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  • American Meteorological Society
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2015-2019
  • 2000-2004  (2.442)
  • 2003  (2.442)
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Verlag/Herausgeber
Erscheinungszeitraum
  • 2015-2019
  • 2000-2004  (2.442)
Jahr
  • 101
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    COLLECTINS AND FICOLINS: Humoral Lectins of the Innate Immune Defense (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 21 (2003), S. 547-578 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Collectins and ficolins, present in plasma and on mucosal surfaces, are humoral molecules of the innate immune systems, which recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns. The human collectins, mannan-binding lectin (MBL) and surfactant protein A and D (SP-A and SP-D), are oligomeric proteins composed of carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs) attached to collagenous regions and are thus structurally similar to the ficolins, L-ficolin, M-ficolin, and H-ficolin. However, they make use of different CRD structures: C-type lectin domains for the collectins and fibrinogen-like domains for the ficolins. Upon recognition of the infectious agent, MBL and the ficolins initiate the lectin pathway of complement activation through attached serine proteases (MASPs), whereas SP-A and SP-D rely on other effector mechanisms: direct opsonization, neutralization, and agglutination. This limits the infection and concurrently orchestrates the subsequent adaptive immune response. Deficiencies of the proteins may predispose to infections or other complications, e.g., reperfusion injuries or autoimmune diseases. Structure, function, clinical implications, and phylogeny are reviewed.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.140954
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  • 102
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS REGULATING TH1 IMMUNE RESPONSES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 21 (2003), S. 713-758 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The T helper lymphocyte is responsible for orchestrating the appropriate immune response to a wide variety of pathogens. The recognition of the polarized T helper cell subsets Th1 and Th2 has led to an understanding of the role of these cells in coordinating a variety of immune responses, both in responses to pathogens and in autoimmune and allergic disease. Here, we discuss the mechanisms that control lineage commitment to the Th1 phenotype. What has recently emerged is a rich understanding of the cytokines, receptors, signal transduction pathways, and transcription factors involved in Th1 differentiation. Although the picture is still incomplete, the basic pathways leading to Th1 differentiation can now be understood in in vitro and a number of infection and disease models.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.140942
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  • 103
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    TOLEROGENIC DENDRITIC CELLS* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 21 (2003), S. 685-711 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Dendritic cells (DCs) have several functions in innate and adaptive immunity. In addition, there is increasing evidence that DCs in situ induce antigen-specific unresponsiveness or tolerance in central lymphoid organs and in the periphery. In the thymus DCs generate tolerance by deleting self-reactive T cells. In peripheral lymphoid organs DCs also induce tolerance to antigens captured by receptors that mediate efficient uptake of proteins and dying cells. Uptake by these receptors leads to the constitutive presentation of antigens on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II products. In the steady state the targeting of DC antigen capture receptors with low doses of antigens leads to deletion of the corresponding T cells and unresponsiveness to antigenic rechallenge with strong adjuvants. In contrast, if a stimulus for DC maturation is coadministered with the antigen, the mice develop immunity, including interferon-gamma-secreting effector T cells and memory T cells. There is also new evidence that DCs can contribute to the expansion and differentiation of T cells that regulate or suppress other immune T cells. One possibility is that distinct developmental stages and subsets of DCs and T cells can account for the different pathways to peripheral tolerance, such as deletion or suppression. We suggest that several clinical situations, including autoimmunity and certain infectious diseases, can be influenced by the antigen-specific tolerogenic role of DCs.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141040
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  • 104
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    B CELL CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA: Lessons Learned from Studies of the B Cell Antigen Receptor (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 21 (2003), S. 841-894 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) is an accumulative disease of slowly proliferating CD5+ B lymphocytes that develops in the aging population. Whereas some patients with B-CLL have an indolent course and die after many years from unrelated causes, others progress very rapidly and succumb within a few years from this currently incurable leukemia. Over the past decade studies of the structure and function of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) used by these leukemic cells have helped redefine the nature of this disease. In this review we summarize and reinterpret several aspects of these BCR-related studies and how they might relate to the disease. In particular, we address the ability of antigens to select out and drive B cell clones from the normal state to overt leukemic cells by binding to BCRs that are relatively unique and characteristic of B-CLL cells. The differential capacity of some B-CLL cases to continue to transduce signals through the BCR during the leukemic phase and the consequences for the in vivo biology of the leukemic clone is also considered. Finally, we discuss current and emerging views of the cellular origin of B-CLL cells and the differentiation pathways down which we believe these cells progress.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141018
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  • 105
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    STRESS-ACTIVATED CYTOKINES AND THE HEART: From Adaptation to Maladaptation1 (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 81-101 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The ability of the myocardium to successfully compensate for and adapt to environmental stress ultimately determines whether the heart will decompensate and fail or maintain preserved function. Despite the importance of the myocardial response to environmental stress, very little is known with respect to the biochemical mechanisms that are responsible for mediating and integrating the stress response in the heart. In the present review we summarize recent experimental material suggesting that the cytokines expressed within the myocardium in response to environmental injury, namely tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family, play an important role in initiating and integrating homeostatic responses. However, these stress-activated cytokines all have the potential to produce cardiac decompensation when expressed at sufficiently high concentrations. Accordingly, the theme to emerge from this review is that the short-term expression of stress-activated cytokines within the heart may be an adaptive response to stress, whereas long-term expression of these molecules may be frankly maladaptive by producing cardiac decompensation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142249
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  • 106
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PROCESSIVE AND NONPROCESSIVE MODELS OF KINESIN MOVEMENT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 161-175 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Conventional kinesin is the prototypic member of a family of diverse proteins that use the chemical energy of ATP hydrolysis to generate force and move along microtubules. These proteins, which are involved in a wide range of cellular functions, have been identified in protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals and possess a high degree of sequence conservation among species in their motor domains. The biochemical properties of kinesin and its homologues, in conjunction with the recently solved three-dimensional structures of several kinesin motors, have contributed to our understanding of the mechanism of kinesin movement along microtubules. We discuss several models for movement, including the hand-over-hand, inchworm, and biased diffusion models of processive movement, as well as models of nonprocessive movement.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142550
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  • 107
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    APPLICATION OF MICROARRAY TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 231-259 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract DNA microarray technology is revolutionizing many aspects of biological research, allowing the expression of many thousands of gene transcripts to be monitored simultaneously. This provides powerful tools for the genome-wide correlation of gene transcript levels with physiological responses and alterations in physiological states. To date, microarray analyses have been applied almost exclusively to a few model species for which the abundant gene sequence data permit the fabrication of whole-genome microarrays. However, many interesting physiological traits and responses are poorly expressed or absent in model species and may be better illustrated in nonmodel organisms. Comparative approaches to understanding function traditionally focus on species that by virtue of their unusual adaptations, lifestyles, and phylogeny are particularly suited to address a specific biological process or problem. In this review, we show that microarray technology can be successfully applied to these nonmodel species and used to generate new insights of comparative and evolutionary significance into animal function.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142716
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  • 108
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE PHYSIOLOGY OF CELLULAR LIPOREGULATION1 (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 333-347 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Here we explore the physiologic role of leptin as a liporegulatory hormone responsible for maintaining intracellular homeostasis in the face of wide variations in caloric intake. Normally, rats can tolerate a 60% fat diet because 96% of the surplus fat is deposited in adipocytes. In contrast, when leptin is congenitally absent or inactive, even on a normal diet, unutilized dietary fat is deposited in nonadipose tissues, causing dysfunction (lipotoxicity) and possible cell death (lipoapoptosis). We theorize that in diet-induced obesity, acquired leptin resistance may also develop as the result of increase in certain leptin resistance factors. Acquired leptin resistance occurs in aging, obesity, Cushing's syndrome, and acquired lipodystrophy, and preliminary evidence suggests that ectopic lipid deposition is increased. We speculate that the metabolic syndrome may be the human equivalent of the lipotoxic syndrome of rodents.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142622
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  • 109
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    INSIGHTS INTO THE REGULATION OF GASTRIC ACID SECRETION THROUGH ANALYSIS OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MICE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 383-400 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The regulation of acid secretion in the stomach involves a complex network of factors that stimulate secretion in response to the ingestion of a meal and maintain homeostasis of gastric pH. Genetically engineered mouse models have provided a new opportunity to investigate the importance and function of specific molecules and pathways involved in the regulation of acid secretion. Mouse mutants with disruptions in the three major stimulatory pathways for acid secretion in parietal cells, gastrin, histamine, and acetylcholine, have been generated. Disruption of the gastrin pathway results in a major impairment in both basal and induced acid secretion. Histamine and acetylcholine pathway mutants also have significant alterations in acid secretion, although the impairment does not appear to be as severe as in gastrin pathway mutants, perhaps due in part to the hypergastrinemia that occurs. Mice with a disruption in the somatostatin pathway have increased gastric acid secretion, which confirms an important negative regulatory role for this factor. This review discusses these genetically engineered mouse models, as well as others, that provide insight into the complex regulation of in vivo gastric acid secretion. The regulation of growth and cellular morphology of the stomach in these mouse models is also presented. In addition, transgene promoters that are expressed in the gastric epithelium are discussed because these promoters will be important tools to alter cellular physiology in new mouse models in the future.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142213
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  • 110
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    TRANSDUCING TOUCH IN CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 429-452 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Mechanosensation has been studied for decades, but understanding of its molecular mechanism is only now emerging from studies in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. In both cases, the entry point proved to be genetic screens that allowed molecules needed for mechanosensation to be identified without any prior understanding of the likely components. In C. elegans, genetic screens revealed molecules needed for touch sensation along the body wall and other regions of force sensitivity. Members of two extensive membrane protein families have emerged as candidate sensory mechanotransduction channels: mec-4 and mec-10, which encode amiloride-sensitive channels (ASCs or DEG/ENaCs), and osm-9, which encodes a TRP ion channel. There are roughly 50 other members of these families whose functions in C. elegans are unknown. This article classifies these channels in C. elegans, with an emphasis on insights into their function derived from mutation. We also review the neuronal cell types in which these channels might be expressed and mediate mechanotransduction.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142659
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  • 111
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    LIPID RECEPTORS IN CARDIOVASCULAR DEVELOPMENT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 23-43 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract To most people, concerns over the link between lipids and cardiovascular health most likely end with monitoring their daily consumption of dietary fats. However, it has become increasingly clear that, in addition to effects on adult cardiovascular physiology, lipids also play key roles in the formation of a functioning cardiovascular system. The lysophospholipids, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), have come to the forefront as developmental and physiological regulators of the cardiovascular system. In this review, we discuss the function of the G protein-coupled receptors responsible for transducing LPA and S1P signals during development of the vertebrate cardiovascular system, focusing first on their role in angiogenesis and then on their function during embryonic development.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142235
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  • 112
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PERMEATION AND SELECTIVITY IN CALCIUM CHANNELS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 133-159 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Recent advances-both experimental and theoretical-provide a tentative image of the structures in Ca channels that make them exceptionally selective. The image is very different from K channels, which obtain high selectivity with a rigid pore that tightly fits K+ ions and is lined by carbonyl oxygens of the polypeptide backbone. Ca channels rely on four glutamate residues (the EEEE locus), whose carboxyl side chains likely reach into the pore lumen to interact with passing Ca2+ ions. The structure is thought to be flexible, tightly binding a single Ca2+ ion in order to block Na+ flux but rearranging to interact with multiple Ca2+ ions to allow Ca2+ flux. The four glutamates are not equivalent, a fact that seems important for Ca2+ permeation. This review describes the experimental evidence that leads to these conclusions and the attempts by theorists to explain the combination of high selectivity and high flux that characterizes Ca channels.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142345
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  • 113
