Specifications 12.6 Quality Control, Uncertainty, and Calibration 12.7 Maintenance 12.8 Application 12.9 Future Developments 12.10 Further Reading References 13 Visibility Sensors / Martin Löffler-Mang, Klaus Heyn 13.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 13.2 History 13.3 Theory 13.4 Devices and Systems 13.5 Specifications 13.6 Quality Control 13.7 Maintenance 13.8 Application 13.9 Future Developments 13.10 Further Reading References 14 Electricity Measurements / Giles Harrison, Alec Bennett 14.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 14.2 History 14.3 Theory 14.4 Devices and Systems 14.5 Specifications 14.6 Quality Control 14.7 Maintenance 14.8 Applications 14.9 Future Developments 14.10 Further Reading References 15 Radioactivity Sensors / Jacqueline Bieringer, Thomas Steinkopff, Ulrich Stöhlker 15.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 15.2 History 15.3 Theory 15.4 Devices and Systems 15.5 Specifications 15.6 Quality Control 15.7 Maintenance 15.8 Application 15.9 Future Developments 15.10 Further Reading References 16 Gas Analysers and Laser Techniques / Dwayne Heard, Lisa K. Whalley, Steven S. Brown 16.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 16.2 History 16.3 Theory 16.4 Devices and Systems 16.5 Specifications 16.6 Quality Control 16.7 Maintenance 16.8 Applications 16.9 Future Developments 16.10 Further Reading References 17 Measurement of Stable Isotopes in Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Water Vapor / Ingeborg Levin, Matthias Cuntz 17.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 17.2 History of Stable Isotope Measurements in Atmospheric CO2, CH4 and H2O 17.3 Theory 17.4 Devices and Systems 17.5 Specifications 17.6 Quality Control 17.7 Maintenance 17.8 Application 17.9 Future Developments 17.10 Further Readings References 18 Measurement of Fundamental Aerosol Physical Properties / Andreas Held, Alexander Mangold 18.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 18.2 History 18.3 Theory 18.4 Devices and Systems 18.5 Specifications 18.6 Quality Control 18.7 Maintenance 18.8 Application 18.9 Future Developments 18.10 Further Reading References 19 Methods of Sampling Trace Substances in Air / Christopher Pöhlker, Karsten Baumann, Gerhard Lammel 19.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 19.2 History 19.3 Theory 19.4 Devices and Systems 19.5 Specifications 19.6 Quality Control 19.7 Maintenance 19.8 Application 19.9 Future Developments 19.10 Further Reading References 20 Optical Fiber-Based Distributed Sensing Methods / Christoph K. Thomas, John Selker 20.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 20.2 History 20.3 Theory 20.4 Devices 20.5 Specifications 20.6 Quality Control 20.7 Maintenance 20.8 Applications 20.9 Future Developments 20.10 Further Reading References 21 Odor Measurements / Ralf Petrich, Axel Delan 21.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 21.2 History 21.3 Theory 21.4 Devices and Systems 21.5 Specifications 21.6 Quality Control 21.7 Maintenance 21.8 Application 21.9 Future Developments 21.10 Further Readings References 22 Visual Observations / Thomas Foken, Raymond Rülke 22.1 Principles of Visual Observations 22.2 History 22.3 Theory 22.4 Observed Parameters 22.5 Quality Control 22.6 Application 22.7 Future Developments 22.8 Further Readings References Part C Remote-Sensing Techniques (Ground-Based) 23 Sodar and RASS / Stefan Emeis 23.