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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    MODELLING THE IMPACTS OF DOMESTIC WATER CONSERVATION ON THE SUSTAIN ABILITY OF THE URBAN SEWERAGE SYSTEM (2005)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Water and environment journal 19 (2005), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1747-6593
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: A computer model was developed to evaluate the impact of various technologies for water conservation in domestic households, in terms of the Impact on the operation of downstream infrastructure. These technologies, which include (a) low-flush toilets, (b) greywater re-use, and (c) re-use of rainwater from roof runoff for toilet flushing, were compared using indicators of sustainability to measure water consumption, sewerage-system operational performance and process treatment efficiency. The results demonstrated that rainwater re-use is potentially the most sustainable strategy in terms of the benefits associated with water conservation and reduction in sewage discharges from combined-sewer overflows (CSOs). The benefits were observed without the problems associated with increased sedimentation in sewers during dry weather, associated with other water-conservation strategies such as reduced-flush toilets, greywater re-use and the resultant increase in pollutants from CSOs during wet weather.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2005.tb00548.x
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Experimental proof of saturation in nonresonant multiple-photon ionization (1994)
    [S.l.] : American Institute of Physics (AIP)
    Journal of Applied Physics 76 (1994), S. 1314-1316 
    Details
    ISSN: 1089-7550
    Source: AIP Digital Archive
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Saturation in nonresonant multiple-photon ionization is directly proved by a novel two-pulse technique. Ultrashort laser pulses with a pulse duration of 17.5 ps are used for multiple-photon ionization. They provide experimental conditions which allow double-pulse experiments on sub-ns time-scales. Data of saturation intensities and cross sections are derived from the experiments.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.357792
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Deformation and cracking behavior of protective oxide scales on heat-resistant steels under tensile strain (1985)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 24 (1985), S. 199-232 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: heat-resistant steels ; nickel ; oxide-scale cracking ; acoustic emission ; constant extension-rate tests
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The deformation and cracking behavior of oxide scales formed in air on four heat-resistant steels and on nickel 99.6 have been studied in constant-extension-rate tests at 800°C. The strain rates in the experiments ranged between 10−6 and 10−9 s−1. Acoustic emission (AE) was used as an instrument for detecting the beginning of scale cracking. Additionally, metallographic, SEM, and micro-probe investigations were performed which supported the results from the AE measurements. The strain-to-cracking of the scales did not exceed 0.5% except when lateral growth effects in the oxide scales occurred, leading to critical strains of up to nearly 2.5%. Also the crack distribution in the scales was measured. The deformation and cracking behavior of the scales investigated could be explained by model like considerations.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00664232
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Behavior of oxide scales on 2.25Cr-1Mo steel during thermal cycling. II. Scales grown in water vapor (1989)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 31 (1989), S. 35-69 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: cyclic oxidation ; water vapor ; 2.25Cr-1Mo steel ; acoustic emission technique
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The acoustic emission (AE) technique has been applied to identify scale cracking during thermal cycling of tubes of 2.25Cr-1Mo steel. The scale morphology and failure mode were investigated by light and electron optical methods. The scale formed at 600°C in water vapor consists of an outer magnetite and an inner, chromium-containing spinel layer. Cooling leads to tensile stresses in the scale that cause macro and microcrack formation in the scale. At constant-cycle parameters, a characteristic set of crack length and crack density is established. Changes in the cycle parameters also change the crack length and crack density. The experimental results can be described by a model developed by Hasselmann assuming a large number of noninteracting microcracks in a ceramic plate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00665486
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The healing behavior of protective oxide scales on heat-resistant steels after cracking under tensile strain (1986)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 25 (1986), S. 409-421 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: heat-resistant steels ; oxide-scale crack healing ; protective capabilities ; constantextension-rate tests
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The healing of cracks in protective oxide scales on four heat-resistant steels has been investigated at 800°C in constant-extension-rate tests, in metallographie and in SEM-examinations. The experimental results suggest the existence of a critical strain rate below which crack healing leads to an instant repair of the cracked scale thuspreventing increased internal corrosion. The existence of this critical strain rate can be explained by model considerations, the results of which are in agreement with the results from the experiments. On the basis of scale cracking data from a previous paper and healing data in the present paper “scale cracking/healing maps” have been developed characterizing the protective capabilities of the oxide scales under tensile strain.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01072918
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Behavior of oxide scales on 2.25Cr-1Mo steel during thermal cycling. I. Scales formed in oxygen and air (1989)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 31 (1989), S. 1-34 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: cyclic oxidation ; 2.25-1Mo steel ; acoustic-emission technique ; oxide-scale buckling and cracking