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    ORIGINS AND CONSEQUENCES OF MITOCHONDRIAL VARIATION IN VERTEBRATE MUSCLE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 177-201 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract This review addresses the mechanisms by which mitochondrial structure and function are regulated, with a focus on vertebrate muscle. We consider the adaptive remodeling that arises during physiological transitions such as differentiation, development, and contractile activity. Parallels are drawn between such phenotypic changes and the pattern of change arising over evolutionary time, as suggested by interspecies comparisons. We address the physiological and evolutionary relationships between ATP production, thermogenesis, and superoxide generation in the context of mitochondrial function. Our discussion of mitochondrial structure focuses on the regulation of membrane composition and maintenance of the three-dimensional reticulum. Current studies of mitochondrial biogenesis strive to integrate muscle functional parameters with signal transduction and molecular genetics, providing insight into the origins of variation arising between physiological states, fiber types, and species.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142705
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  • 114
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    INSULIN RECEPTOR KNOCKOUT MICE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 313-332 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract To examine the role of the insulin receptor in fuel homeostasis, we and others have carried out genetic ablation studies in mice. Mice lacking insulin receptors are born with normal features, but develop early postnatal diabetes and die of ketoacidosis. In contrast, mice lacking insulin receptors in specific cell types as a result of conditional mutagenesis develop mild metabolic and reproductive abnormalities. These experiments have uncovered novel functions of insulin receptors in tissues such as brain and pancreatic beta-cells. Combined knockout studies of insulin and Igf1 receptors indicate that the insulin receptor also promotes embryonic growth. Experimental crosses of mice with insulin receptor haploinsufficiency have been instrumental to the genetic analysis of insulin action by enabling us to assign specific roles to different insulin receptor substrates and identify novel elements in insulin signaling.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142540
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  • 115
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    1 (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003) 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.32.010103.100001
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  • 116
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    GENDER AND INEQUALITY IN THE GLOBAL LABOR FORCE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 41-62 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: This review examines the convergence of recent anthropological interests in gender, labor, and globalization. Attention to gender and gender inequality offers a productive strategy for the analysis of globalizing processes and their local variations and contestations. Contemporary ethnographic research explores multiple dimensions of labor and gender inequalities in the global economy: gendered patterns of labor recruitment and discipline, the transnational mobility and commodification of reproductive labor, and the gendered effects of international structural adjustment programs, among others. New and continuing research explores the diverse meanings and practices that produce a gendered global labor force, incorporating the perspectives of men and women, masculinities and femininities, and examines how these processes of gender and labor inequality articulate with other structures of subordination (such as ethnicity and nationality) to shape lived experiences of work and livelihood, exploitation and struggle, around the world.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093107
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  • 117
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY AND HUMAN EVOLUTION* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 85-109 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Our understanding of developmental biology burgeoned during the last decade. This review summarizes recent advances, provides definitions and explanations of some basic principles, and does so in a way that will aid anthropologists in understanding their profound implications. Crucial concepts, such as developmental fields, selector and realizator genes, cell signaling mechanisms, and gene regulatory elements are briefly described and then integrated with the emergence of skeletal morphology. For the postcranium, a summary of events from limb bud formation, the appearance of anlagen, the expression of Hox genes, and the fundamentals of growth plate dynamics are briefly summarized. Of particular importance are revelations that bony morphology is largely determined by pattern formation, that growth foci such as physes and synovial joints appear to be regulated principally by positional information, and that variation in these fields is most likely determined by cis-regulatory elements acting on restricted numbers of anabolic genes downstream of selectors (such as Hox). The implications of these discoveries for the interpretation of both contemporary and ancient human skeletal morphology are profound. One of the most salient is that strain transduction now appears to play a much reduced role in shaping the human skeleton. Indeed, the entirety of "Wolff's Law" must now be reassessed in light of new knowledge about pattern formation. The review concludes with a brief discussion of some implications of these findings, including their impact on cladistics and homology, as well as on biomechanical and morphometric analyses of both ancient and modern human skeletal material.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093223
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  • 118
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE SOCIAL BRAIN: Mind, Language, and Society in Evolutionary Perspective (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 163-181 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: The social brain (or Machiavellian Intelligence) hypothesis was proposed to explain primates' unusually large brains: It argues that the cognitive demands of living in complexly bonded social groups selected for increases in executive brain (principally neocortex). The evidence for this and alternative hypotheses is reviewed. Although there remain difficulties of interpretation, the bulk of the evidence comes down in favor of the social brain hypothesis. The extent to which the cognitive demands of bonding large intensely social groups involve aspects of social cognition, such as theory of mind, is explored. These findings are then related to the evolution of social group size, language, and culture within the hominid lineage.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093158
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  • 119
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    HOLOCENE EARTHQUAKE RECORDS FROM THE CASCADIA SUBDUCTION ZONE AND NORTHERN SAN ANDREAS FAULT BASED ON PRECISE DATING OF OFFSHORE TURBIDITES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 555-577 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract We present preliminary evidence for a ~10,000-year earthquake record from two major fault systems based on sediment cores collected along the continental margins of western North America. New stratigraphic evidence from Cascadia demonstrates that 13 earthquakes ruptured the entire margin from Vancouver Island to at least the California border since the eruption of the Mazama ash 7700 years ago. The 13 events above this prominent stratigraphic marker have an average repeat time of 600 years, and the youngest event ~300 years ago coincides with the coastal record. We also extend the record of past earthquakes to the base of the Holocene (at least 9800 years ago), during which 18 events correlate along the same region. The sequence of Holocene events in Cascadia appears to contain a repeating pattern of events, a tantalizing first look at what may be the long-term behavior of a major fault system. The northern California margin cores show a cyclic record of turbidite beds that may represent Holocene earthquakes on the northern segment of the San Andreas Fault. Preliminary results are in reasonably good agreement with onshore paleoseismic data that indicate an age for the penultimate event in the mid-1600s at several sites and the most likely age for the third event of ~AD 1300.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141246
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  • 120
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    RHEOLOGY OF GRANITIC MAGMAS DURING ASCENT AND EMPLACEMENT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 399-427 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in understanding the static rheological properties of granitic magmas in the continental crust. Changes in H2O content, CO2 content, and oxidation state of the interstitial melt phase have been identified as important compositional factors governing the rheodynamic behavior of the solid/fluid mixture. Although the strengths of granitic magmas over the crystallization interval are still poorly constrained, theoretical investigations suggest that during magma ascent, yield strengths of the order of 9 kPa are required to completely retard the upward flow in meter-wide conduits. In low Bagnold number magma suspensions with moderate crystal contents (solidosities 0.1 〈=phi〈= 0.3), viscous fluctuations may lead to flow differentiation by shear-enhanced diffusion. AMS and microstructural studies support the idea that granite plutons are intruded as crystal-poor liquids (phi〈= 50%), with fabric and foliation development restricted to the final stages of emplacement. If so, then these fabrics contain no information on the ascent (vertical transport) history of the magma. Deformation of a magmatic mush during pluton emplacement can enhance significantly the pressure gradient in the melt, resulting in a range of local macroscopic flow structures, including layering, crystal alignment, and other mechanical instabilities such as shear zones. As the suspension viscosity varies with stress rate, it is not clear how the timing of proposed rheological transitions formulated from simple equations for static magma suspensions applies to mixtures undergoing shear. New theories of magmas as multiphase flows are required if the full complexity of granitic magma rheology is to be resolved.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141352
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  • 121
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    Digitale Medien
    IS EL NINO SPORADIC OR CYCLIC? (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 579-594 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Is El Nino one phase of a continual, self-sustaining natural mode of the coupled ocean-atmosphere that has La Nina as the complementary phase? Or is El Nino a temporary departure from "normal" conditions "triggered" by a random disturbance such as a burst of westerly winds? A growing body of evidence-stability analyses, studies of the energetics, simulations that reproduce the statistics of sea surface temperature variations in the eastern equatorial Pacific-indicates that reality corresponds to a compromise between these two possibilities: The observed Southern Oscillation between El Nino and La Nina corresponds to a weakly damped mode that is sustained by random disturbances. This means that the predictability of El Nino is limited by the continual presence of "noise" so that forecasts should be probabilistic. The Southern Oscillation is also subject to decadal modulations. How it will be influenced by global warming is a matter of considerable uncertainty.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141255
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  • 122
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CODING OF AUDITORY SPACE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 31-55 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Behavioral, anatomical, and physiological approaches can be integrated in the study of sound localization in barn owls. Space representation in owls provides a useful example for discussion of place and ensemble coding. Selectivity for space is broad and ambiguous in low-order neurons. Parallel pathways for binaural cues and for different frequency bands converge on high-order space-specific neurons, which encode space more precisely. An ensemble of broadly tuned place-coding neurons may converge on a single high-order neuron to create an improved labeled line. Thus, the two coding schemes are not alternate methods. Owls can localize sounds by using either the isomorphic map of auditory space in the midbrain or forebrain neural networks in which space is not mapped.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131123
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  • 123
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    Digitale Medien
    EPIDEMIOLOGY OF NEURODEGENERATION (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 81-104 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motor neuron disease share a propensity to occur with increasing age and as either a sporadic or a familial disorder. A number of behavioral and environmental risk factors have been proposed for each disorder, but most associations lack consistency and specificity. Over the last decade the remarkable frequency of these disorders has become apparent, and the identification of mutations in genes has provided the means to understand their pathogenesis. Better and more accurate means to characterize and diagnose these diseases has greatly facilitated analytic epidemiology. The analysis of behavioral and genetic factors that may lower disease risk has led to clinical trials that are either in progress or being planned with the aim of preventing these disorders.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.043002.094919
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  • 124
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    Digitale Medien
    DECIPHERING THE GENETIC BASIS OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 57-80 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract A significant number of individuals have unexplained difficulties with acquiring normal speech and language, despite adequate intelligence and environmental stimulation. Although developmental disorders of speech and language are heritable, the genetic basis is likely to involve several, possibly many, different risk factors. Investigations of a unique three-generation family showing monogenic inheritance of speech and language deficits led to the isolation of the first such gene on chromosome 7, which encodes a transcription factor known as FOXP2. Disruption of this gene causes a rare severe speech and language disorder but does not appear to be involved in more common forms of language impairment. Recent genome-wide scans have identified at least four chromosomal regions that may harbor genes influencing the latter, on chromosomes 2, 13, 16, and 19. The molecular genetic approach has potential for dissecting neurological pathways underlying speech and language disorders, but such investigations are only just beginning.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131144
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  • 125
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF VISUAL-SACCADIC DECISION MAKING (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 133-179 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Over the past two decades significant progress has been made toward understanding the neural basis of primate decision making, the biological process that combines sensory data with stored information to select and execute behavioral responses. The most striking progress in this area has been made in studies of visual-saccadic decision making, a system that is becoming a model for understanding decision making in general. In this system, theoretical models of efficient decision making developed in the social sciences are beginning to be used to describe the computations the brain must perform when it connects sensation and action. Guided in part by these economic models, neurophysiologists have been able to describe neuronal activity recorded from the brains of awake-behaving primates during actual decision making. These recent studies have examined the neural basis of decisions, ranging from those made in predictable sensorimotor tasks to those unpredictable decisions made when animals are engaged in strategic conflict. All of these experiments seem to describe a surprisingly well-integrated set of physiological mechanisms that can account for a broad range of behavioral phenomena. This review presents many of these recent studies within the emerging neuroeconomic framework for understanding primate decision making.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.010302.081134
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  • 126