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 23.2 History 23.3 Theory 23.4 Devices and Systems 23.5 Specifications 23.6 Quality Control 23.7 Maintenance 23.8 Applications 23.9 Future Developments 23.10 Further Reading References 24 Backscatter Lidar for Aerosol and Cloud Profiling / Christoph Ritter, Christoph Münkel 24.1 Measurement Prinziples and Parameters 24.2 History 24.3 Theory 24.4 Devices and Systems 24.5 Specifications 24.6 Quality Control 24.7 Maintenance 24.8 Applications 24.9 Further Reading References 25 Raman Lidar for Water-Vapor and Temperature Profiling / Volker Wulfmeyer, Andreas Behrendt 25.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 25.2 History 25.3 Theory 25.4 Devices and Systems 25.5 Specifications 25.6 Quality Control 25.7 Maintenance 25.8 Applications 25.9 Future Developments 25.10 Further Reading References 26 Water Vapor Differential Absorption Lidar / Scott M. Spuler, Matthew Hayman, Tammy M. Weckwerth 26.1 Measurement Principles and Param

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Leningrad—1982 1.2 ‘Global Warming’ or ‘Global Weirding’ 1.3 My Background 1.4 What Is Science? 1.5 The Observational Sciences 1.6 The Compexity of Nature 1.7 Summary 2 Discovering Climate 2.1 Defining ‘Climate’ 2.2 Numerical Descriptions of Climate 2.3 How Science Works 2.4 Summary 3 The Language of Science 3.1 Numbers and Symbols 3.2 Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and Calculus 3.3 Shapes 3.4 Orders of Magnitude and Exponents 3.5 Logarithms 3.6 Logarithms and Scales with Bases Other Than 10 3.7 Earthquake Scales 3.8 The Beaufort Wind Force Scale 3.9 Extending the Beaufort Scale to Cyclonic Storms 3.10 Calendars and Time 3.11 Summary 4 Applying Mathematics to Problems 4.1 Measures and Weights 4.2 The Nautical Mile 4.3 The Metric System 4.4 Temperature 4.5 Precisely Defining Some Words You Already Know 4.6 Locating Things 4.7 Latitude and Longitude 4.8 Map Projections 4.9 Trigonometry 4.10 Circles, Ellipses, and Angular Velocity 4.11 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces 4.12 Graphs 4.13 Exponential Growth and Decay 4.14 The Logistic Equation 4.15 Statistics 4.16 Summary 5 Geologic Time 5.1 Age of the Earth—4004 BCE, or Older? 5.2 The Discovery of the Depths of Time—Eternity 5.3 Geologic Time Punctuated by Revolutions 5.4 Catastrophism Replaced by Imperceptibly Slow Gradual Change 5.5 The Development of the Geological Timescale 5.6 The Discovery of the Ice Age 5.7 The Discovery of Past Warm Polar Regions 5.8 Throwing a Monkey Wrench into Explaining Climate Change 5.9 Crustal Mobility’ to the Rescue 5.10 The Return of Catastrophism and the Idea of Rapid Change 5.11 The Nature of the Geologic Record 5.12 The Great Extinctions and Their Causes 5.13 Summary—A History with No Dates 6 Putting Numbers on Geologic Ages 6.1 1788—An Abyss of Time of Unknown Dimensions 6.2 1863—Physics Comes to the Rescue—Earth Is Not More than 100 Million Years Old 6.3 What We Now Know About Heat from Earth’s Interior 6.4 Some Helpful Background in Understanding Nineteenth-Century Chemistry 6.5 Atomic Weight, Atomic Mass, Isotopes, Relative Atomic Mass, Standard Atomic Weight—A Confusing Plethora of Terms 6.6 1895–1913—The Worlds of Physics and Chemistry Turned Upside Down 6.7 Henri Becquerel and the Curies 6.8 Nonconformists and the British Universities Open to All 6.9 The Discovery of Electrons, Alpha-Rays, and Beta-Rays 6.10 The Discovery of Radioactive Decay Series, Exponential Decay Rates, and Secular Equilibrium 6.11 The Mystery of the Decay Series Explained by Isotopes 6.12 The Discovery That Radioactive Decay Series Might Be Used to Determine the Age of Rocks 6.13 The Discovery of Stable Isotopes 6.14 Rethinking the Structure of the Atom 6.15 From Science to Science Fiction 6.16 The Discovery of Protons and Neutrons 6.17 Arthur Holmes and the Age of the Earth 6.18 The Development of a Numerical Geological Timescale 6.19 Summary 7 Documenting Past Climate Change 7.1 What Is ‘Climate’? 