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The acoustic-emission (AE) technique has been applied to study scale-damage processes during thermal cycling of a tube, preferentially between 600 and 300°C in air, oxygen, and air + 0.5% SO2. The AE measurements were accompanied by optical and electron-optical investigations on tube rings exposed to the same cycling conditions. During the first period of cycling, a scale rich in hematite is formed. It suffers compressive stresses during cooling. The result is a buckled multilayered scale with separated lamellae. The scaling rate is lower than under isothermal conditions. AE signals start after 175°C cooling. After longer exposure times, the scale contains an increasing amount of magnetite and becomes more compact. The scaling rate increases and is comparable to that under isothermal conditions. AE signals are already observed after 50°C cooling and are correlated with crack formation in the magnetite caused by tensile stresses there. The addition of SO2 to air enhances the crack-healing process due to higher Fe diffusion in FeS. The scale is more compact.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00665485
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The cyclic-oxidation behavior of several nickel-base single-crystal superalloys without and with coatings (1994)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 41 (1994), S. 271-300 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: cyclic oxidation ; single-crystal superalloys ; coating, reactive-element effect ; acoustic emission
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract Several commerical single-crystal superalloys (CMSX-2, CMSX-3, CMSX-4, CMSX-6, SRR 99) and some laboratory versions of one of them (CMSX-4) with various Y additions were investigated concerning their cyclic-oxidation resistance in air at 1000 and 1150°C. The investigations also included two materials (CMSX-6, SRR 99) with an RT-22 coating. Weight changes and acoustic emission were recorded up to 1000 cycles and scales, coatings, and substrates were characterized by metallography, SEM, and microprobe in postexperimental investigations. The best cyclic-oxidation behavior and excellent resistance to spalling even at 1150°C were shown by a laboratory version of CMSX-4 containing between 10 and 60 ppm Y. While at 1000°C interdiffusion can be taken as tolerable for the coated alloys, there is rapid degradation of the coating by interdiffusion at 1150°C.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01080784
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Mechanical aspects of the rare-earth effect (1992)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 38 (1992), S. 255-266 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: reactive-element effect ; fracture mechanics
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract In order to gain a better understanding of the reactive-element effect (REE), the improvement of the oxidation behavior of chromia- or alumina-scale-forming alloys by the addition of small amounts of elements with higher affinity to oxygen than the scale-forming element, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between isothermal oxidation and the behavior of the metal/oxide composite system during cooling. An approach is presented based on fracture-mechanical considerations which correlates critical differential strain between scale and substrate, fracture toughness of the metal/scale interface, scale thickness, defect size and interfacial amplitude. This approach allows a quantitative assessment of the REE for scale adhesion, and although the necessary experimental data are yet lacking, it describes the reported REE in a qualitatively correct manner.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00666914
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Cyclic-oxidation behavior of TiAl and of TiAl alloys (1993)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 39 (1993), S. 93-106 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: cyclic oxidation ; TiAl ; TiAl alloys ; scale spallation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The cyclic-oxidation behavior of (in w/o) Ti-36Al, Ti-35Al-0.1C, Ti-35Al-1.4V-0.1C and Ti-35Al-5Nb-0.1C was studied between 800 and 1000° C in air. A few experiments were also performed in oxygen. Scale spallation after oxidation in air occurs during cooling on TiAl, TiAl-C, and TiAl-V at or close to the metal/scale interface when a critical scale thickness has been achieved. This process repeats and can lead to a stratified scale. These three materials form scales composed of an inward-growing fine-grain mixture of TiO2-Al2O3 and an outward-growing coarse-grain TiO2 layer or TiO2+Al2O3 mixture. The TiAl-Nb alloy had a significantly different behavior. The scale on this material grew very slowly because a protective Al2O3 layer formed at the metal/scale interface. This behavior resulted in much better resistance to spallation because the critical scale thickness was reached only after a much longer time, and is different from the behavior of the other three alloys. Oxidation in air leads to slight nitridation of the subsurface zone beneath the scale. In comparison to oxidation in air, oxidation in oxygen improves the cyclicoxidation behavior. Whereas the scale formed in air was uniformly thick over the entire surface, the scale grown in oxygen varied locally in structure and thickness. A large fraction of the surface was covered with a thin Al2O3 layer, while the remaining part formed a two-layer scale similar to that formed in air. The results are discussed briefly in the light of a recently published model for scale spallation under compressive stress, however, quantitative estimations are not possible due to a lack of relevant data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00666612
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The isothermal-oxidation behavior of several nickel-base single-crystal superalloys with and without coatings (1993)
    Springer
    Oxidation of metals 39 (1993), S. 231-261 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-4889
    Keywords: oxidation ; single-crystal superalloys ; coating ; reactive-element effect
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract Several commercial single-crystal superalloys (CMSX-2, CMSX-3, CMSX-4, CMSX-6, SRR 99) and some laboratory versions of one of them (CMSX-4) with various Y-additions were investigated concerning their oxidation resistance in air at temperatures between 800 and 1200°C. The investigations also included two materials (CMSX-6, SRR 99) with an RT-22 coating. Weight change was recorded for times of up to 1000 hr (in some cases up to 1600 hr). Oxidized coatings and substrates were characterized by metallography, SEM, and microprobe analysis. Most of the alloys showed good oxidation resistance up to 1000°C, while there was complete spalling during cooling after oxidation at 1150°C and 1200°C for the uncoated and Y-free alloys. Coated alloys were superior, however the best behavior was shown by a laboratory version of CMSX-4 containing between 10 and 60 ppm Y. Interdiffusion at 1000°C is tolerable for the coated alloys, but there was extremely rapid degradation of the coating by interdiffusion at 1200°C.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00665614
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