ALBERT

Notes: 1 The effects of the immunosuppressants, tacrolimus (FK506) and cyclosporin A (CsA), on catecholamine (CA) release were examined in cultured bovine adrenal chromaffin cells. 2 In intact cells, FK506 (1–30 μm) inhibited CA release stimulated by acetylcholine (ACh; 100 μm), 1,1-dimethyl-4-phenyl-piperazinium (DMPP, 10 μm) or high K+ (40 mm). CsA (1–30 μm) had a little inhibitory effect on the ACh- or DMPP-stimulated CA release, whereas it enhanced the high K+-stimulated CA release. 3 In β-escin-permeabilized cells, FK506 inhibited CA release stimulated by Ca2+ (1 and 10 μm) in the presence and absence of MgATP (2 mm). CsA induced CA release under Ca2+-free condition and enhanced the Ca2+-stimulated CA release in the presence and absence of MgATP. 4 It is known that the Ca2+-dependent exocytosis involves at least two distinct steps, ATP-requiring priming stage and ATP-independent fusion step in adrenal chromaffin cells. Therefore, it is suggested that FK506 inhibits the Ca2+-dependent exocytosis probably at the fusion step whereas CsA induces CA release from bovine adrenal chromaffin cells.

Notes: 1 Prolonged bed rest or exposure to microgravity may cause several alterations in autonomic nervous system response (ANSR). 2 Hindlimb unloading (HU) rats were used as an animal model of simulated microgravity to investigate ANSR changes. The experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of simulated microgravity on the autonomic nervous response of the perfused mesenteric vascular bed (MVB), vas deferens and the colon and duodenum from 2-week HU rats. 3 In MVB preparations of HU rats, the frequency-dependent increases in perfusion pressure with perivascular nerve stimulation (PNS; 8–40 Hz) were inhibited, whereas the noradrenaline (NA) concentration-dependent (1–100 μm) perfusion pressure increases were potentiated. The latter most probably reflected up-regulation of α-adrenergic receptor function. Relaxant responses of NA-precontracted MVB to PNS (4–30 Hz) or isoprenaline were not different between control and HU preparations, while vasodilation induced by the endothelial agonist ACh was reduced. 4 Transmural stimulation (2–40 Hz) induced frequency-dependent twitches of the vas deferens which were reduced in vas deferens of HU rats, while the sensitivity to NA-induced contraction was significantly increased. 5 In the gastroenteric system of HU rat, direct contractile responses to carbachol or tachykinin as well as relaxant or contractile responses to nervous stimulation appeared unchanged both in the proximal colon rings and in duodenal longitudinal strips. 6 In conclusion, HU treatment affects peripheral tissues in which the main contractile mediators are the adrenergic ones such as resistance vessels and vas deferens, probably by reducing the release of neuromediator. This study validates NA signalling impairment as a widespread process in microgravity, which may most dramatically result in the clinical phenotype of orthostatic intolerance.

Notes: 1 This double-blind, cross-over, placebo-controlled study on six healthy male volunteers was designed to evaluate the effects of α2-adrenoceptor antagonism on cardiac parasympathetic regulation. 2 The subjects received atipamezole intravenously as a three-step infusion, which aimed at steady-state serum concentrations of 10, 30 and 90 ng ml−1 at 50-min intervals. 3 Drug effects were assessed with repeated recordings of blood pressure and electrocardiogram, in which the high-frequency (0.15–0.40 Hz) R-R interval variation is supposed to reflect cardiac parasympathetic efferent neuronal activity. 4 At the end of the three steps of the infusion, the mean (±SD) concentrations of atipamezole were 10.5 (3.9), 26.8 (5.6) and 81.3 (21.1) ng ml−1. 5 Within this concentration range, atipamezole appeared to reduce slightly the high-frequency R-R interval fluctuations, indicating a minor vagolytic effect in the heart. 6 Atipamezole increased systolic and diastolic arterial pressure, on average by 20 and 14 mmHg (maxima at the second step of the infusion), which evidently reflects an overall sympathetic augmentation.

Notes: 1 We have compared vasoconstriction responses in isolated mesenteric small arteries from mice and rats as elicited by KCl, noradrenaline and the lysosphingolipids sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC). 2 Contractile responses to KCl and noradrenaline, but not those of S1P or SPC, were significantly related to vessel diameter in both species. 3 When comparing vessels of similar diameter, contractile responses for KCl and the three agonists were much smaller in mice than in rats, e.g. 8.3 ± 0.4 vs. 14.7 ± 0.7 mn for noradrenaline. 4 Based upon the antagonist rank order of potency of prazosin (pKB 8.80) 〉 B8805-033 (pKB 7.89) 〉 yohimbine (pKB 6.18) ≈ BMY 7378 (pA2 6.03), noradrenaline responses in mice were mediated solely via α1A-adrenoceptors, similar to what repeatedly has been shown in rats. 5 The S1P3 receptor antagonist suramin (100 μm) significantly inhibited responses to S1P and SPC in rats but not in mice, and did not affect noradrenaline responses in either species. 6 We conclude that for any given diameter, mouse mesenteric arteries develop less contraction in response to various stimuli. Noradrenaline acts via α1A-adrenoceptors in both species. Responses to S1P and SPC differ between both species with regard to suramin-sensitivity indicating involvement of different receptor subtypes for lysosphingolipids in both species.