7.2 A Brief Overview of Earth’s Climate History 7.3 The Cenozoic Climate ‘Deterioration’ 7.4 From Ages to Process Rates 7.5 Radiometric Age Dating in the Mid-Twentieth Century 7.6 Potassium—Argon Dating 7.7 Reversals of Earth’s Magnetic Field 7.8 Fission Track Dating 7.9 Astronomical Dating 7.10 Tritium, Carbon-14, and Beryllium-10 7.11 The Human Acceleration of Natural Process Rates 7.12 The Present Climate in Its Geologic Context 7.13 Steady State Versus Non-steady State 7.14 Feedbacks 7.15 Summary 8 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun—The Analogies with Water Waves and Sound 8.1 Water Waves 8.2 Special Water Waves—Tides and Tsunamis 8.3 Wave Energy, Refraction, and Reflection 8.4 Sound Waves 8.5 Sound Waves and Music 8.6 Measuring the Speed of Sound in Air 8.7 Measuring the Speed of Sound in Water 8.8 The Practical Use of Sound in Water 8.9 Summary 9 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun—Figuring Out What Light Really Is 9.1 Early Ideas About Light 9.2 Refraction of Light 9.3 Measuring the Speed of Light 9.4 The Discovery of Double Refraction or ‘Birefringence’ 9.5 Investigating the Dispersion of Light 9.6 Figuring Out the Wavelengths of Different Colors of Light 9.7 Diffraction 9.8 Polarization of Light 9.9 Eureka!—Light Is Electromagnetic Waves 9.10 A Review of the Discovery of the Invisible Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 9.11 The Demise of the ‘Luminiferous Æther’ 9.12 Summary 10 Exploring the Electromagnetic Spectrum 10.1 Spectra and Spectral Lines 10.2 The Discovery of Helium—First in the Sun, Then on Earth 10.3 The Discovery That Spectral Lines Are Mathematically Related 10.4 Heinrich Hertz’s Confirmation of Maxwell’s Ideas 10.5 Marconi Makes the Electromagnetic Spectrum a Tool for Civilization 10.6 Human Use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum for Communication, Locating Objects, and Cooking 10.7 Summary 11 The Origins of Climate Science—The Idea of Energy Balance 11.1 What Is Heat? 11.2 Thermodynamics 11.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics 11.4 The Discovery of Greenhouse Gases 11.5 Kirchhoff’s ‘Black Body’ 11.6 Stefan’s Fourth Power Law 11.7 Black Body Radiation 11.8 Summary 12 The Climate System 12.1 Insolation—The Incoming Energy from the Sun 12.2 Albedo—The Reflection of Incoming Energy Back into Space 12.3 Reradiation—How the Earth Radiates Energy Back into Space 12.4 The Chaotic Nature of the Weather 12.5 The Earthly Components of the Climate System: Air, Earth, Ice, and Water 12.6 The Atmosphere 12.7 The Hydrosphere 12.8 The Cryosphere 12.9 The Land 12.10 Classifying Climatic Regions 12.11 Uncertainties in the Climate Scheme 12.12 Summary 13 What Is at the Bottom of Alice’s Rabbit Hole? 13.1 Max Planck and the Solution to the Black Body Problem 13.2 The Photoelectric Effect 13.3 The Bohr Atom 13.4 Implications of the Bohr Model for the Periodic Table of the Elements 13.5 The Zeeman Effect 13.6 Trying to Make Sense of the Periodic Table 13.7 The Second Quantum Revolution 13.8 The Discovery of Nuclear Fission 13.9 Molecular Motions 13.10 Summary 14 Energy from the Sun—Long-Term Variations 14.1 The Faint Young Sun Paradox 14.2 The Energy Flux from the Sun 14.3 The Orbital Cycles 14.4 The Rise and Fall of the Orbital Theory of Climate Change 14.5 The Resurrection of the Orbital Theory 14.6 Correcting the Age Scale: Filling in the Details to Prove the Theory1 14.7 The Discovery that Milankovitch Orbital Cycles Have Affected Much of Earth History 14.8 Summary 15 Solar Variability and Cosmic Rays 15.1 Solar Variability 15.2 The Solar Wind 15.3 Solar Storms and Space Weather 15.4 The Solar Neutrino Problem 15.5 The Ultraviolet Radiation 15.6 Cosmic Rays 15.7 A Digression into the World of Particle Physics 15.8 How Cosmic Rays Interact with Earth’s Atmosphere 15.9 Carbon-14 15.10 Beryllium-10 15.11 Cosmic Rays and Climate 15.12 Summary 16 Albedo 16.1 Albedo of Planet Earth 16.2 Clouds 16.3 Could Cloudiness Be a Global Thermostat? 