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE DIVERSITY AND FUNCTION OF NEURONAL IMMUNOGLOBULIN SUPERFAMILY MOLECULES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 207-238 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) proteins are implicated in diverse steps of brain development, including neuronal migration, axon pathfinding, target recognition and synapse formation, as well as in the maintenance and function of neuronal networks in the adult. We provide here a review of recent findings on the diversity and the role of transmembrane and secreted members of IgSF proteins in the nervous system. We illustrate that the complexity of IgSF protein function results from various different levels of regulation including regulation of gene expression, protein localization, and protein interactions.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131014
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  • 127
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    Digitale Medien
    HUMAN NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASE MODELING USING DROSOPHILA* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 26 (2003), S. 627-656 
    Details
    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract A number of approaches have been taken to recreate and to study the role of genes associated with human neurodegenerative diseases in the model organism Drosophila. These studies encompass the polyglutamine diseases, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and tau-associated pathologies. The findings highlight Drosophila as an important model system in which to study the fundamental pathways influenced by these genes and have led to new insights into aspects of pathogenesis and modifier mechanisms.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131425
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  • 128
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    Digitale Medien
    TRANSFER CELLS: Cells Specialized for a Special Purpose (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 431-454 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Transfer cells are plant cells with secondary wall ingrowths. These cells are ubiquitous, occurring in all plant taxonomic groups and in algae and fungi. Transfer cells form from differentiated cells across developmental windows and in response to stress. They are considered to play a central role in nutrient distribution by facilitating high rates of transport at bottlenecks for apo-/symplasmic solute exchange. These properties are conferred by their unique structural features-an invaginated secondary wall ensheathed by an amplified area of plasma membrane enriched in a suite of solute transporters. Recent development of transfer cell experimental systems, combined with technologies to image the three-dimensional structure of wall ingrowths, is allowing identification of inductive and regulatory signals, discovery of sequential processes involved in their differentiation, and a search for transfer cell identity genes. A model of key events in differentiation of a transfer cell is presented to highlight areas for future investigation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134812
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  • 129
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    APOMIXIS: A Developmental Perspective (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 547-574 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The term apomixis encompasses a suite of processes whereby seeds form asexually in plants. In contrast to sexual reproduction, seedlings arising from apomixis retain the genotype of the maternal parent. The transfer of apomixis and its effective utilization in crop plants (where it is largely absent) has major advantages in agriculture. The hallmark components of apomixis include female gamete formation without meiosis (apomeiosis), fertilization-independent embryo development (parthenogenesis), and developmental adaptations to ensure functional endosperm formation. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying apomixis, a developmentally fascinating phenomenon in plants, is critical for the successful induction and utilization of apomixis in crop plants. This review draws together knowledge gained from analyzing ovule, embryo, and endosperm development in sexual and apomictic plants. It consolidates the view that apomixis and sexuality are closely interrelated developmental pathways where apomixis can be viewed as a deregulation of the sexual process in both time and space.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.110901.160842
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  • 130
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    Digitale Medien
    UNDERSTANDING THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT DISEASE RESISTANCE PROTEINS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 23-61 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Many disease resistance (R) proteins of plants detect the presence of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, or fungi by recognizing specific pathogen effector molecules that are produced during the infection process. Effectors are often pathogen proteins that probably evolved to subvert various host processes for promotion of the pathogen life cycle. Five classes of effector-specific R proteins are known, and their sequences suggest roles in both effector recognition and signal transduction. Although some R proteins may act as primary receptors of pathogen effector proteins, most appear to play indirect roles in this process. The functions of various R proteins require phosphorylation, protein degradation, or specific localization within the host cell. Some signaling components are shared by many R gene pathways whereas others appear to be pathway specific. New technologies arising from the genomics and proteomics revolution will greatly expand our ability to investigate the role of R proteins in plant disease resistance.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.135035
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  • 131
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    Digitale Medien
    PHOSPHOLIPID-BASED SIGNALING IN PLANTS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 265-306 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Phospholipids are emerging as novel second messengers in plant cells. They are rapidly formed in response to a variety of stimuli via the activation of lipid kinases or phospholipases. These lipid signals can activate enzymes or recruit proteins to membranes via distinct lipid-binding domains, where the local increase in concentration promotes interactions and downstream signaling. Here, the latest developments in phospholipid-based signaling are discussed, including the lipid kinases and phospholipases that are activated, the signals they produce, the domains that bind them, the downstream targets that contain them and the processes they control.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134748
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  • 132
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    Digitale Medien
    SINGLE-NUCLEOTIDE MUTATIONS FOR PLANT FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 375-401 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract In the present genomics era, powerful reverse-genetic strategies are needed to elucidate gene and protein function in the context of a whole organism. However, most current techniques lack the generality and high-throughput potential of descriptive genomic approaches, such as those that rely on microarray hybridization. For example, in plant research, effective insertional mutagenesis and transgenic methods are limited to relatively few species or are inefficient. Fortunately, single-nucleotide changes can be induced in any plant by using traditional chemical mutagens, and progress has been made in efficiently detecting changes. Because base substitutions in proteins provide allelic series, and not just knockouts, this strategy can yield refined insights into protein function. Here, we review recent progress that has been made in genome-wide screening for point mutations and natural variation in plants. Its general applicability leads to the expectation that traditional mutagenesis followed by high-throughput detection will become increasingly important for plant functional genomics.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.135009
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  • 133
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    LIGNIN BIOSYNTHESIS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 519-546 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The lignin biosynthetic pathway has been studied for more than a century but has undergone major revisions over the past decade. Significant progress has been made in cloning new genes by genetic and combined bioinformatics and biochemistry approaches. In vitro enzymatic assays and detailed analyses of mutants and transgenic plants altered in the expression of lignin biosynthesis genes have provided a solid basis for redrawing the monolignol biosynthetic pathway, and structural analyses have shown that plant cell walls can tolerate large variations in lignin content and structure. In some cases, the potential value for agriculture of transgenic plants with modified lignin structure has been demonstrated. This review presents a current picture of monolignol biosynthesis, polymerization, and lignin structure.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938
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  • 134
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    Digitale Medien
    METABOLOMICS IN SYSTEMS BIOLOGY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 669-689 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The primary aim of "omic" technologies is the nontargeted identification of all gene products (transcripts, proteins, and metabolites) present in a specific biological sample. By their nature, these technologies reveal unexpected properties of biological systems. A second and more challenging aspect of omic technologies is the refined analysis of quantitative dynamics in biological systems. For metabolomics, gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry are well suited for coping with high sample numbers in reliable measurement times with respect to both technical accuracy and the identification and quantitation of small-molecular-weight metabolites. This potential is a prerequisite for the analysis of dynamic systems. Thus, metabolomics is a key technology for systems biology. The aim of this review is to (a) provide an in-depth overview about metabolomic technology, (b) explore how metabolomic networks can be connected to the underlying reaction pathway structure, and (c) discuss the need to investigate integrative biochemical networks.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.135014
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  • 135
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    Digitale Medien
    PROTEIN PHOSPHATASES IN PLANTS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 63-92 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of a protein often serve as an "on-and-off" switch in the regulation of cellular activities. Recent studies demonstrate the involvement of protein phosphorylation in almost all signaling pathways in plants. A significant portion of the sequenced Arabidopsis genome encodes protein kinases and protein phosphatases that catalyze reversible phosphorylation. For optimal regulation, kinases and phosphatases must strike a balance in any given cell. Only a very small fraction of the thousands of protein kinases and phosphatases in plants has been studied experimentally. Nevertheless, the available results have demonstrated critical functions for these enzymes in plant growth and development. While serine/threonine phosphorylation is widely accepted as a predominant modification of plant proteins, the function of tyrosine phosphorylation, despite its overwhelming importance in animal systems, had been largely neglected until recently when tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) were characterized from plants. This review focuses on the structure, regulation, and function of protein phosphatases in higher plants.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134743
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  • 136
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    IRON TRANSPORT AND SIGNALING IN PLANTS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 183-206 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Cellular and whole organism iron homeostasis must be balanced to supply enough iron for metabolism and to avoid excessive, toxic levels. To perform iron uptake from the environment, iron distribution to various organs and tissues, and iron intracellular compartmentalization, various membranes must be crossed by this metal. The uptake and transport of iron under physiological conditions require particular processes such as chelation or reduction because ferric iron has a very low solubility. The molecular actors involved in iron acquisition from the soil have recently been characterized. A few candidates belonging to various gene families are hypothesized to play major roles in iron distribution throughout the plant. All these transport activities are tightly regulated at transcriptional and posttranslational levels, according to the iron status of the plant. These coordinated regulations result from an integration of local and long-distance transduction pathways.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.135018
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  • 137
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    Digitale Medien
    GIBBERELLINS AND FLOWERING OF GRASSES AND CEREALS: Prizing Open the Lid of the "Florigen" Black Box (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 307-328 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Comprehensive studies in grasses show that gibberellins (GAs) play a role as a florigen. For Lolium temulentum, which flowers in response to a single long day (LD), GAs are a transmitted signal, their content increasing in the leaf early in the LD and then, hours later, at the shoot apex. There is a continuous trail of evidence of hormonal action of these GAs for L. temulentum and support for a similar role in the flowering of other LD-responsive temperate grasses and cereals. A characteristic of the initial flowering responses of grasses and cereals is their limited stem elongation. Interestingly, it is GAs with low effectiveness for stem elongation, GA5 and GA6, that reach the shoot apex and, structurally, are probably not degraded by 2-oxidase enzymes. By contrast, GA1 and GA4 cause stem elongation, may be inactive for floral evocation, and do not reach the vegetative shoot apex apparently because of susceptibility to degradation. However, GA4 can be florally active if protected against 2-oxidases either structurally or by using a 2-oxidase inhibitor. Later in inflorescence development, GA1 and GA4 can be detected at the shoot apex and are florally active if applied. The 2-oxidase restricting accessibility to the apex has probably declined at this time so there is a second florigenic, LD-regulated GA action. A growing body of molecular evidence supporting these actions of GA may provide a future basis for manipulating flowering of grasses and cereals.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.135029
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  • 138
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    Digitale Medien
    PHOTOSYNTHESIS OF OVERWINTERING EVERGREEN PLANTS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 329-355 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract In this review we focus on photosynthetic behavior of overwintering evergreens with an emphasis on both the acclimative responses of photosynthesis to cold and the winter behavior of photosynthesis in conifers. Photosynthetic acclimation is discussed in terms of the requirement for a balance between the energy absorbed through largely temperature-insensitive photochemical processes and the energy used for temperature-sensitive biochemical processes and growth. Cold acclimation transforms the xanthophyll-mediated nonphotochemical antenna quenching of absorbed light from a short-term dynamic response to a long-term sustained quenching for the whole winter period. This acclimative response helps protect the evergreen foliage from photooxidative damage during the winter when photosynthesis is restricted or prevented by low temperatures. Although the molecular mechanisms behind the sustained winter excitation quenching are largely unknown, it does involve major alterations in the organization and composition of the photosystem II antenna. In addition, photosystem I may play an important role in overwintering evergreens not only by quenching absorbed light photochemically via its support of cyclic electron transport at low temperatures, but also by nonphotochemical quenching of absorbed light irrespective of temperature. The possible role of photosystem II reaction centers in nonphotochemical quenching of absorbed energy in overwintering evergreens is also discussed. Processes like chlororespiration and cyclic electron transport may also be important for maintaining the functional integrity of the photosynthetic apparatus of overwintering evergreens both during periods of thawing in winter and during recovery from winter stress in spring. We suggest that the photosynthetic acclimation responses of overwintering evergreens represent specific evolutionary adaptations for plant species that invest in the long-term maintenance of leaf structure in cold climatic zones as exemplified by the boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.072402.115741