Notes: 1 A fructose (Fru)-enriched diet induces a mild increase in blood pressure associated with hyperglycaemia, hypertriglyceridaemia, and insulin resistance, resembling the human ‘syndrome X’, being an useful model to study hypertension and type 2 diabetes. 2 A sustained elevation of blood pressure is associated with cardiovascular structural modifications such as left ventricular hypertrophy and increased wall thickness:lumen diameter ratio in blood vessels. 3 Prostanoids (PR), metabolites of arachidonic acid through the cyclooxygenase pathway, include vasoactive substances synthesized and released by the vessel walls. 4 The aim of the present study was to analyse, in Fru-treated rats: (i) the morphology of mesenteric vessels and; (ii) the PR production in aorta and mesenteric vessels, in order to assess whether these parameters are related with the haemodynamic alterations observed in this experimental model. 5 Blood pressure, glycaemia and triglyceridaemia, were significantly elevated in both (4 and 22 weeks) Fru-treated groups. Meanwhile body and heart weight as well as insulinaemia were similar between experimental animals and controls. 6 The mesenteric vessels of Fru-treated rats (22 weeks) showed an increased thickness and area of the media when compared with the controls; meanwhile, the lumen diameter was similar in both groups. 7 The Fru treatment for 4 weeks did not modify PR production in aorta, whereas in the mesenteric bed it diminished prostaglandin (PG) E2 release significantly compared with the controls. However, in the group treated for 22 weeks, Fru reduced PGI2 production in the aorta, as assessed by 6-keto-PGF1α measurements. Meanwhile, in the mesenteric bed, the chronic Fru treatment decreased PGE2 release but, rather surprisingly, increased the output of PGI2 when compared with its corresponding controls. 8 In conclusion, the present study shows the existence of an alteration in the morphology of mesenteric vessels in Fru-treated rats, which could be related to an increase in peripheral resistance and the consequent mild hypertension observed in this model. However, a diminished release of vasodilator PRs, such as PGE2 in mesenteric vessels at 4 and 22 weeks and PGI2 in aorta at 22 weeks could further impair the vessel response. The increase in PGI2 observed in the chronic group in mesenteric vessels could be attributed to a compensatory mechanism.

Notes: 1 Electrical field stimulation (EFS) (0.5 ms in train of 2–32 Hz for 300 ms) in smooth muscle of pigeon oesophagus, in the presence of atropine (1 μm) and guanethidine (1 μm), elicited an inhibitory response consisting of a transient hyperpolarization (inhibitory junction potential, IJP) associated with muscle relaxation. 2 Sodium nitroprusside (SNP, 100 μm) induced hyperpolarization correlated to mechanical relaxation. 3 The nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor Nω-nitro-l-arginine (from 0.1 to 100 μm) caused a concentration-dependent reduction of electromechanical response to EFS indicating a role for NO in this response. 4 Apamin (1 μm) reduced both IJP and relaxation to EFS but was without effect on the response to SNP indicating a role for purines, which are also blocked by apamin. 5 Adenosine, AMP, ADP and ATP (all from 1 μm to 1 mm) application caused transient hyperpolarization and muscular relaxation with the following order of potency: adenosine 〉 AMP 〉 ADP 〉 ATP. 6 Inhibitory responses evoked by purines are TTX (1 μm) insensitive but they were inhibited by apamin. This indicates that a purine component for the non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) response exists but the purine receptor site is not located on the neurone. 7 Overall these results suggest that NANC inhibitory response elicited by EFS presents two different components apamin-sensitive, probably purines-mediated and apamin-insensitive probably NO-mediated as apamin only partially block the response to EFS.