16.4 Volcanic Ash and Climate Change 16.5 Aerosols 16.6 Albedo During the Last Glacial Maximum 16.7 Changing the Planetary Albedo to Counteract Greenhouse Warming 16.8 Summary 17 Air 17.1 The Nature of Air 17.2 The Velocity of Air Molecules 17.3 Other Molecular Motions 17.4 The Other Major Component of Air—Photons 17.5 Ionization 17.6 The Scattering of Light 17.7 Absorption of the Infrared Wavelengths 17.8 Other Components of Air: Subatomic Particles 17.9 Summary 18 HoH—The Keystone of Earth’s Climate 18.1 Some History 18.2 Why Is HOH So Strange? 18.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 18.4 Vapor 18.4.1 Pure Water 18.5 Natural Water 18.6 Water—Density and Specific Volume 18.7 Water—Surface Tension 18.8 Ice 18.9 Earth’s Ice 18.10 How Ice Forms from Freshwater and from Seawater 18.11 Snow and ICE on Land 18.12 Ice Cores 18.13 Ice as Earth’s Climate Stabilizer 19 The Atmosphere 19.1 Atmospheric Pressure 19.2 The Structure of the Atmosphere 19.3 The Troposphere 19.4 The Stratosphere 19.5 The Mesosphere 19.6 The Thermosphere 19.7 The Exosphere 19.8 The Magnetosphere 19.9 The Ionosphere 19.10 The Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect 19.11 Th

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Introduction References 2 Meteorology as a Natural Science 2.1 Definition of the Atmosphere 2.2 Methods of Research of the Atmosphere 2.2.1 Experimental Method of Research 2.3 Relationship Between Meteorology and Other Sciences 2.4 Classification of Meteorology 2.4.1 Classification Based on the Studied Area 2.4.2 Classification According to the Scale of Processes 2.5 The Modern Term of Meteorology References 3 Historical Background 3.1 Aristotle’s Meteorologica 3.2 Early Research Period 3.3 Modern Research Period References 4 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 4.1 Earth Spheres 4.2 Basic Characteristics of the Atmosphere 4.3 Origin of the Atmosphere 4.4 Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere 4.5 Significant Atmospheric Gases 4.5.1 General Facts About the Atmosphere 4.6 Atmospheric Structure 4.6.1 Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere 4.7 Magneto-electronic Structure References 5 Energy and Radiation 5.1 Basic Features 5.2 Radiation Laws 5.3 Electromagnetic Radiation 5.4 Solar Radiation 5.4.1 Solar Constant 5.4.2 Direct Solar Radiation 5.4.3 Diffused Solar Radiation (D) 5.4.4 Solar Radiation Factors 5.4.5 Temporal and Spatial Changes in Insolation 5.5 Optical Radiation 5.5.1 UV Index 5.5.2 UV Index Factors 5.6 Ozone Layer 5.7 Earth Longwave Radiation 5.7.1 Earth’s Annual and Global Mean Energy Budget 5.7.2 Earth’s Heat Balance 5.7.3 Earth Radiation Budget and the Planetary Temperature 5.7.4 The Simple Greenhouse Model References 6 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 6.1 Definition 6.1.1 Thermodynamic System 6.2 An Ideal Gas Law 6.2.1 The Equation of State of Dry Air 6.2.2 The Equation of State of Moist Air 6.3 First Principle of Thermodynamics 6.3.1 The First Principle of Thermodynamics for an Ideal Gas 6.3.2 Enthalpy 6.3.3 Poisson Equations 6.3.4 Potential Temperature 6.3.5 Implementation of the First Principle of Thermodynamics 6.4 The Second Principle of Thermodynamics 6.4.1 Definition of Entropy 6.4.2 Summary on Reversible and Irreversible