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  • 139
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    Digitale Medien
    MOLECULAR MECHANISMS AND REGULATION OF K+ TRANSPORT IN HIGHER PLANTS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 575-603 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Potassium (K+) plays a number of important roles in plant growth and development. Over the past few years, molecular approaches associated with electrophysiological analyses have greatly advanced our understanding of K+ transport in plants. A large number of genes encoding K+ transport systems have been identified, revealing a high level of complexity. Characterization of some transport systems is providing exciting information at the molecular level on functions such as root K+ uptake and secretion into the xylem sap, K+ transport in guard cells, or K+ influx into growing pollen tubes. In this review, we take stock of this recent molecular information. The main families of plant K+ transport systems (Shaker and KCO channels, KUP/HAK/KT and HKT transporters) are described, along with molecular data on how these systems are regulated. Finally, we discuss a few physiological questions on which molecular studies have shed new light.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134831
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  • 140
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    Digitale Medien
    FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS OF P450S (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 629-667 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Plant systems utilize a diverse array of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) in their biosynthetic and detoxicative pathways. Those P450s in biosynthetic pathways play critical roles in the synthesis of lignins, UV protectants, pigments, defense compounds, fatty acids, hormones, and signaling molecules. Those in catabolic pathways participate in the breakdown of endogenous compounds and toxic compounds encountered in the environment. Because of their roles in this wide diversity of metabolic processes, plant P450 proteins and transcripts can serve as downstream reporters for many different biochemical pathways responding to chemical, developmental, and environmental cues. This review focuses initially on defining P450 biochemistries, nomenclature systems, and the relationships between genes in the extended P450 superfamily that exists in all plant species. Subsequently, it focuses on outlining the many approaches being used to assign function to individual P450 proteins and gene loci. The examples of assigned P450 activities that are spread throughout this review highlight the importance of understanding and utilizing P450 sequences as markers for linking biochemical pathway responses to physiological processes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134840
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  • 141
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    CRYPTOCHROME STRUCTURE AND SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 54 (2003), S. 469-496 
    Details
    ISSN: 1040-2519
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Cryptochromes are photosensory receptors mediating light regulation of growth and development in plants. Since the isolation of the Arabidopsis CRY1 gene in 1993, cryptochromes have been found in every multicellular eukaryote examined. Most plant cryptochromes have a chromophore-binding domain that shares similar structure with DNA photolyase, and a carboxyl terminal extension that contains a DQXVP-acidic-STAES (DAS) domain conserved from moss, to fern, to angiosperm. In Arabidopsis, cryptochromes are nuclear proteins that mediate light control of stem elongation, leaf expansion, photoperiodic flowering, and the circadian clock. Cryptochromes may act by interacting with proteins such as phytochromes, COP1, and clock proteins, or/and chromatin and DNA. Recent studies suggest that cryptochromes undergo a blue light-dependent phosphorylation that affects the conformation, intermolecular interactions, physiological activities, and protein abundance of the photoreceptors.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.110901.160901
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  • 142
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PATTERNS OF HUMAN GENETIC DIVERSITY: Implications for Human Evolutionary History and Disease (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 293-340 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Since the completion of the human genome sequencing project, the discovery and characterization of human genetic variation is a principal focus for future research. Comparative studies across ethnically diverse human populations and across human and nonhuman primate species is important for reconstructing human evolutionary history and for understanding the genetic basis of human disease. In this review, we summarize data on patterns of human genetic diversity and the evolutionary forces (mutation, genetic drift, migration, and selection) that have shaped these patterns of variation across both human populations and the genome. African population samples typically have higher levels of genetic diversity, a complex population substructure, and low levels of linkage disequilibrium (LD) relative to non-African populations. We discuss these differences and their implications for mapping disease genes and for understanding how population and genomic diversity have been important in the evolution, differentiation, and adaptation of humans.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110226
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  • 143
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    HUMAN NONSYNDROMIC SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 341-402 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Given the unique biological requirements of sound transduction and the selective advantage conferred upon a species capable of sensitive sound detection, it is not surprising that up to 1% of the approximately 30,000 or more human genes are necessary for hearing. There are hundreds of monogenic disorders for which hearing loss is one manifestation of a syndrome or the only disorder and therefore is nonsyndromic. Herein we review the supporting evidence for identifying over 30 genes for dominantly and recessively inherited, nonsyndromic, sensorineural deafness. The state of knowledge concerning their biological roles is discussed in the context of the controversies within an evolving understanding of the intricate molecular machinery of the inner ear.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110347
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  • 144
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE GENETICS OF NARCOLEPSY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 459-483 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Human narcolepsy is a genetically complex disorder. Family studies indicate a 20-40 times increased risk of narcolepsy in first-degree relatives and twin studies suggest that nongenetic factors also play a role. The tight association between narcolepsy-cataplexy and the HLA allele DQB1*0602 suggests that narcolepsy has an autoimmune etiology. In recent years, extensive genetic studies in animals, using positional cloning in dogs and gene knockouts in mice, have identified abnormalities in hypothalamic hypocretin (orexin) neurotransmission as key to narcolepsy pathophysiology. Though most patients with narcolepsy-cataplexy are hypocretin deficient, mutations or polymorphisms in hypocretin-related genes are extremely rare. It is anticipated that susceptibility genes that are independent of HLA and impinge on the hypocretin neurotransmitter system are isolated in human narcolepsy.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110432
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  • 145
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    RACE, ANCESTRY, AND GENES: Implications for Defining Disease Risk (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 33-67 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Geneticists are interested in finding genes associated with disease. Because of widespread health disparities, race is a variable that is often said to be relevant in this context. The idea is that members of a preconceived "race" share common ancestry that may include genetic risk factors. Human variation has been shaped by the long-term processes of population history, and population samples that reflect that history carry statistical information about shared genetic variation or "ancestry." But race is an elusive concept and a term difficult even to define rigorously. Unfortunately, these problems are neither new nor related to recent genetic knowledge. Race is also one of the most politically charged subjects in American life because its associated sociocultural component has notoriously led to categorical treatment that has been misleading and politically misused. There are ways in which the concept of race (whether or not the term is used) can be a legitimate tool in the search for disease-associated genes. But in that context race reflects deeply confounded cultural as well as biological factors, and a careful distinction must be made between race as a statistical risk factor and causal genetic variables.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110356
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  • 146
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    GENETICS OF HUMAN LATERALITY DISORDERS: Insights from Vertebrate Model Systems (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 1-32 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Many internal organs in the vertebrate body are asymmetrically oriented along the left-right (L-R) body axis. Organ asymmetry and some components of the molecular signaling pathways that direct L-R development are highly conserved among vertebrate species. Although individuals with full reversal of organ L-R asymmetry (situs inversus totalis) are healthy, significant morbidity and mortality is associated with perturbations in laterality that result in discordant orientation of organ systems and complex congenital heart defects. In humans and other vertebrates, genetic alterations of L-R signaling pathways can result in a wide spectrum of laterality defects. In this review we categorize laterality defects in humans, mice, and zebrafish into specific classes based on altered patterns of asymmetric gene expression, organ situs defects, and midline phenotypes. We suggest that this classification system provides a conceptual framework to help consolidate the disparate laterality phenotypes reported in humans and vertebrate model organisms, thereby refining our understanding of the genetics of L-R development. This approach helps suggest candidate genes and genetic pathways that might be perturbed in human laterality disorders and improves diagnostic criteria.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110428
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  • 147
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER GENOME (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 89-117 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Drosophila's importance as a model organism made it an obvious choice to be among the first genomes sequenced, and the Release 1 sequence of the euchromatic portion of the genome was published in March 2000. This accomplishment demonstrated that a whole genome shotgun (WGS) strategy could produce a reliable metazoan genome sequence. Despite the attention to sequencing methods, the nucleotide sequence is just the starting point for genome-wide analyses; at a minimum, the genome sequence must be interpreted using expressed sequence tag (EST) and complementary DNA (cDNA) evidence and computational tools to identify genes and predict the structures of their RNA and protein products. The functions of these products and the manner in which their expression and activities are controlled must then be assessed-a much more challenging task with no clear endpoint that requires a wide variety of experimental and computational methods. We first review the current state of the Drosophila melanogaster genome sequence and its structural annotation and then briefly summarize some promising approaches that are being taken to achieve an initial functional annotation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110323
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  • 148
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF PANCREATIC CANCER (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 237-256 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Pancreatic cancer is an almost universally fatal disease, with a five-year survival rate of 5%. Research into both sporadic and inherited forms of pancreatic cancer has yielded tremendous advances in the understanding of this disease at the molecular level. Elucidating genetic alterations in pancreatic cancer has identified various abnormalities ranging from gross chromosomal abnormalities to point mutations, many of which influence the development and progression of pancreatic cancer. Identifying precursor lesions within pancreatic ducts has led to the formulation of a progression model of pancreatic cancer and subsequent identification of early- and late-stage changes leading to invasive cancer. Ultimately, understanding the genetic events underlying the development of pancreatic cancer may serve as a useful adjunct in the screening and treatment of patients suffering from, or at risk for, pancreatic cancer.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110341
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  • 149
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    NONSYNDROMIC SEIZURE DISORDERS: Epilepsy and the Use of the Internet to Advance Research (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 437-457 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: The progress in understanding the genetics of nonsyndromic epilepsy is the direct result of dramatic advances made by the Human Genome Project. The development of thousands of precisely mapped genetic markers and the nearly complete sequencing of the entire human genome in 2001 allowed genetic researchers in epilepsy to identify many loci and genes as causal in inherited idiopathic epilepsy. This substantial increase in information has required the development of accurate and online bioinformatic databases. Only the Internet can enable such large amounts of precise DNA sequence information to be transferred to researchers. Along with the construction of these databases has been the development of efficient search algorithms for specific DNA sequences and genetic information. This article summarizes the effect that this burst of new genomic information has had on research aimed at discovering the underlying genetic factors for nonsyndromic epilepsy. Many of the web sites important to epilepsy gene discovery are listed and discussed in this article, including sites with extensive information on genetic markers, genetic analysis, gene sequence, gene expression, gene mutations, and DNA sequence variation. Continued acquisition of information on naturally occurring DNA sequence variants will greatly help research directed towards understanding the genetic susceptibility of the common, nonsyndromic epilepsies and will lead to the promise of personalized medicine.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.071902.102155
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  • 150
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    GENE ANNOTATION: PREDICTION AND TESTING (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 69-88 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Fifty years after the publication of DNA structure, the whole human genome sequence will be officially finished. This achievement marks the beginning of the task to catalogue every human gene and identify each of their function expression patterns. Currently, researchers estimate that there are about 30,000 human genes and approximately 70% of these can be automatically predicted using a combination of ab initio and similarity-based programs. However, to experimentally investigate every gene's function, the research community requires a high-quality annotation of alternative splicing, pseudogenes, and promoter regions that can only be provided by manual intervention. Manual curation of the human genome will be a long-term project as experimental data are continually produced to confirm or refine the predictions, and new features such as noncoding RNAs and enhancers have not been fully identified. Such a highly curated human gene-set made publicly available will be a great asset for the experimental community and for future comparative genome projects.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110300
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  • 151