Notes: 1 Sibenadet (Viozan®), a dual dopamine D2/β2-adrenoceptor agonist, suppresses histamine-induced tachypnoea in the dog by activating dopamine D2 receptors. We here compare the effects of sibenadet and formoterol, a selective β2-adrenoceptor agonist, on histamine-induced tachypnoea in the rhesus monkey. 2 Anaesthetized, spontaneously breathing, rhesus monkeys were set up for measuring airways resistance, respiratory rate, blood pressure and heart rate. 3 Both sibenadet and formoterol administered by aerosol, induced inhibition of the bronchoconstrictor response to aerosolized methacholine accompanied by tachycardia. Sibenadet, but not formoterol, also reduced blood pressure. 4 Administration of histamine by inhalation induced tachypnoea which was accompanied by bronchoconstriction. Tachypnoea to histamine was suppressed by both sibenadet and formoterol at doses which manifest anti-bronchoconstrictor activity. These effects and the accompanying tachycardia but not the hypotension induced by sibenadet were abolished by pretreatment with propranolol. 5 The dopamine D2 receptor agonist, quinagolide, did not suppress tachypnoea to histamine despite inducing a fall in blood pressure indicating activation of dopamine D2 receptors. 6 Thus, both sibenadet and formoterol suppress histamine-evoked tachypnoea in the rhesus monkey. The effect arises exclusively through activation of β2-adrenoceptors and probably reflects the anti-bronchoconstrictor effects of these agents. The results reveal a fundamental difference in the role of dopamine receptors in the airways of dog and rhesus monkey.

Notes: 1 We have investigated the actions of the calcium entry blockers nifedipine, R-verapamil and S-verapamil in rat aorta, colon and vas deferens. 2 In aorta and colon, these agents produced concentration-dependent relaxations of KCl (80 mm)-induced contractions. In both tissues, the order of potency was nifedipine 〉 S-verapamil 〉 R-verapamil. However, nifedipine showed selectivity for aorta (potency ratio, colon/aorta: 4.36), S-verapamil showed no selectivity (0.62), but R-verapamil showed selectivity for colon (0.19). 3 In prostatic portions of rat vas deferens, nifedipine (10 μm) abolished the contraction to a single electrical stimulus, but R- and S-verapamil were without effect. In epididymal portions of rat vas deferens, R- and S-verapamil inhibited α1-adrenoceptor-mediated contractions to a single electrical stimulus at concentrations of 10 μm and above. 4 In conclusion, R-verapamil may prove useful as an intestinal selective calcium entry blocker in the treatment of intestinal disease with a hypermotility component, e.g. irritable bowel syndrome.

Notes: 1 The present study was carried out to pharmacologically identify the β-adrenoceptor subtype that mediates isoprenaline-elicited relaxation in the isolated guinea-pig tracheal smooth muscle, to answer the question whether it is β1- or β2-subtype? 2 Isoprenaline as well as salbutamol, a well-known β2-selective adrenoceptor agonist, produced a concentration-dependent relaxation with a pD2 value of 8.12 vs. 7.54 for salbutamol. 3 Isoprenaline-elicited relaxation was not affected by β1-selective antagonists, atenolol and CGP-20,712A, within the concentration ranges supposed to antagonize β1-subtype: atenolol, ≤10−6 m; CGP-20,712A, ≤10−8 m. 4 By contrast, the concentration–response curves for isoprenaline as well as salbutamol were shifted rightwards in a competitive fashion by atenolol at the concentrations ≥3 × 10−6 m. However, pA2 values of atenolol against isoprenaline (5.86) and salbutamol (5.71) were consistent with the value corresponding to β2- but not to β1-subtype (around 7.00), and these values were not significantly different from each other. 5 Competitive antagonism of the relaxations to isoprenaline and salbutamol were also obtained with β2-selective antagonists, butoxamine and ICI-118,551. Against isoprenaline and salbutamol, the pA2 values of butoxamine (6.51 vs. 6.81) and ICI-118,551 (8.83 vs. 8.90) were substantially identical. Thus the primary mediation of β2-receptor in the relaxations was strongly supported. 6 The present findings provide evidence that the β-adrenoceptor which mediates isoprenaline-elicited relaxation of guinea-pig tracheal smooth muscle is essentially β2- but not β1-subtype. The present study also indicates the importance of using multiple receptor antagonists with different pA2 values to pharmacologically identify the responsible receptor subtype in smooth muscle mechanical responses.

Notes: 1 The role of histamine in heat-induced cardiovascular changes is uncertain. The purpose of this study was to examine effects of histamine H-1- and H-2-antagonism on heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), localized body temperature changes, survival times, and lethal body temperatures that occur during the exposure of anaesthetized rats to 35 GHz radio frequency radiation (RFR). 2 Forty-eight ketamine-anaesthetized Sprague–Dawley rats were exposed, in several different treatment groups (n = 8 in each), to 35 GHz RFR at a level that resulted in significant body heating and subsequent death. During irradiation, a continuous increase in heart rate and a biphasic response in blood pressure (initial increase followed by a decrease) were observed in all groups of animals. 3 An H-1-antagonist, diphenhydramine (1 mg kg−1 body wt) and an H-2-antagonist, cimetidine (5 mg kg−1), administered after sustained RFR exposure, failed to reverse the RFR-induced hypotension. High doses of the drugs (5 and 10 mg kg−1, respectively) also did not alter the response. Post-RFR survival time was significantly decreased in the high-dose drug-treated group, compared with vehicle-treated (0.9% NaCl, 50% ethanol and 50% D5W) controls. 4 In experiments in which the two drugs were administered prior to RFR exposure, MAP in animals receiving high-dose antihistamines was significantly depressed compared with that of vehicle-treated animals during the first 35 min of RFR exposure. Antihistamine pretreatment, however, did not alter the total RFR exposure time required for death to occur. 5 In summary, pharmacological blockade of H-1 and H-2 receptors is not beneficial in anaesthetized rats made hypotensive by RFR exposure. This indicates that activation of H-1 and H-2 receptors by histamine does not occur to any significant extent and does not mediate the hypotensive response developed in this model of hyperthermia.