Processes References 7 Air Temperature 7.1 Air Temperature Definition 7.2 Heat and Temperature 7.2.1 Heat Transfer 7.3 Temperature Factors 7.3.1 Heat Advection 7.4 Temperature Changes 7.4.1 Daily Insolation and Pure Radiation 7.4.2 Daily Air Temperature Distribution 7.4.3 Vertical Temperature Change 7.4.4 Adiabatic Changes of Temperature 7.4.5 Temperature Inversion 7.4.6 Global Distributions of Temperature 7.4.7 Surface Temperatures 7.4.8 Urban Heat Island 7.5 Temperature Scales 7.6 Isotherms 7.7 Latitudinal Heat Balance References 8 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 8.1 Mass of the Atmosphere 8.2 Definition of Atmospheric Pressure 8.3 Geopotential 8.4 Barometric Pressure Distribution 8.4.1 Pressure Gradient 8.4.2 Isobars 8.4.3 Isohypses 8.4.4 Hydrostatic Balance 8.5 Pressure Systems 8.6 Daily Pressure Distribution 8.7 Reduction of the Surface Pressure to Mean Sea Level Pressure (MSL) 8.8 Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Approximation) 8.9 Standard Atmosphere 8.10 Barotropic vs Baroclinic Atmosphere 8.11 Reduction on Atmospheric Pressure to Mean Sea Level Pressure 8.12 Stream Field 8.13 Definition of Wind 8.14 Classification of the Winds 8.14.1 Permanent Wind 8.14.2 Trade Winds 8.14.3 Anti-trade Winds 8.14.4 Periodic Winds 8.14.5 Local Winds 8.14.6 Land and Sea Breezes 8.14.7 Mountain and Valley Winds 8.14.8 Katabatic Winds References 9 Atmospheric Stability 9.1 Air Stability 9.2 Static Atmospheric Stability 9.3 Stability Due to Air Movement 9.4 Convective Instability 9.5 Low-Level Inversions References 10 Atmospheric Moisture 10.1 Water Vapour in the Atmosphere 10.2 Air Moisture Quantities 10.3 The Relative Humidity 10.4 The Moisture Deficit 10.5 A Dew Point Temperature 10.6 The Phase Changes 10.7 Condensation and Evaporation References 11 Clouds and Precipitation 11.1 Formation of Clouds 11.1.1 Air Saturation Mechanism 11.1.2 Adiabatic Cooling 11.1.3 Water Vapour Supply by Air Mixing 11.1.4 Mixing and Diffusion 11.1.5 Diabatic Cooling 11.1.6 Formation of Cloud Elements 11.1.7 Precipitation 11.1.8 The Mechanism of Ice Nucleation 11.1.9 Classification of the Microprocesses 11.2 Cloud Definition and Classification 11.2.1 Cloud Classification 11.2.2 Cloud Classification by Form 11.2.3 Cloud Classification Based on Height 11.2.4 International Cloud Classification 11.2.5 Cloud Classification by Composition 11.2.6 Classification by Mechanism of Formation 11.2.7 Special Clouds 11.3 Fog 11.3.1 Fog Types and Formation 11.4 Hydrometeors 11.4.1 Precipitation 11.4.2 Orographic Rainfall 11.4.3 Convective Rainfall 11.4.4 Frontal Rainfall References 12 Atmospheric Motion 12.1 Real Forces 12.1.1 Pressure Gradient Force 12.1.2 Gravity 12.1.3 Friction 12.2 The Forces That Are the Effects of Earth’s Rotation 12.2.1 Centrifugal Force 12.2.2 Coriolis Force (C) 12.3 Some Common Resultant Forces 12.3.1 Earth’s Gravity Force 12.3.2 Buoyancy Force 12.4 Atmospheric Motion 12.4.1 The Equation of Motion in a System Rotating Together with the Earth 12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 12.5.1 Geostrophic Wind (V g) 12.5.2 Thermal Wind (V T ) 12.5.3 Gradient Wind 12.5.4 Quasi-geostrophic Equations of Motion 12.6 Vertical Motions in the Atmosphere 12.7 Vorticity Equation 12.8 Basic Characteristics of Vorticity 12.8.1 Positive Vorticity Advection PVA and Upward Air Motion References 13 Atmospheric Waves 13.1 Waves: General Features 13.2 Wave Equation 13.2.1 Mathematical Description of 1-D Waves 13.3 Atmospheric Waves 13.3.1 History Studying Atmospheric Waves 13.3.2 Atmospheric Waves: Definition 13.3.3 Factors that Form a Wave 13.3.4 Basic Wave Properties and Classification 