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    FORENSICS AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA: Applications, Debates, and Foundations* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 119-141 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Debate on the validity and reliability of scientific methods often arises in the courtroom. When the government (i.e., the prosecution) is the proponent of evidence, the defense is obliged to challenge its admissibility. Regardless, those who seek to use DNA typing methodologies to analyze forensic biological evidence have a responsibility to understand the technology and its applications so a proper foundation(s) for its use can be laid. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), an extranuclear genome, has certain features that make it desirable for forensics, namely, high copy number, lack of recombination, and matrilineal inheritance. mtDNA typing has become routine in forensic biology and is used to analyze old bones, teeth, hair shafts, and other biological samples where nuclear DNA content is low. To evaluate results obtained by sequencing the two hypervariable regions of the control region of the human mtDNA genome, one must consider the genetically related issues of nomenclature, reference population databases, heteroplasmy, paternal leakage, recombination, and, of course, interpretation of results. We describe the approaches, the impact some issues may have on interpretation of mtDNA analyses, and some issues raised in the courtroom.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110352
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  • 152
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE INHERITED BASIS OF DIABETES MELLITUS: Implications for the Genetic Analysis of Complex Traits (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 257-291 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Diabetes encompasses a heterogeneous group of diseases, each with a substantial genetic component. We review the division of diabetes into different subtypes based on clinical phenotype, the fruitful pursuit of genes underlying monogenic forms of the disease, the successes and drawbacks of whole-genome linkage scans in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and the recent identification of several diabetes genes by large association studies. We use the lessons learned from this extensive body of evidence to illustrate general implications for the genetic analysis of complex traits.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110436
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  • 153
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    PATTERNS OF HUMAN GENETIC DIVERSITY: Implications for Human Evolutionary History and Disease (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 293-340 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Since the completion of the human genome sequencing project, the discovery and characterization of human genetic variation is a principal focus for future research. Comparative studies across ethnically diverse human populations and across human and nonhuman primate species is important for reconstructing human evolutionary history and for understanding the genetic basis of human disease. In this review, we summarize data on patterns of human genetic diversity and the evolutionary forces (mutation, genetic drift, migration, and selection) that have shaped these patterns of variation across both human populations and the genome. African population samples typically have higher levels of genetic diversity, a complex population substructure, and low levels of linkage disequilibrium (LD) relative to non-African populations. We discuss these differences and their implications for mapping disease genes and for understanding how population and genomic diversity have been important in the evolution, differentiation, and adaptation of humans.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110226
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  • 154
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    STRUCTURAL, FUNCTIONAL, AND MOLECULAR MR IMAGING OF THE MICROVASCULATURE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 29-56 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is widely applied for functional imaging of the microcirculation and for functional and structural studies of the microvasculature. The interest in the capabilities of MRI in noninvasively monitoring changes in vascular structure and function expanded over the past years, with specific efforts directed toward the development of novel imaging methods for quantification of angiogenesis. Molecular imaging approaches hold promise for further expansion of the ability to characterize the microvasculature. Exciting applications for MRI are emerging in the study of the biology of microvessels and in the evaluation of potential pharmaceutical modulators of vascular function and development, and preclinical MRI tools can serve for the design of mechanism-of-action-based noninvasive clinical methods for monitoring response to therapy. The aim of this review is to provide a current snapshot of recent developments in this rapidly evolving field.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121606
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  • 155
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    TEMPORAL DYNAMICS OF BRAIN ANATOMY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 119-145 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The brain changes profoundly in structure and function during development and as a result of diseases such as the dementias, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, and tumor growth. Strategies to measure, map, and visualize these brain changes are of immense value in basic and clinical neuroscience. Algorithms that map brain change with sufficient spatial and temporal sensitivity can also assess drugs that aim to decelerate or arrest these changes. In neuroscience studies, these tools can reveal subtle brain changes in adolescence and old age and link these changes with measurable differences in brain function and cognition. Early detection of brain change in patients at risk for dementia; tumor recurrence; or relapsing-remitting conditions, such as multiple sclerosis, is also vital for optimizing therapy. We review a variety of mathematical and computational approaches to detect structural brain change with unprecedented sensitivity, both spatially and temporally. The resulting four-dimensional (4-D) maps of brain anatomy are warehoused in population-based brain atlases. Here, statistical tools compare brain changes across subjects and across populations, adjusting for complex differences in brain structure. Brain changes in an individual can be compared with a normative database comprised of subjects matched for age, gender, and other demographic factors. These dynamic brain maps offer key biological markers for understanding disease progression and testing therapeutic response. The early detection of disease-related brain changes is also critical for possible pre-emptive intervention before the ravages of disease have set in.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121611
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  • 156
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    COCHLEAR IMPLANTS: Some Likely Next Steps* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 207-249 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The history of cochlear implants is marked by large improvements in performance, especially over the past two decades and especially due to the development of ever-better processing strategies. Although the progress to date has been substantial, present devices still do not restore normal speech reception, even for top performers and particularly for listening to speech in competition with noise or other talkers. In addition, a wide range of outcomes persists, with some patients receiving little benefit using the same devices that support high levels of speech reception for others. The purpose of this review is to describe some likely possibilities for further improvement, including (a) combined electric and acoustic stimulation of the auditory system for patients with significant residual hearing, (b) use of bilateral implants, (c) a closer replication with implants of the processing steps in the normal cochlea, and (d) applications of knowledge about factors that are correlated with outcomes to help patients presently at the low end of the performance scale.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121645
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  • 157
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    NEURAL TISSUE ENGINEERING: Strategies for Repair and Regeneration (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 293-347 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Nerve regeneration is a complex biological phenomenon. In the peripheral nervous system, nerves can regenerate on their own if injuries are small. Larger injuries must be surgically treated, typically with nerve grafts harvested from elsewhere in the body. Spinal cord injury is more complicated, as there are factors in the body that inhibit repair. Unfortunately, a solution to completely repair spinal cord injury has not been found. Thus, bioengineering strategies for the peripheral nervous system are focused on alternatives to the nerve graft, whereas efforts for spinal cord injury are focused on creating a permissive environment for regeneration. Fortunately, recent advances in neuroscience, cell culture, genetic techniques, and biomaterials provide optimism for new treatments for nerve injuries. This article reviews the nervous system physiology, the factors that are critical for nerve repair, and the current approaches that are being explored to aid peripheral nerve regeneration and spinal cord repair.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120731
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  • 158
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    WATER USE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 275-314 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: Water managers and planners are slowly beginning to change their perspective and perceptions about how best to meet human needs for water; they are shifting from a focus on building supply infrastructure to improving their understanding of how water is used and how those uses can best be met. This review discusses definitions of water use, explores the history of water use around the world and in characteristic regions, identifies problems with collecting and analyzing water data, and addresses the question of improving water-use efficiency and productivity in different regions and economic sectors. There is growing interest on the part of water managers around the world to implement these approaches to lessen pressures on increasingly scarce water resources, reduce the adverse ecological effects of human withdrawals of water, and improve long-term sustainable water use.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.040202.122849
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  • 159
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    THE INHERITED BASIS OF DIABETES MELLITUS: Implications for the Genetic Analysis of Complex Traits (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 257-291 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Diabetes encompasses a heterogeneous group of diseases, each with a substantial genetic component. We review the division of diabetes into different subtypes based on clinical phenotype, the fruitful pursuit of genes underlying monogenic forms of the disease, the successes and drawbacks of whole-genome linkage scans in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and the recent identification of several diabetes genes by large association studies. We use the lessons learned from this extensive body of evidence to illustrate general implications for the genetic analysis of complex traits.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110436
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  • 160
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    SEQUENCE DIVERGENCE, FUNCTIONAL CONSTRAINT, AND SELECTION IN PROTEIN EVOLUTION (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 213-235 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: The genome sequences of multiple species has enabled functional inferences from comparative genomics. A primary objective is to infer biological functions from the conservation of homologous DNA sequences between species. A second, more difficult, objective is to understand what functional DNA sequences have changed over time and are responsible for species' phenotypic differences. The neutral theory of molecular evolution provides a theoretical framework in which both objectives can be explicitly tested. Development of statistical tests within this framework has provided insight into the evolutionary forces that constrain and in some cases change DNA sequences and the resulting patterns that emerge. In this article, we review recent work on how functional constraint and changes in protein function are inferred from protein polymorphism and divergence data. We relate these studies to our understanding of the neutral theory and adaptive evolution.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.020303.162528
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  • 161
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    Digitale Medien
    HUMAN NONSYNDROMIC SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 341-402 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: Given the unique biological requirements of sound transduction and the selective advantage conferred upon a species capable of sensitive sound detection, it is not surprising that up to 1% of the approximately 30,000 or more human genes are necessary for hearing. There are hundreds of monogenic disorders for which hearing loss is one manifestation of a syndrome or the only disorder and therefore is nonsyndromic. Herein we review the supporting evidence for identifying over 30 genes for dominantly and recessively inherited, nonsyndromic, sensorineural deafness. The state of knowledge concerning their biological roles is discussed in the context of the controversies within an evolving understanding of the intricate molecular machinery of the inner ear.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110347
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  • 162
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    Digitale Medien
    NONSYNDROMIC SEIZURE DISORDERS: Epilepsy and the Use of the Internet to Advance Research (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003), S. 437-457 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Biologie
    Notizen: The progress in understanding the genetics of nonsyndromic epilepsy is the direct result of dramatic advances made by the Human Genome Project. The development of thousands of precisely mapped genetic markers and the nearly complete sequencing of the entire human genome in 2001 allowed genetic researchers in epilepsy to identify many loci and genes as causal in inherited idiopathic epilepsy. This substantial increase in information has required the development of accurate and online bioinformatic databases. Only the Internet can enable such large amounts of precise DNA sequence information to be transferred to researchers. Along with the construction of these databases has been the development of efficient search algorithms for specific DNA sequences and genetic information. This article summarizes the effect that this burst of new genomic information has had on research aimed at discovering the underlying genetic factors for nonsyndromic epilepsy. Many of the web sites important to epilepsy gene discovery are listed and discussed in this article, including sites with extensive information on genetic markers, genetic analysis, gene sequence, gene expression, gene mutations, and DNA sequence variation. Continued acquisition of information on naturally occurring DNA sequence variants will greatly help research directed towards understanding the genetic susceptibility of the common, nonsyndromic epilepsies and will lead to the promise of personalized medicine.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.071902.102155
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  • 163
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    Digitale Medien
    MASS TRANSPORT IN ARTERIES AND THE LOCALIZATION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 79-118 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Atherosclerosis is a disease of the large arteries that involves a characteristic accumulation of high-molecular-weight lipoprotein in the arterial wall. This review focuses on the mass transport processes that mediate the focal accumulation of lipid in arteries and places particular emphasis on the role of fluid mechanical forces in modulating mass transport phenomena. In the final analysis, four mass transport mechanisms emerge that may be important in the localization of atherosclerosis: blood phase controlled hypoxia, leaky endothelial junctions, transient intercellular junction remodeling, and convective clearance of the subendothelial intima and media. Further study of these mechanisms may contribute to the development of therapeutic strategies for atherosclerotic diseases.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121529
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  • 164