Notes: 1 The great taxonomic and prey base diversity of colubrids (non-front-fanged snakes) suggests that their venoms may represent a ‘literal gold mine’ for scientists eager to find novel pharmacological probes (Mackessy, 2002). 2 While pharmacological characterization is lacking for most of these venoms, this is even more so with regard to activity of colubrid venoms on the mammalian autonomic nervous system. This study characterizes the activity of venom from the colubrid, Boiga dendrophila using in vitro smooth muscle preparations and the anaesthetized rat. 3 In the prostatic segment of the rat vas deferens, cumulative additions of venom (1–150 μg ml−1) induced concentration-dependent inhibition of electrically evoked (0.2 Hz, 0.3 ms, 70–100 V) twitches. The inhibitory effect of venom (100 μg ml−1) was attenuated by 8-phenyltheophylline (8-PT) (20 μm) and 8-cyclopentyl-1, 3-dipropylxanthine (20 μm) but not idazoxan (1 μm), or a combination of ranitidine (0.2 μm) and thioperamide (10 μm). The inhibitory effect of venom (100 μg ml−1) was augmented by dipyridamole (10 μm) but abolished by pretreatment with adenosine deaminase (7.5 units/100 μl) suggesting that it contains components with adenosine A1 receptor activity, most likely adenosine. 4 In isolated segments of guinea-pig ileum, venom (10–100 μg ml−1) caused concentration-dependent contractions which were inhibited by the muscarinic receptor antagonist atropine (0.1 μm) but not by the histamine receptor antagonist mepyramine (0.5 μm). 5 In the anaesthetized rat, venom (5–7.5 mg kg−1, i.v.) caused a hypotensive effect. 6 Our data suggest that the venom contains components with purinergic and muscarinic receptor activity.

Notes: 1 β-Adrenoceptor (AR) ligands have been the mainstay of cardiovascular therapy for decades, with β-AR antagonist being used for hypertension, angina and myocardial infarction and adrenaline in use for cardiopulmonary resuscitation for nearly 100 years. 2 Ischaemia of the heart through coronary artery occlusion causes cell injury and death through necrosis and apoptosis. Reperfusion of the ischaemic myocardium results in cardiac dysfunction and infarction. 3 Stimulation of α- and β-ARs in the ischaemic heart have variable and inconsistent effects depending on when the agonist is applied. This review describes the different effects of stimulation of the three established β-AR subtypes (β1-, β2- and β3-ARs) either before ischaemia (preconditioning) or during ischaemia and reperfusion of the heart (postconditioning). 4 Brief periods of ischaemia preceding a major ischaemic episode can have a protective effect against post-ischaemia–reperfusion damage, known as ischaemic preconditioning. This review considers the role of endogenous catecholamines released during preconditioning and the nature of the adrenoceptor subtypes that mediate these effects. The clinical significance of this to the use of β-AR antagonists is considered. 5 The transduction pathways and effects on apoptosis of the cardioprotective and deleterious effects of AR activation are considered. 6 This commentary reviews the literature and attempts to bring together a unified synopsis of the effects of adrenoceptor stimulation in myocardial ischaemia and the potential clinical relevance.

Notes: 1 Cupric ions (Cu2+), at concentrations above 0.03 mm, induced a progressive increase in the tonic contraction of guinea-pig ileal longitudinal muscle. Maximal contraction of 0.1 mm Cu2+ attained a level above that of the 60-mm K+-induced tonic response, within 20 min of application. The tension induced by Cu2+ persisted for more than several hours. Tetrodotoxin (3 × 10−6 m) had no effect on the contraction induced by 0.1 mm Cu2+. 2 After incubation in a Ca2+-free medium, the ileal response to 0.1 mm Cu2+ was lost. Nifedipine, a L-type Ca2+ channel blocker, dose-dependently inhibited contractions induced by Cu2+. 3 As the duration of the first application of 0.1 mm Cu2+ increased above 30 min, after washing with normal medium, the contractile response to a second application of 0.1 mm Cu2+ decreased gradually. After 150 min of the first application of 0.1 mm Cu2+, a second application of Cu2+ could not evoke any contraction. 4 After the application of 0.1 mm Cu2+ for 150 min, when muscles were washed with a medium containing 1 mm EDTA, the response to 0.1 mm Cu2+ returned to a greater extent in the normal Ca2+ medium. 5 In conclusion, Cu2+ (0.1 mm) induced a maximal ileal tension above that of the K-induced tonic response within 20 min. The ileal contraction to Cu2+ persisted for more than several hours and depended on extracellular Ca2+ concentrations. It is possible that a part of Cu2+, bound to a EDTA-inaccessible site, also has a tension inhibitory effect.