13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 13.4.1 Atmospheric Sound Waves 13.4.2 Gravity Waves 13.4.3 Inertial-Gravity Waves 13.4.4 Rossby Waves References 14 Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) 14.1 ABL Historical Overview 14.2 ABL Definition and Basic Characteristics 14.2.1 ABL Significance 14.3 ABL Structure 14.3.1 Surface Layer 14.3.2 Mixing Layer 14.3.3 Residual Layer 14.3.4 Stable Boundary Layer 14.3.5 Free Atmosphere 14.4 Factors Influence on ABL Structure 14.4.1 The Neutral PBL 14.4.2 The Ekman Wind Spiral 14.4.3 Unstable Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layer References 15 General Circulation of the Atmosphere 15.1 General Atmospheric Circulation Definition 15.2 Conceptual Model of the General Atmospheric Circulation 15.3 Three-Cell Model of Circulation 15.3.1 Circulation in Hadley Cell 15.3.2 Intertropical Convergence Zone 15.3.3 Zonal Pressure Patterns 15.3.4 Upper Tropospheric Wind and Pressure Patterns 15.4 The Wind Patterns 15.4.1 Eastern and Western Winds 15.5 Global Distribution of Pressure, Rainfall, and Climate 15.6 Ocean Circulation 15.6.1 Major Ocean Currents 15.7 Ocean Waves 15.8 Large-Scale Circulation Modes 15.8.1 North Atlantic (NAO) and Artic Oscillation (AO) 15.8.2 El Niño-Southern Oscillation 15.8.3 La Nina 15.9 Winds at the Regional Scale: Monsoon 15.10 Jet Streams 15.10.1 A Waiver Jet Stream 15.11 Rossby Planetary Waves References 16 Air Masses and Fronts 16.1 Definition of Air Masses 16.1.1 Air Mass Source Region 16.1.2 Formation Criteria 16.2 Air Mass Classification 16.2.1 Polar Continental and Artic Continental Air Masses (cP and cA) 16.2.2 Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP) 16.2.3 Tropical Maritime Air Masses (mT) 16.3 Air Mass Modification 16.4 Fronts (Frontal Boundaries) 16.4.1 Types of Weather Fronts 16.4.2 Occluded Fronts References 17 Cyclones and Anticyclones 17.1 General Terms 17.2 Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones 17.2.1 Formation of Extratropical Cyclone 17.2.2 Life Cycle of the Extratropical Cyclone 17.2.3 Cyclone Movement 17.2.4 Upper Level Low 17.3 High-Pressure System: Anticyclone 17.4 Weather Conditions Associate with Cyclones and Anticyclones References 18 Tropical Storms 18.1 General Overview 18.2 Tropical Cyclone Formation 18.2.1 General Factors 18.2.2 The Basic Ingredients 18.3 Areas of Formation 18.4 Classification of Tropical Cyclones 18.5 Tropical Storm Structure 18.5.1 Cyclonic Eye 18.5.2 Eyewall

Anmerkung: Contents 1 Slow Viscous Flow 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Coordinate Systems and the Material Derivative 1.2.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Coordinates 1.2.2 The Material Derivative 1.3 Mass Conservation 1.4 The Stress Tensor and Momentum Conservation 1.4.1 The Stress Tensor 1.4.2 Momentum Conservation 1.4.3 Rheology 1.4.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 1.4.5 Stokes Flow 1.5 Boundary Conditions 1.5.1 The No-Slip Condition and the Sliding Law 1.5.2 Dynamic Boundary Conditions 1.5.3 Kinematic Boundary Conditions 1.6 Temperature and Energy Conservation 1.7 Glacier and Ice Sheet Flow 1.8 Examples 1.8.1 Uniform Flow on a Slope 1.8.2 Spreading Flow at an Ice Divide 1.8.3 Small-Amplitude Perturbations 1.9 The Shallow Ice Approximation 1.10 Conclusions and Outlook 1.11 Appendix: Non-dimensionalisation Exercises 2 Thermal Structure 2.1 Temperature Profiles 2.2 Boundary Conditions 2.2.1 The Thermal Near-Surface Wave 2.3 Models: Simple to Complicated 2.4 Basal Conditions 2.4.1 Polythermal Ice 2.5 Modelling Issues 2.5.1 Non-dimensionalisation 2.5.2 Thermomechanical Coupling 2.5.3 Thermal Runaway Exercises 3 Sliding, Drainage and