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    Digitale Medien
    SELECTED METHODS FOR IMAGING ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF BIOLOGICAL TISSUES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 57-78 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract For millennia, physicians have used palpation as a part of the physical examination to detect pathology. The ubiquitous presence of "stiffer" tissue associated with pathology often represents an early warning sign for disease, as in the cases of breast or prostate cancer. Very often tumors are found at surgery that were occult even with modern imaging instruments. This implies that methods for estimating "hardness" of tissues would add a weapon to the medical armamentarium. To this end, this review discusses several methods of estimating tissue hardness using internal or external means of applying stress (force per unit area) and several associated methods of detecting the resulting strain (fractional length change) in an effort to image a tissue mechanical property, such as Young's modulus (ratio of stress to strain). Some investigators have developed methods of estimating stiffness or modulus, but most methods result in qualitative images of stiffness. Nevertheless, such estimates may add a great deal of information not currently available to the current field of medical imaging.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121623
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  • 165
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    Digitale Medien
    THE ENGINEERING OF GENE REGULATORY NETWORKS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 179-206 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract The rapid accumulation of genetic information and advancement of experimental techniques have opened a new frontier in biomedical engineering. With the availability of well-characterized components from natural gene networks, the stage has been set for the engineering of artificial gene regulatory networks with sophisticated computational and functional capabilities. In these efforts, the ability to construct, analyze, and interpret qualitative and quantitative models is becoming increasingly important. In this review, we consider the current state of gene network engineering from a combined experimental and modeling perspective. We discuss how networks with increased complexity are being constructed from simple modular components and how quantitative deterministic and stochastic modeling of these modules may provide the foundation for accurate in silico representations of gene regulatory network function in vivo.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121553
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  • 166
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    Digitale Medien
    ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS FOR BIOPHOTONICS APPLICATIONS: Improving Sensing, Imaging, and Therapeutics (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 285-292 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Advances in chemistry and physics are providing an expanding array of nanostructured materials with unique and powerful optical properties. These nanomaterials provide a new set of tools that are available to biomedical engineers, biologists, and medical scientists who seek new tools as biosensors and probes of biological fluids, cells, and tissue chemistry and function. Nanomaterials are also being used to develop optically controlled devices for applications such as modulated drug delivery as well as optical therapeutics. This review discusses applications that have been successfully demonstrated using nanomaterials including semiconductor nanocrystals, gold nanoparticles, gold nanoshells, and silver plasmon resonant particles.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120723
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  • 167
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    Digitale Medien
    BIOMONITORING WITH WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 383-412 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Abstract Wireless biomonitoring, first used in human beings for fetal heart-rate monitoring more than 30 years ago, has now become a technology for remote sensing of patients' activity, blood pulse pressure, oxygen saturation, internal pressures, orthopedic device loading, and gastrointestinal endoscopy. Technical advances in miniaturization and wireless communications have enabled development of monitoring devices that can be made available for general use by individuals/patients and caregivers. New methods for short-range wireless communications not encumbered by radio spectrum restrictions (e.g., ultra-wideband) will enable applications of wireless monitoring without interference in ambulatory subjects, in home care, and in hospitals.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121653
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  • 168
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    Digitale Medien
    STRUCTURAL, FUNCTIONAL, AND MOLECULAR MR IMAGING OF THE MICROVASCULATURE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 29-56 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is widely applied for functional imaging of the microcirculation and for functional and structural studies of the microvasculature. The interest in the capabilities of MRI in noninvasively monitoring changes in vascular structure and function expanded over the past years, with specific efforts directed toward the development of novel imaging methods for quantification of angiogenesis. Molecular imaging approaches hold promise for further expansion of the ability to characterize the microvasculature. Exciting applications for MRI are emerging in the study of the biology of microvessels and in the evaluation of potential pharmaceutical modulators of vascular function and development, and preclinical MRI tools can serve for the design of mechanism-of-action-based noninvasive clinical methods for monitoring response to therapy. The aim of this review is to provide a current snapshot of recent developments in this rapidly evolving field.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121606
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  • 169
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    Digitale Medien
    MODELING TOTAL HEART FUNCTION (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 147-177 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Computational models of the electrical and mechanical function of the heart are reviewed. These models attempt to explain the integrated function of the heart in terms of ventricular anatomy, the structure and material properties of myocardial tissue, the membrane ion channels, and calcium handling and myofilament mechanics of cardiac myocytes. The models have established the computational framework for linking the structure and function of cardiac cells and tissue to the integrated behavior of the intact heart, but many more aspects of physiological function, including metabolic and signal transduction pathways, need to be included before significant progress can be made in understanding many disease processes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.040202.121537
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  • 170
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    Digitale Medien
    MULTIAXIAL MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 251-284 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: For native and engineered biological tissues, there exist many physiological, surgical, and medical device applications where multiaxial material characterization and modeling is required. Because biological tissues and many biocompatible elastomers are incompressible, planar biaxial testing allows for a two-dimensional (2-D) stress-state that can be used to fully characterize their three-dimensional (3-D) mechanical properties. Biological tissues exhibit complex mechanical behaviors not easily accounted for in classic elastomeric constitutive models. Accounting for these behaviors by careful experimental evaluation and formulation of constitutive models continues to be a challenging area in biomechanical modeling and simulation. The focus of this review is to describe the application of multiaxial testing techniques to soft tissues and their relation to modern biomechanical constitutive theories.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120714
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  • 171
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    Digitale Medien
    NEURAL TISSUE ENGINEERING: Strategies for Repair and Regeneration (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 293-347 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Nerve regeneration is a complex biological phenomenon. In the peripheral nervous system, nerves can regenerate on their own if injuries are small. Larger injuries must be surgically treated, typically with nerve grafts harvested from elsewhere in the body. Spinal cord injury is more complicated, as there are factors in the body that inhibit repair. Unfortunately, a solution to completely repair spinal cord injury has not been found. Thus, bioengineering strategies for the peripheral nervous system are focused on alternatives to the nerve graft, whereas efforts for spinal cord injury are focused on creating a permissive environment for regeneration. Fortunately, recent advances in neuroscience, cell culture, genetic techniques, and biomaterials provide optimism for new treatments for nerve injuries. This article reviews the nervous system physiology, the factors that are critical for nerve repair, and the current approaches that are being explored to aid peripheral nerve regeneration and spinal cord repair.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120731
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  • 172
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    Digitale Medien
    BLOOD VESSEL CONSTITUTIVE MODELS-1995-2002 (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 5 (2003), S. 413-439 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Technik allgemein , Medizin
    Notizen: Knowledge of blood vessel mechanical properties is fundamental to the understanding of vascular function in health and disease. Analytic results can help physicians in the clinic, both in designing and in choosing appropriate therapies. Understanding the mechanical response of blood vessels to physiologic loads is necessary before ideal therapeutic solutions can be realized. For this reason, blood vessel constitutive models are needed. This article provides a critical review of recent blood vessel constitutive models, starting with a brief overview of the structure and function of arteries and veins, followed by a discussion of experimental techniques used in the characterization of material properties. Current models are classified by type, including pseudoelastic, randomly elastic, poroelastic, and viscoelastic. Comparisons are presented between the various models and existing experimental data. Applications of blood vessel constitutive models are also briefly presented, followed by the identification of future directions in research.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.5.011303.120719
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  • 173
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    Digitale Medien
    THE CLEANSING CAPACITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 29-57 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: The atmosphere is a chemically complex and dynamic system that interacts significantly with the land, oceans, and ecosystems. Most trace gases emitted into the atmosphere are removed by oxidizing chemical reactions involving ozone and the hydroxyl free radical. The rate of this self-cleansing process is often referred to as the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere. Without this process, atmospheric composition and climate would be very different from what we observe today. The fundamental chemistry involved and the influence of human activity on oxidation capacity are reviewed. Both the current measurements designed to determine rates of oxidation and evidence for changes in oxidizing capacity over recent decades are critically discussed.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163425
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  • 174
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    Digitale Medien
    GLOBAL STATE OF BIODIVERSITY AND LOSS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 137-167 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: Biodiversity, a central component of Earth's life support systems, is directly relevant to human societies. We examine the dimensions and nature of the Earth's terrestrial biodiversity and review the scientific facts concerning the rate of loss of biodiversity and the drivers of this loss. The estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotic organisms possible lies in the 5-15 million range, with a best guess of ~7 million. Species diversity is unevenly distributed; the highest concentrations are in tropical ecosystems. Endemisms are concentrated in a few hotspots, which are in turn seriously threatened by habitat destruction-the most prominent driver of biodiversity loss. For the past 300 years, recorded extinctions for a few groups of organisms reveal rates of extinction at least several hundred times the rate expected on the basis of the geological record. The loss of biodiversity is the only truly irreversible global environmental change the Earth faces today.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105532
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  • 175
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    Digitale Medien
    DYNAMICS OF LAND-USE AND LAND-COVER CHANGE IN TROPICAL REGIONS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 205-241 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: We highlight the complexity of land-use/cover change and propose a framework for a more general understanding of the issue, with emphasis on tropical regions. The review summarizes recent estimates on changes in cropland, agricultural intensification, tropical deforestation, pasture expansion, and urbanization and identifies the still unmeasured land-cover changes. Climate-driven land-cover modifications interact with land-use changes. Land-use change is driven by synergetic factor combinations of resource scarcity leading to an increase in the pressure of production on resources, changing opportunities created by markets, outside policy intervention, loss of adaptive capacity, and changes in social organization and attitudes. The changes in ecosystem goods and services that result from land-use change feed back on the drivers of land-use change. A restricted set of dominant pathways of land-use change is identified. Land-use change can be understood using the concepts of complex adaptive systems and transitions. Integrated, place-based research on land-use/land-cover change requires a combination of the agent-based systems and narrative perspectives of understanding. We argue in this paper that a systematic analysis of local-scale land-use change studies, conducted over a range of timescales, helps to uncover general principles that provide an explanation and prediction of new land-use changes.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105459
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  • 176
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    Digitale Medien
    STATE OF THE WORLD'S FISHERIES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 359-399 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: The total world catch from marine and freshwater wild stocks has peaked and may be slightly declining. There appear to be few significant resources to be developed, and the majority of the world's fish stocks are intensively exploited. Many marine ecosystems have been profoundly changed by fishing and other human activities. Although most of the world's major fisheries continue to produce substantial sustainable yield, a number have been severely overfished, and many more stocks appear to be heading toward depletion. The world's fisheries continue to be heavily subsidized, which encourages overfishing and provides society with a small fraction of the potential economic benefits. In most of the world's fisheries there is a "race for fish" in which boats compete to catch the fish before a quota is achieved or the fish are caught by someone else. The race for fish leads to economic inefficiency, poor quality product, and pressure to extract every fish for short-term gain. A number of countries have instituted alternative management practices that eliminate the race for fish and encourage economic efficiency, use lower exploitation rates that deliberately do not attempt to maximize biological yield, and encourage reduced fishing costs and increased value of products. In fisheries where this transition has taken place, we see the potential for future sustainability, but in those fisheries where the race for fish continues, we anticipate further declines in abundance, further loss of jobs and fishing communities, and potential structural change to marine ecosystems.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105509
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  • 177