Notes: 1 Anthraquinone stimulant cathartics, such as emodin, are believed to increase the rate of contraction of ileum tissue in vitro via multiple mechanisms. The aim of this study was to probe the effects of emodin on acetylcholine (ACh)-induced contraction of the rat isolated ileum preparation. 2 Ileal sections were incubated in Tyrode's solution and responses to methacholine, ACh and emodin obtained in the absence and presence of the muscarinic antagonist atropine and the choline uptake inhibitor hemicholinium (HC-3). Depletion of endogenous ACh in the presence of HC-3 was achieved by construction of an ACh dose–response curve, using exogenous ACh, prior to re-testing the effects of emodin in the presence of HC-3. 3 Emodin caused dose-dependent tissue contraction that was abolished by inclusion of atropine (1 μm) in the buffer. Atropine (1 μm) antagonized the response caused by methacholine. 4 Incubation of tissues with HC-3 (1 and 10 μm) reduced the maximum response caused by emodin by 45% and 71% respectively, but had no effect on ACh-induced tissue contraction. 5 These data suggest that, emodin causes contraction of the ileum by triggering the release of endogenous ACh which acts on muscarinic receptors to cause contraction of the rat isolated ileum preparation.

Notes: The inhibitory effect of alcohol extract of sumac (Rhus coriaria L.) was investigated at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5 and 5.0% (w/v) on the growth of 12 bacterial strains (6 Gram positives and 6 Gram negatives), mostly foodborne including pathogens. Minimal inhibitory concentration of the spice for each test organism was also studied by observing their growth on Nutrient Agar containing the spice extract at various incremental levels equivalent to 100–5000 mg/L of spice. Alcohol extract of sumac was found to be effective against all the test organisms, Gram positives being more sensitive than Gram negatives. Among the Gram positives, Bacillus species (B. cereus, B. megaterium, B. subtilis and B. thuringiensis) were found to be the most sensitive, surviving up to only 500 mg/L of the spice, followed by Staphylococcus aureus (1000 mg/L), whereas Listeria monocytogenes was found to be the most resistant, surviving up to 1500 mg/L. Of the Gram negative bacteria, Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli type I were found to be more resistant, surviving up to 3000 mg/L of the spice, followed by E. coli O157:H7 (2500 mg/L), Hafnia alvei (2000 mg/L), Proteus vulgaris (1500 mg/L) and Citrobacter freundii (1000 mg/L). Significant differences (P 〈 0.01) were found among bacterial strains and between the extracts of unripened and ripened sumac samples, with ripened being more effective against all of the bacteria tested.

Notes: The objective of these experiments was to determine whether alternative molting diets would minimize Salmonella enterica serovar Entertitidis (S. Enteritidis) colonization in molting hens. Hens were randomly assigned to four treatment groups of 12 hens either full-fed (nonmolt, NM), molted by feed withdrawal (molt, M), a low calcium (LC containing 800 mg calcium), or LC diet supplemented with 110 mg zinc/ kg of diet (LC-ZN) in two trials. All hens were challenged orally with 10 5SE on day 4 of experiment. Hen body weight loss was significantly (P 〈 0.05) increased and ovarian weight was significantly (P 〈 0.05) decreased in hens fed the LC or LC-ZN diets compared to NM. Cecal lactic acid concentrations were significantly (P 〈 0.05) increased in hens fed alternative molting diets. Feed withdrawal molted hens exhibited significantly (P 〈 0.05) more S. Enteritidis positive and S. Enteritidis crop, cecal, and organ colonization than NM, LC and LC-ZN hens. Alternative molt diets retain sufficient fermentative activity to limit S. Enteritidis colonization and therefore may have potential to avoid the risk of increasing S. Enteritidis colonization associated with feed withdrawal.