Subglacial Geomorphology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sliding Over Hard Beds 3.2.1 Weertman Sliding 3.2.2 Nye-Kamb Theory 3.2.3 Sub-temperate Sliding 3.2.4 Nonlinear Sliding Laws 3.2.5 Cavitation 3.2.6 Comparison with Experiment 3.3 Subglacial Drainage Theory 3.3.1 Weertman Films 3.3.2 Röthlisberger Channels (or ‘R-Channels’) 3.3.3 Jökulhlaups 3.3.4 Subglacial Lakes 3.3.5 Linked Cavities 3.3.6 Drainage Transitions and Glacier Surges 3.3.7 Ongoing Developments 3.4 Basal Processes and Geomorphology 3.4.1 Soft Glacier Beds 3.4.2 Drainage Over Till 3.4.3 Geomorphological Processes Exercises 4 Tidewater Glaciers 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Calving 4.3 Tidewater Glacier Dynamics 4.3.1 Tidewater Glacier Retreat and Instability 4.3.2 Tidewater Glacier Advance 4.3.3 Flow Variability of Tidewater Glaciers 4.4 The Link to Climate: Triggers for Retreat 4.4.1 Ice Shelf Collapse and Backstress 4.4.2 Grounded Calving Fronts 4.5 Outlook 5 Interaction of Ice Shelves with the Ocean 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Impact of Melting Ice on the Ocean 5.3 Processes at the Ice-Ocean Interface 5.4 Buoyancy-Driven Flow on Geophysical Scales 5.5 Sensitivity to Ocean Temperature 5.6 Impact of Meltwater Outflow at the Grounding Line 5.7 Fundamentals of the Three-Dimensional Ocean Circulation 5.8 Some Properties and Limitations of the Geostrophic Equations 5.9 Effects of Stratification 5.10 Three-Dimensional Circulation in Sub-Ice-Shelf Cavities Exercises 6 Polar Meteorology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Shortwave and Longwave Radiation 6.3 Radiation Climate at the Top of the Atmosphere 6.4 Large Scale Circulation 6.5 Surface Energy Balance 6.5.1 Shortwave Radiation 6.5.2 Surface Albedo 6.5.3 Longwave Radiation 6.5.4 Turbulent Fluxes 6.6 Temperature Inversion and Katabatic Winds 6.6.1 Surface Temperature Inversion and Deficit 6.6.2 Katabatic Winds 6.7 Precipitation 6.8 Notes and References Exercises 7 Mass Balance 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Definitions 7.3 Methods 7.3.1 In Situ Observations 7.3.2 Satellite/Airborne Altimetry 7.3.3 Satellite Gravimetry 7.3.4 Mass Budget Method 7.4 Valley Glaciers and Ice Caps 7.4.1 In Situ Observations 7.4.2 Modelling 7.4.3 Dynamical Response 7.4.4 Remote Sensing 7.5 Antarctic Ice Sheet 7.5.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.5.2 Blue Ice Areas 7.5.3 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6 Greenland Ice Sheet 7.6.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.6.2 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6.3 Role of the Liquid Water Balance 8 Numerical Modelling of Ice Sheets, Streams, and Shelves 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ice Flow Equations 8.2.1 The Shallow Ice Approximation 8.2.2 Analogy with the Heat Equation 8.3 Finite Difference Numerics 8.3.1 Explicit Scheme for the Heat Equation 8.3.2 A First Implemented Scheme 8.3.3 Stability Criteria and Adaptive Time Stepping 8.3.4 Implicit Schemes 8.3.5 Numerical Solution of Diffusion Equations 8.4 Numerically Solving the SIA 8.5 Exact Solutions and Verification 8.5.1 Exact Solution of the Heat Equation 8.5.2 Halfar’s Exact Similarity Solution to the SIA 8.5.3 Using Halfar’s Solution 8.5.4 A Test of Robustness 8.6 Applying Our Numerical Ice Sheet Model 8.7 Shelves and Streams 8.7.1 The Shallow Shelf Approximation (SSA) 8.7.2 Numerical Solution of the SSA 8.7.3 Numerics of the Linear Boundary Value Problem 8.7.4 Solving the Stress Balance for an Ice Shelf 8.7.5 Realistic Ice Shelf Modelling 8.8 A Summary of Numerical Ice Flow Modelling 8.9 Notes Exercises 9 Least-Squares Data Inversion