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    Digitale Medien
    GREEN CHEMISTRY AND ENGINEERING: Drivers, Metrics, and Reduction to Practice (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 401-428 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: Green chemistry and engineering is the design of chemical manufacturing systems to minimize their adverse affects on the environment. Thus, a primary goal of green chemistry and engineering is to reduce the environmental impact of chemical processes and chemical manufacturing while simultaneously enhancing the overall process performance. Although it is beneficial to simply reduce the use of organic solvents in chemical processes, green chemistry and engineering goes further, in that it evaluates the entire manufacturing operation to identify techniques that can be applied to minimize the overall process hazard, while maintaining economic practicality. Evaluation of the environmental impacts of the manufacturing process requires a systems approach and appropriate metrics that permit quantitative assessment of environmental hazards. Thus, this chapter begins with a discussion of the drivers for green engineering and the metrics through which processes can be evaluated. Then, the hydroformylation process is used as a case study to illustrate the way in which green chemistry principles can be applied to real processes. Two elements are specifically highlighted: (a) the use of catalysts to facilitate active and selective chemistry and the immobilization of said catalysts within the reactor system, and (b) the development of processes based on benign reaction solvents, and the benefits that can accrue from simplified separations operations.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163459
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  • 178
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    Digitale Medien
    INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS: A Survey of Their Features, Formation, and Effects (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003), S. 429-461 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-5938
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Energietechnik
    Notizen: International environmental agreements (IEAs), legally binding intergovernmental efforts directed at reducing human impacts on the environment, are common features of global environmental governance. Using a clear definition allowed creation of a comprehensive database [available online at (31)] listing over 700 multilateral agreements (MEAs) and over 1000 bilateral agreements (BEAs), which included treaties, protocols, and amendments that address numerous pollutants; preservation of many species; and, increasingly, protection of various habitats. Research into the factors that explain the timing, content, and membership in environmental agreements clarifies that the interests and power of influential states create pressures for, or constraints on, progress in global environmental governance but that discourse, actors, and processes also play important roles. Variation in the effects of these agreements on environmental behaviors and outcomes often depends as much on characteristics of member countries, the international context, and the underlying environmental problem as on the differences in agreement design.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105603
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  • 179
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    Digitale Medien
    BIOLOGY OF THE P21-ACTIVATED KINASES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 72 (2003), S. 743-781 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Chemie und Pharmazie , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The p21-activated kinases (PAKs) 1-3 are serine/threonine protein kinases whose activity is stimulated by the binding of active Rac and Cdc42 GTPases. Our understanding of the regulation and biology of these important signaling proteins has increased tremendously since their discovery in the mid-1990s. PAKs 1-3 are activated by a variety of GTPase-dependent and -independent mechanisms. This complexity reflects the contributions of PAK function in many cellular signaling pathways and the need to carefully control PAK action in a highly localized manner. PAKs serve as important regulators of cytoskeletal dynamics and cell motility, transcription through MAP kinase cascades, death and survival signaling, and cell-cycle progression. Consequently, PAKs have also been implicated in a number of pathological conditions and in cell transformation. We propose here a key role for PAK action in coordinating the dynamics of the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons during directional motility of cells, as well as in other functions requiring cytoskeletal polarization.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161742
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  • 180
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    Digitale Medien
    CELL BIOLOGY OF ACID SECRETION BY THE PARIETAL CELL (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 103-131 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Acid secretion by the gastric parietal cell is regulated by paracrine, endocrine, and neural pathways. The physiological stimuli include histamine, acetylcholine, and gastrin via their receptors located on the basolateral plasma membranes. Stimulation of acid secretion typically involves an initial elevation of intracellular calcium and/or cAMP followed by activation of a cAMP-dependent protein kinase cascade that triggers the translocation and insertion of the proton pump enzyme, H,K-ATPase, into the apical plasma membrane of parietal cells. Whereas the H,K-ATPase contains a plasma membrane targeting motif, the stimulation-mediated relocation of the H,K-ATPase from the cytoplasmic membrane compartment to the apical plasma membrane is mediated by a SNARE protein complex and its regulatory proteins. This review summarizes the progress made toward an understanding of the cell biology of gastric acid secretion. In particular we have reviewed the early signaling events following histaminergic and cholinergic activation, the identification of multiple factors participating in the trafficking and recycling of the proton pump, and the role of the cytoskeleton in supporting the apical pole remodeling, which appears to be necessary for active acid secretion by the parietal cell. Emphasis is placed on identifying protein factors that serve as effectors for the mechanistic changes associated with cellular activation and the secretory response.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.072302.114200
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    FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS AND THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF HYPOXIA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 203-230 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Comparative physiology has proven a powerful approach to our understanding of how animals function under hypoxic conditions and to identifying potential adaptations to environmental oxygen levels. This review considers the potential for using a similar comparative approach with functional genomics to understand the genetic basis of such physiological processes and evolutionary adaptations. Comparative functional genomics is currently limited by genome data, which are available for only a few model organisms. However, comparative studies between model organisms of the same species having slightly different genomes (e.g., in-bred strains of laboratory rodents, transgenic mice, and consomic rats) demonstrate the types of results, as well as the analytical challenges, that are possible if comparative functional genomics is applied to more species. Results from wild and domestic animal studies suggest new models to investigate physiological and evolutionary responses to oxygen levels with functional genomics.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142711
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    REGULATION OF Na/Pi TRANSPORTER IN THE PROXIMAL TUBULE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 531-542 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract The physiological tuning and pathophysiological alterations of renal proximal reabsorption of inorganic phosphate can be ascribed to the net amount of the Na/Pi-cotransporter NaPi-IIa localized in the brush border membrane. The net amount of NaPi-IIa appears to be the result of an endocytotic rate regulated by a complex network of different protein kinases. New approaches demonstrated that NaPi-IIa is part of heteromeric protein complexes, organized by PDZ (postsynaptic protein PSD95, Drosophila junction protein Disc-large, tight junction protein ZO-1) proteins. Such complexes are thought to play important roles in the apical positioning and regulated endocytosis of NaPi-IIa and therefore such interactions have to be considered when explaining proximal phosphate ion reabsorption.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.042902.092424
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  • 183
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    ALVEOLAR TYPE I CELLS: Molecular Phenotype and Development (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 669-695 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Understanding of the functions and regulation of the phenotype of the alveolar type I epithelial cell has lagged behind studies of its neighbor the type II cell because of lack of cell-specific molecular markers. The recent identification of several proteins expressed by type I cells indicates that these cells may play important roles in regulation of cell proliferation, ion transport and water flow, metabolism of peptides, modulation of macrophage functions, and signaling events in the peripheral lung. Cell systems and reagents are available to characterize type I cell biology in detail, an important goal given that the cells provide the extensive surface that facilitates gas exchange in the intact animal.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142446
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    AMINOPHOSPHOLIPID ASYMMETRY: A Matter of Life and Death (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 701-734 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract Maintenance of membrane lipid asymmetry is a dynamic process that influences many events over the lifespan of the cell. With few exceptions, most cells restrict the bulk of the aminophospholipids to the inner membrane leaflet by means of specific transporters. Working in concert with each other, these proteins correct for sporadic incursions of the aminophospholipids to the outer membrane leaflet as a result of bilayer imbalances created by various cellular events. A shift in the relative contribution in each of these activities can result in sustained exposure of the aminophospholipids at the cell surface, which allows capture of the cells by phagocytes before the integrity of the plasma membrane is compromised. The absence of an efficient recognition and elimination mechanism can result in uncontrolled and persistent presentation of self-antigens to the immune system, with development of autoimmune syndromes. To prevent this, phagocytes have developed a diverse array of distinct and redundant receptor systems that drive the postphagocytic events along pathways that facilitate cross-talk between the homeostatic and the immune systems. In this work, we review the basis for the proposed mechanism(s) by which apoptotic ligands appear on the target cell surface and the phagocyte receptors that recognize these moieties.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142459
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    TERMINAL DIFFERENTIATION OF INTERCALATED CELLS: The Role of Hensin (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 65 (2003), S. 567-583 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Medizin , Biologie
    Notizen: Abstract During the response to metabolic acidosis, the intercalated cell of the collecting tubule converts from one that secretes HCO3- to one that absorbs HCO3- by H+ secretion. The molecular basis of this complex change in phenotype was studied in an immortalized intercalated cell line. We found that it was induced by secretion, polymerization, and deposition of a protein, which we termed hensin, into the extracellular matrix. Surprisingly, this change in phenotype is identical to terminal differentiation of epithelial cells in that it recapitulated all the characteristics of terminal differentiation, including a change in cell shape, acquisition of specialized apical structures (microvilli and ruffles), and the ability to secrete and endocytose materials in a regulated manner from the apical membrane. Hensin is expressed in most epithelia, and others have discovered that it is deleted in a large number of epithelial tumors. These results suggest that conversion of polarity of the intercalated cells represents a process of terminal differentiation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.65.092101.142645
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  • 186
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    MISSISSIPPIAN CHIEFDOMS: How Complex? (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 63-84 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: During the Mississippian period (a.d. 1000-1500) the southeastern United States witnessed a broadscale fluorescence of polities characterized by impressive earthwork construction, rich mortuary offerings, and intensified agriculture. Research on the nature of complexity in these so-called chiefdoms has been an enduring issue in North American archaeology, even as this research has undergone several paradigmatic shifts. This study focuses on the primary dimensions of the archaeological record used to describe and explain variation in Mississippian complexity-polity scale, settlement and landscape, the organization of labor, mortuary ritual and ideology, and tribute and feasting. Changing perspectives toward the organization of complexity and power have become increasingly pronounced in each of these categories.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093244
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    CONTEXT, CULTURE, AND STRUCTURATION IN THE LANGUAGES OF AUSTRALIA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 13-40 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Using Australian languages as examples, cultural selection is shown to shape linguistic structure through invisible hand processes that pattern the unintended outcomes (structures in the system of shared linguistic norms) of intentional actions (particular utterances by individual agents). Examples of the emergence of culturally patterned structure through use are drawn from various levels: the semantics of the lexicon, grammaticalized kin-related categories, and culture-specific organizations of sociolinguistic diversity, such as moiety lects, "mother-in-law" registers, and triangular kin terms. These phenomena result from a complex of diachronic processes that adapt linguistic structures to culture-specific concepts and practices, such as ritualization and phonetic reduction of frequently used sequences, the input of shared cultural knowledge into pragmatic interpretation, semanticization of originally context-dependent inferences, and the input of linguistic ideologies into the systematization of lectal variants. Some of these processes, such as the emergence of subsection terminology and moiety lects, operate over speech communities that transcend any single language and can only be explained if the relevant processes take the multilingual speech community as their domain of operation. Taken together, the cases considered here provide strong evidence against nativist assumptions that see linguistic structures simply as instantiations of biologically given "mentalese" concepts already present in the mind of every child and give evidence in favor of a view that sees individual language structures as also conditioned by historical processes, of which functional adaptation of various kinds is most important. They also illustrate how, in the domain of language, stable socially shared structures can emerge from the summed effects of many communicative micro-events by individual agents.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093137
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    ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS AND HUMAN BIOLOGY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 111-134 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: The biocultural approach of anthropologists is well suited to understand the interrelationship of urbanism and human biology. Urbanism is a social construction that has continuously changed and presented novel adaptive challenges to its residents. Urban living today involves several biological challenges, of which one is pollution. Using three different types of pollutants as examples, air pollution, lead, and noise, the impact of pollution on human biology (mortality, morbidity, reproduction, and development) can be seen. Chronic exposure to low levels of these pollutants has a small impact on the individual, but so many people are exposed to pollution that the effect species-wide is substantial. Also, disproportionate pollutant exposure by socioeconomically disadvantaged groups exacerbates risk of poor health and well being.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093218