Notes: Staphylococcal foodborne diseases resulting from consumption of food contaminated with staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) produced by certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus are the second most common foodborne illnesses in the world. Analytical methods are essential for routine monitoring purposes and safeguard public health. Different methods for SE detection have been proposed although their use in a complex matrix is often limited by the presence of substances that interfere with tests. In this article reverse passive latex agglutination (RPLA) and immunoblotting methods based on specific antibodies and currently available for SE detection have been compared. Culture filtrates from enterotoxin S. aureus strains isolated from cheese samples were identified by SET-RPLA. Then the culture filtrates identified as staphylococcal enterotoxin A and staphylococcal enterotoxin B by RPLA test were analyzed with immunoblotting. The results obtained suggest that either SET-RPLA or immunoblotting may be applied to culture filtrates for the detection of SEs with good correspondence of results. Although SET-RPLA represents a simple method for routine monitoring purposes, a positive result by a rapid method (RPLA) is only regarded as presumptive and must be confirmed by standard methods (Feng 1996), such as immunoblotting method.

Notes: Ninety samples of maize, chick-peas and groundnut seeds collected from the Egyptian market were found to be heavily contaminated by molds. Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Eurotium, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus were the most common fungal genera isolated from nondisinfected seeds. Aspergillus alutaceus, A. flavus, Fusarium verticillioides and F. oxysporum were isolated from all surface-disinfected seeds and were reported to produce ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone, respectively. Irradiation at a dose 4.0 kGy reduced the mold growth greatly relative to unirradiated controls. There was no growth at dose 5.0 kGy. On the basis of the radiation survival data, the decimal reduction values D10 for A. alutaceus, A. flavus and F. verticilliodies were 0.70. 2.10 and 0.93 kGy in maize. A dose of 5 kGy inhibited the toxigenic molds and mycotoxin formation in seeds. Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A were detected in maize and chick-peas, whereas zearalenone was detected in maize samples. Application of radiation at a dose of 6.0 kGy detoxified aflatoxin B1 by 74.3–76.7%, ochratoxin A by 51.3–96.2% and zearalenone by about 78%.

Notes: Fresh-cut cantalcupe has been recalled due to the possible presence of Listeria monocytogenes. Several studies have reported that naturally occurring microflora of vegetable surfaces may be antagonistic to pathogen attachment, growth or survival. To test this possibility for L. monocytogenes and cantaloupes, whole melon were treated with water, ethanol (70%) or chlorine (200 ppm) to reduce the native microflora on the melon surfaces. Treated or untreated melons were immersed in a six strain cocktail of L. monocytogenes (107 CFU/mL) for 10 min and then allowed to dry for 1 h inside a biosafety cabinet followed by storage at 5, 10 and 20C for 15 days. Fresh-cut pieces prepared from the treated or untreated melons and directly inoculated with L. monocytogenes (3.48 log CFU/g) were stored under the same conditions listed above. Populations of L. monocytogenes and five classes of native microflora were investigated. Growth of L. monocytogenes in sterile or nonsterile rind and fresh-cut homogenates was also studied. The population of L. monocytogenes recovered from inoculated (103 to 108 CFU/mL) whole melons given no disinfection treatment or washed with water was significantly less (P 〈 0.05) than that recovered from melons treated with chlorine or EtOH. In general, populations of L. monocytogenes declined on the surface of treated and untreated whole melons and on fresh-cut pieces over the 15 days storage period at the temperatures tested. However, the decline in pathogen populations was less rapid in the presence of reduced populations of native microflora. Higher populations of L. monocytogenes were attained in sterile tissue homogenates than in nonsterile homogenates. Addition of yeast and mold to sterile rind homogenates was highly inhibitory to growth and survival of the pathogen. The results of this study indicate that native microflora of whole cantaloupe inhibited attachment to rind surfaces as well as survival and growth of L. monocytogenes on cantaloupe surfaces and homogenized fresh-cut pieces. Thus, L. monocytogenes recontamination of melons having a reduced level of native microflora following application of a disinfection treatment may be a food safety concern.

Notes: Streptococcus pyogenes is widely recognized as a human pathogen. Whereas person-to-person transmission is the most common transmission mechanism for this pathogen, some outbreaks of S. pyogenes disease have been reported to occur in association with consumption of contaminated foods such as shrimp or potato salads. In this study, the behavior of S. pyogenes was studied in mashed potatoes as a function of storage temperature, types and amount of background biota and type of ingredients. Combined mashed potatoes (potatoes, butter, milk, egg and table salt) or plain mashed potatoes (potatoes only) were inoculated with a 5-strain cocktail of S. pyogenes and stored at 7, 25, 35 or 37C. At intervals during storage, samples were collected for counting S. pyogenes in blood agar plates or blood agar added with sodium azide, polymyxin and crystal violet. Mashed potatoes obtained from fast-food restaurants were used to determine the fate of S. pyogenes as affected by changes in aerobic mesophiles, coliform and lactic acid bacteria counts. S. pyogenes was able to survive in mashed potatoes stored at 7C and to grow in mashed potatoes stored at 25 or 37C with lag phase lengths of 3 and 2 h and generation times of 26.0 and 25.3 min, respectively. The generation time of S. pyogenes in plain mashed potatoes was 30.7 min at 35 C. Presence of active background biota at 2–3 log10 CFU/g concentrations did not prevent growth of S. pyogenes when stored at 35C. These results contribute to a better understanding of the potential for S. pyogenes to cause foodborne outbreaks.

