ALBERT

Notes: Abstract The growing concern about the sustainability of tropical agricultural systems stands in striking contrast to a world-wide decline in the use of soil-improving legumes. It is timely to assess the future role that soil-improving legumes may play in agricultural systems. This paper reviews recent progress, potential, and limitations of green manure technology, using lowland rice cropping systems as the example. Only a few legume species are currently used as green manures in lowland rice. Sesbania cannabina is the most widely used pre-rice green manure for rice in the humid tropics of Africa and Asia. Astragalus sinicus is the prototype post-rice green manure species for the cool tropics. Stem-nodulating S. rostrata has been most prominent in recent research. Many green manure legumes show a high N accumulation (80–100 kg N ha-1 in 45–60 days of growth) of which the major portion (about 80%) is derived from biological N2 fixation. The average amounts of N accumulated by green manures can entirely substitute for mineral fertilizer N at current average application rates. With similar N use efficiencies, green manure N is less prone to loss mechanisms than mineral N fertilizers and may therefore contribute to long-term residual effects on soil productivity. Despite a high N2-fixing potential and positive effects on soil physical and chemical parameters, the use of green manure legumes for lowland rice production has declined dramatically world-wide over the last 30 years. Land scarcity due to increasing demographic pressure and a relatively low price of urea N are probably the main determining factors for the long-term reduction in pre-rice green manure use. Post-rice green manures were largely substituted for by high-yielding early-maturing grain legumes. Unreliability of green manure performance, non-availability of seeds, and labor intensive operations are the major agronomic constraints. The recognition and extrapolation of niches where green manures have a comparative advantage may improve an often unfavorable economic comparison of green manure with cash crop or fertilizer N. Socio-economic factors like the cost of land, labor, and mineral N fertilizer are seen to determine the cost-effectiveness and thereby farmers' adoption of sustainable pre-rice green manure technology. Hydrology and soil texture determine the agronomic competitiveness of a green manure with N fertilizers and with alternative cash crops. In general, the niches for pre-rice green manure are characterized by a relatively short time span available for green manure growth and a soil moisture regime that is unfavorable for cash crops (flood-prone rainfed lowlands with coarse-textured soils). Given the numerous agronomic and socio-economic constraints, green manure use is not seen to become a relevant feature of favourable rice-growing environments in the foreseeable future. However, in environments where soil properties and hydrology are marginal for food crop production, but which farmers may be compelled to cultivate in order to meet their subsistence food requirements, green manures may have a realistic and applicable potential.