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    THE NEOLITHIC INVASION OF EUROPE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 135-162 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Who are Europeans? Both prehistoric archaeology and, subsequently, classical population genetics have attempted to trace the ancestry of modern Europeans back to the first appearance of agriculture in the continent; however, the question has remained controversial. Classical population geneticists attributed the major pattern in the European gene pool to the demographic impact of Neolithic farmers dispersing from the Near East, but archaeological research has failed to uncover substantial evidence for the population growth that is supposed to have driven this process. Recently, molecular approaches, using non-recombining genetic marker systems, have introduced a chronological dimension by both allowing the tracing of lineages back through time and dating using the molecular clock. Both mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome analyses have indicated a contribution of Neolithic Near Eastern lineages to the gene pool of modern Europeans of around a quarter or less. This suggests that dispersals bringing the Neolithic to Europe may have been demographically minor and that contact and assimilation had an important role.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093207
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    COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 183-204 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: The study of complex adaptive systems, a subset of nonlinear dynamical systems, has recently become a major focus of interdisciplinary research in the social and natural sciences. Nonlinear systems are ubiquitous; as mathematician Stanislaw Ulam observed, to speak of "nonlinear science" is like calling zoology the study of "nonelephant animals" (quoted in Campbell et al. 1985, p. 374). The initial phase of research on nonlinear systems focused on deterministic chaos, but more recent studies have investigated the properties of self-organizing systems or anti-chaos. For mathematicians and physicists, the biggest surprise is that complexity lurks within extremely simple systems. For biologists, it is the idea that natural selection is not the sole source of order in the biological world. In the social sciences, it is suggested that emergence-the idea that complex global patterns with new properties can emerge from local interactions-could have a comparable impact.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093440
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    IT'S A MATERIAL WORLD: History, Artifacts, and Anthropology (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 205-223 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: History is of critical importance for anthropology because, in human affairs, the present is intimately linked to the past. Archaeology is important to the study of history because the material remains of the past supplement and interrogate historical documents. Collaboration between cultural anthropologists and archaeologists will produce a broader knowledge of past worlds and how those worlds have been constructed in historical texts, both past and present. Cultural anthropologists and archaeologists should also compare the ways in which they engage in discussions about the past with both the American public and local communities-discussions that are quite different in the two subfields.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093335
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    SUSTAINABLE GOVERNANCE OF COMMON-POOL RESOURCES: Context, Methods, and Politics (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 243-262 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: This paper presents a critical assessment of the field of common property. After discussing briefly the major findings and accomplishments of the scholarship on the commons, the paper pursues two strategies of critique. The first strategy of friendly critique accepts the basic assumptions of most writings on common property to show that scholars of commons have discovered far more variables that potentially affect resource management than is possible to analyze carefully. The paper identifies some potential means to address the problem of too many variables. The second line of critique proceeds differently. It asks how analyses of common property might change, and what they need to consider, if they loosen assumptions about sovereign selves and apolitical property rights institutions. My examination of these questions concludes this review with an emphasis on the need to (a) attend more carefully to processes of subject formation, and (b) investigate common property arrangements and associated subject positions with greater historical depth.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093112
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    URBANIZATION AND THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 263-285 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Much of the literature about globalization exaggerates the degree of novelty. In this review, we concentrate on claims about what has changed about cities under late capitalism and globalization. Although we suggest that cities have long been influenced by global forces, we conclude that the roles of cities in the global system have changed considerably as a result of the time-space compression made possible by new transportation, communication, and organizational technologies. After discussing what the global perspective means within anthropology, and how it affects urban anthropological research, our review concentrates on three complex issues. First is whether the global factory and increasing knowledge-intensivity have decreased or increased the utility of the intermediary or brokerage roles that cities play. Second, we examine changes in how people live in globalizing cities. Third, we consider the implications of the construction and maintenance of relationships across borders for processes of citizenship, affiliation, and transnational social movements.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093445
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    THE ROLE OF DECAY AND MINERALIZATION IN THE PRESERVATION OF SOFT-BODIED FOSSILS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 275-301 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Fossil deposits that preserve soft-bodied organisms provide critical evidence of the history of life. Usually, only more decay resistant materials, e.g., cuticles, survive as organic remains as a result of selective preservation and subsequent diagenesis to more resistant biopolymers. Permineralization, the permeation of tissues by mineralizing fluids, may preserve remarkable detail, particularly of plants. However, evidence of more labile tissues, e.g., muscle, normally requires the replication of their morphology by rapid in situ growth of minerals, i.e., authigenic mineralization. This process relies on the steep geochemical gradients generated by decay microbes. The minerals involved, and the level of detail preserved (which may be subcellular), depend on a number of factors, including the nature of microbial activity and amount of decay, availability of ions, and the type of organism that is fossilized. Understanding these controls is essential to determining the conditions that favor exceptional preservation.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.144746
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    PRODUCTION, ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION, AND ATMOSPHERIC FATE OF BIOLOGICALLY PRODUCED NITROUS OXIDE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 329-356 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract The anthropogenic production of greenhouse gases and their consequent effects on global climate have garnered international attention for years. A remaining challenge facing scientists is to unambiguously quantify both sources and sinks of targeted gases. Microbiological metabolism accounts for the largest source of nitrous oxide (N2O), mostly due to global conversion of land for agriculture and massive usage of nitrogen-based fertilizers. A most powerful method for characterizing the sources of N2O lies in its multi-isotope signature. This review summarizes mechanisms that lead to biological N2O production and how discriminate placement of 15N into molecules of N2O occurs. Through direct measurements and atmospheric modeling, we can now place a constraint on the isotopic composition of biological sources of N2O and trace its fate in the atmosphere. This powerful interdisciplinary combination of biology and atmospheric chemistry is rapidly advancing the closure of the global N2O budget.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.110502.080901
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    CATASTROPHIC FLOODING OF THE BLACK SEA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 525-554 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Decades of seabed mapping, reflection profiling, and seabed sampling reveal that throughout the past two million years the Black Sea was predominantly a freshwater lake interrupted only briefly by saltwater invasions coincident with global sea level highstand. When the exterior ocean lay below the relatively shallow sill of the Bosporus outlet, the Black Sea operated in two modes. As in the neighboring Caspian Sea, a cold climate mode corresponded with an expanded lake and a warm climate mode with a shrunken lake. Thus, during much of the cold glacial Quaternary, the expanded Black Sea's lake spilled into to the Marmara Sea and from there to the Mediterranean. However, in the warm climate mode, after receiving a vast volume of ice sheet meltwater, the shoreline of the shrinking lake contracted to the outer shelf and on a few occasions even beyond the shelf edge. If the confluence of a falling interior lake and a rising global ocean persisted to the moment when the rising ocean penetrated across the dividing sill, it would set the stage for catastrophic flooding. Although recently challenged, the flood hypothesis for the connecting event best fits the full set of observations.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141249
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    MADDENING STATES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 393-410 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Despite transformations in the character of the state in an age of globalization, news of its demise is certainly exaggerated. Even as operations of state (or state-like) power exceed the boundaries of the nation-state to be deployed by actors such as transnational nongovernmental organizations, private corporations, guerrilla groups, or narcotraffickers, the state form shows remarkable tenacity and adaptability. Invested with a kind of meta-capital, the state remains a crucial presence, a screen for political desires and identifications as well as fears. This review addresses recent academic reflection on the field of knowledge we call the state. It asks how the state becomes a social subject in everyday life, examining the subjective experience of state power and tracing its effects on territories, populations, and bodies. Finally, it considers the ways violence, sexuality, and desire work in the intimate spaces of state power. Begona Aretxaga's essay was left among her papers in an almost complete form at the time of her untimely death. A collective, consisting of James Brow, Charles Hale, Yael Navaro-Yahsin, Geeta Patel, Brandt Peterson, and Pauline Strong, worked to fill in citations, answer questions Begona posed to herself, which were unresolved, and to lightly edit the final form of this essay. This piece has not been changed substantially. In an effort to keep to the form and spirit of Begona's interrogations the essay stands as it was, without a literal conclusion. Perhaps a conclusion can be supplied by readers engaged in an ongoing analysis of contemporary political situations, to which Begona's work speaks profoundly, as a legacy that this essay and her extended oeuvre bequeathed to us.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093341
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    HIGHLIGHTS AND OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL ETHNOGRAPHY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 411-429 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: In broad brush strokes, this essay identifies and reviews key trends and theoretical orientations that have shaped the field of educational ethnography from the period of its inception to the closing decade of the twentieth century. It demonstrates how the growth of educational ethnography as a subfield within anthropology reflects a growing focus on prescriptive, applied, and reformist research within urban contexts. It maps the transition from modernist formulations of the field in its formative days, when ethnographies laid claim to being sealed and scientific texts, to the more recent formulations shaped by postmodern and poststructural ideas that undermine earlier meanings of culture and call attention to the explanatory limits of ethnography. This review draws on examples from North America and Britain and makes no claim to being exhaustive of the vast and growing field. Although it delineates what distinguishes successive decades of educational ethnography, the essay argues for understanding the developments not as distinct phases but as overlapping moments in the evolution of the field of study. Attention is drawn to how developments in theory and method, in particular a move toward reflexivity in educational ethnography, mirror developments in the discipline of anthropology at large.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093449
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    CHILDREN, CHILDHOODS, AND VIOLENCE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), S. 431-446 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Ethnologie , Biologie
    Notizen: Anthropological literature on children and violence has been constrained by similar considerations that have limited an anthropology of childhood more generally, and by difficulties in conceptualizing children both as victims of violence and as violent themselves. A review of the anthropological literature on violence directed toward children reveals a litany of violence to which children may be subjected that includes child abuse and neglect, bullying, violent cultural rites, warfare, and structural violence stemming from poverty and inequality. Aggression in childhood has been the subject of a robust and long-standing literature that has examined socialization for or against aggressive behavior in children. An emerging literature considers children's own violent behavior from the perspective of child agency. Children's own voices and perspectives have been largely absent from the anthropological literature on childhood and violence. This review highlights several issues at the intersection of childhood and violence that demand a synthesis and reformulation in anthropology. "There is a growing consciousness of children at risk ...there is also a growing sense of children themselves as the risk ..." (Stephens 1995, p. 13)
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093345
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 200
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    METAL-SILICATE PARTITIONING OF SIDEROPHILE ELEMENTS AND CORE FORMATION IN THE EARLY EARTH* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 135-174 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Quelle: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie , Physik
    Notizen: Abstract Accretion models for the Earth and terrestrial planets are based on the distribution of siderophile (iron-loving) elements between metal and silicate. Extensive experimental studies of the partitioning of these elements between metallic liquid and silicate melt have led to a better understanding and a more sophisticated application to planetary problems. Siderophile element metal/silicate partition coefficients are a function of temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and metal and silicate composition. Quantification of these effects for a limited subset of siderophile elements has led to the idea that early Earth had a 700-km or deeper magma ocean. This new understanding of siderophile element partitioning has also led to applications to the kinetics of metal-silicate equilibrium, links to the timing of core formation, and a better understanding of core formation and metal-silicate equilibrium in the Moon and Mars. Key issues for future consideration include the role of water in early Earth, consideration of the core as a reservoir for noble gases and/or traditionally lithophile elements, siderophile element concentrations in the deep mantle, oxygen fugacity at high pressures, and further evaluation of the need for a late accretional veneer. The strongest approach to improving accretion models for the terrestrial planets is one that combines geochemistry, geophysics, and planetary dynamics.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.145451
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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