Notes: Survival of stationary phase Listeria innocua (as surrogate microorganism for L. monocytogenes) inoculated in apple juice (pH 3.3 or 3.8) supplemented with vanillin (1,500 ppm or 3,000 ppm) or potassium sorbate (500 ppm or 1,000 ppm) and stored at room temperature was studied. L. innocua survived in apple juice without the preservatives at pH 3.3 or 3.8, with minimal population reductions. In the juices with the incorporation of potassium sorbate or vanillin, L. innocua behavior depended on the pH value, the type of antimicrobial and its concentration. At pH 3.3, the presence of vanillin (3,000 ppm) or potassium sorbate (1,000 ppm or 500 ppm) decreased L. innocua counts, with population reductions ranging from 4 to 5 log cycles after a 4 h – 8 h exposure at 30C. However, at pH 3.8, L. innocua showed sensitivity only to 3,000 ppm vanillin. Survival curves were successfully fitted using a Weibull type distribution of resistances. The results suggest that the use of potassium sorbate or vanillin could prevent the survival of L. innocua in contaminated unpasteurized and pasteurized apple juice. Vanillin, a natural antimicrobial, would be particularly suitable as an antilisterial additive for less acidic apple juice.

Notes: To monitor the bacteriological quality of raw milk and raw milk farm products, 143 samples of raw farm milk and 100 samples of raw milk farm products, 64 butters, 9 yogurts, 16 cheeses, 7 ice creams and 4 fresh cheeses, produced in Belgium were examined for coliforms, β-glucuronidase positive Escherichia coli, verotoxin producing Escherichia coli O157, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Listeria spp. and Listeria monocytogenes. The results were compared with the threshold and maximum values of the EC directive 92/46/EC or the maximum values of the Belgian Order of Council from September 3, 2000. The presence of staphylococcal enterotoxins was investigated on samples with S. aureus counts higher than the legal threshold values mentioned in the EC directive or, if not regulated in the directive, higher than the maximum value mentioned in the Belgian Order of Council. The obtained results for the hygiene-indicators coliforms, β-glucuronidase positive E. coli and S. aureus in the raw milk samples were comparable with most other industrialized countries. Compared to a prevalence of 0.7% and 6.3% for, respectively, E. coli O157 and L. monocytogenes, no Salmonella was found in the 25 g raw milk farm samples. The isolated E. coli O157 strain was confirmed to be verotoxigenic; it was positive for VT2, eaeA and hlyA. In butter not only a prevalence of 18.7% for L. monocytogenes in 25 g was found but also the maximum values for the hygiene-indicators mentioned in the Belgian Order of Council were often exceeded. No significant difference was found between the count of hygiene-indicators and the presence of Listeria spp. as well in raw milk as in raw milk butter. The bacteriological quality of on-farm made raw milk butter suggest that suitable hygienic conditions are not always provided. One of the 7 ice cream samples contained L. monocytogenes in 25 g.

Notes: To determine the taste components of Cheddar cheese, we fractionated one mild Cheddar cheese and one aged Cheddar cheese by water extraction, freeze-drying and gel filtration. Salty, sour and umami were the three predominant tastes present in the fractions. Neither trigeminal sensations nor astringency was perceived. We used response surface methodology to reconstruct a mild Cheddar cheese taste and an aged Cheddar cheese taste in water. Less salt and less acid were needed to simulate the taste of mild Cheddar cheese, compared with aged Cheddar cheese. Our optimized water solutions (containing sodium chloride, lactic acid and monosodium glutamate) were as similar to the real cheese samples as were the water extracts of the standard cheeses. However, neither our optimized solutions nor the water extracts matched the taste of the actual cheeses.

Notes: Judges were required to rate the total intensity of NaCl solutions using a variety of unstructured category and line scales under a ‘rank-rating’ protocol and a traditional protocol that did not allow retasting or the reviewing of scores. The various scales and protocols induced two types of scaling errors. The first type was named a different-stimulus error. This involved a judge rating a stronger stimulus as equal to or less than a weaker stimulus. The second type was named a same-stimulus error. This involved a judge giving different ratings to two stimuli of equal concentration. For all scales, judges made a higher proportion of same-stimulus errors than different-stimulus errors. ‘Rank-rating’ only reduced the proportion of different-stimulus errors. It was hypothesized that a category scale with fewer categories would induce a higher level of different-stimulus errors but lower level of same-stimulus errors. These trends were noted but not always significantly. For line scales, the equivalent hypotheses regarding line length were either weak or not supported. It would appear that increasing the length of a line scale is not always equivalent to increasing the number of categories in a category scale.