in Glaciology 9.1 Preamble 9.2 Introduction 9.3 The Roots of GPS in Glaciology 9.4 Introduction to GPS 9.4.1 History 9.4.2 Coarse Acquisition (C/A) Code 9.5 The Equations of Pseudorange 9.6 Least-Squares Solution of an Overdetermined System of Linear Equations 9.7 Observational Techniques to Improve GPS Accuracy 9.7.1 The Ionosphere-Free Combination 9.7.2 Carrier-Phase Determined Range and Integer Wavelength Ambiguity 9.7.3 Resolving Range Ambiguity by Phase Tracking 9.7.4 Differential GPS Exercises 10 Analytical Models of Ice Sheets and Ice Shelves 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Perfectly-Plastic Ice Sheet Model 10.3 The Height–Mass Balance Feedback 10.4 Ice-Sheet Profile for Plane Shear with Glen’s Law 10.5 Ice Shelves Exercise 11 Firn 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Firn Densification 11.2.1 Mechanisms of Firn Densification 11.2.2 Firn Densification Models 11.2.3 Firn Layering and Microstructure 11.3 Applications of Firn Models 11.3.1 Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance from Altimetry 11.3.2 Delta Age Calculations in Deep Ice Cores 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 12 Ice Cores: Archive of the Climate System 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Dating Ice Cores 12.3 Stable Water Isotopes 12.3.1 Basics and Nomenclature 12.3.2 The Isotope Proxy Thermometer 12.3.3 Examples of Isotope Records 12.3.4 Isotope Diffusion in Firn and Ice 12.3.5 Diffusion Thermometry 12.4 Aerosols in Ice 12.4.1 Introduction and Origin of Aerosols in Ice 12.4.2 Aerosol Sources and Transport 12.4.3 Post-depositional Modification 12.4.4 Seasonal Cycles in Aerosol and Particle Constituents in Ice 12.4.5 The Volcanic Signal in Ice and Its Use for Chronological Control 12.4.6 Marine Biogenic MSA and Sea Salt as Sea-Ice Proxies 12.4.7 The Record of Anthropogenic Pollution 12.4.8 Long Aerosol Records from Greenland and Antarctica 12.4.9 Electrical Properties of Ice and Their Relationship to Chemistry 12.5 Gases Enclosed in Ice 12.5.1 Firn Gas and Gas Occlusion 12.5.2 Trace Gases 12.6 Timing of Climate Events Exercises 13 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glaciers and Ice Sheets 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Optical Sensors and Applications 13.2.1 Sensors and Satellites 13.2.2 Applications 13.3 SAR Methods and Applications 13.3.1 Radar Signal Interaction with Snow and Ice 13.3.2 SAR Sensor and Image Characteristics 13.3.3 InSAR Measurement Principles and Applications 13.4 Satellite Altimetry 13.4.1 Altimetry Missions 13.4.2 Measuring Elevation Change 14 Geophysics 14.1 Geophysical Methods: Overview 14.2 Passive Methods 14.2.1 Gravimetry 14.2.2 Magnetics 14.2.3 Seismology 14.3 Active Methods: Basics 14.3.1 Propagation Properties and Reflection Origin 14.3.2 Seismic System Set-Up 14.3.3 Radar System Set-Up 14.4 Data Acquisition and Processing 14.5 Seismic Applications in Ice 14.5.1 Ice Thickness and Basal Topography 14.5.2 Subglacial Structure and Properties 14.5.3 Rheological and Other Englacial Properties 14.6 Radar Applications in Ice 14.6.1 Internal Layer Architecture and Ice Dynamics 14.6.2 Subglacial Conditions 14.6.3 Englacial Conditions 14.7 Notes and References 14.7.1 Further Reading 14.7.2 Gravimetry 14.7.3 General Wave Equation and Solution 14.7.4 Seismic Waves 14.7.5 Electromagnetic Waves Exercises 15 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Earth Response to Loading 15.2.1 Rheology of the Earth 15.2.2 Building an Earth Model 15.2.3 Earth Models Used in Glaciology and Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.3 The Cryosphere and Sea Level 15.3.1 Factors Affecting Sea-Level Change 15