Notes: The assessor performance is a key point in a sensory evaluation. In particular, at the end of a session, a decrease of the performance can be feared. We propose to analyze this performance with various criteria: usual ones as the main product effect or the error variance; a new one measuring the perceived products variability. The performance can then be studied all along the session from two points of view: in taking into account the only products tested at a given instant (named instantaneous); in taking into account all the products tested up to a given instant (named cumulative). In the presented example, in spite of the large number of products successively tested by each assessor, the instantaneous performance of the panel shows no significant deterioration. Furthermore, when the number of products tested by each assessor increases, more significant product effects can be obtained thanks to the accumulation of the amount of data. This shows that the number of products that can be reasonably studied by one assessor during one session is generally underestimated.

Notes: Two experimental procedures recommended for the evaluation of the psychophysical characteristics of odorous compounds, olfactory matching with the 1-butanol scale and cross-modality matching with the finger span are compared. The intensity of ethyl butyrate and guaiacol solutions presented at four different concentration levels was evaluated by a panel of sixteen subjects over five repetitions using the two methods. Each stimulus was delivered to the subject from a Teflon bag through a nose-shaped glass sniffing port.The discrimination ability, repeatability, panel homogeneity and within-subject variability of the methods were assessed. Results indicate that with both methods, subjects were able to highly discriminate the presented concentration levels of the odorants. There were no great difference in repeatability and the same individual variability was observed between both methods. However, the smaller within-subject variability highlighted for the 1-butanol scale method suggested that this method is potentially more powerful than finger-span method.

Notes: People can eat a food without having a strong preference for it, and people can prefer a food without eating it. Given this seeming disconnect between attitude and behavior, which type of measure or segment can best be used to profile or identify loyal consumer segments of a food, such as soy? This research compares a usage-based method (heavy-light-nonusers) with a new attitude-based method (seeker-neutral-avoider), and finds that the attitude-based method differentiates purchase-related intentions better than the usage-based method. Implications for profiling consumer taste patterns and consumer segments are provided.

Notes: Astringent and bitter sensations are characteristic sensory qualities of black tea. Three different classes of potential astringent reference standards (two concentrations each of alum and tannic acid and three fruit juices) were evaluated in this study. The perceived astringency, bitterness and sourness of each were profiled using computerized time-intensity and compared with the astringent intensity of a standardized brew of black tea. The differences in temporal profiles of potential reference standards across taste attributes were evident and intensity ratings were found to be dependent upon the stimulus and its concentration. Both concentrations of tannic acid were evaluated as the highest in perceived bitterness. For the juices, a strong sour taste was perceived in addition to astringency. It was concluded that the best reference standard for the astringency of black tea is a solution of 0.7 g/L alum as it is low in perceived bitterness and sourness.

Notes: We developed an alternative method for the determination of 6-n propylthiouracil (PROP) taster status that is based on the comparison of intensity ratings of PROP solutions with intensity ratings of visual, tactile, and kinesthetic (physical) stimuli. We then compared the classification obtained with this method to those derived from traditional approaches. One hundred and forty-two subjects rated the perceived intensity of 0.000032, 0.00018, 0.00032, 0.0018, and 0.0032 M PROP, and 0.01, 0.032, 0.1, 0.32, and 1.0 M NaCl, as well as five levels each of perceived roughness of sandpaper, grayness of shades, and thickness of honey and water mixtures on the Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS). Ratings for 0.00032 M PROP and 0.1 M NaCl were also compared in a one solution test. Subjects were classified as PROP nontasters, tasters or supertasters by all three procedures. Seventy-six percent of panelists were classified in a similar way by the physical stimuli and NaCl procedures, while 70% percent of panelists were classified similarly by the physical stimuli procedure and the one solution test, as well as by the NaCl procedure and the one solution test. Only 65% of panelists were classified similarly by all three procedures. Further, in replicate ratings of PROP solutions, supertasters’ evaluations of PROP at all concentration levels decreased significantly (P 〈 0.01) from the first to the second rating. It is evident from these findings that the method used to determine PROP taster status can greatly influence the outcome of any investigation of PROP taster status on other phenotypes.

Notes: The objective of this study was to verify key aroma-active compounds responsible for reconstituted fresh skim milk powder (SMP) aroma using threshold analysis, odor activity values, and model systems. Twelve odor-active compounds of SMP and one odor-active compound from fluid milk were selected based on flavor dilution factors from gas chromatography-olfactometry. Thresholds for the 13 odor-active compounds were identified using five-set ascending forced choice threshold analysis in odor-free water and fluid skim milk. Model systems were prepared using rehydrated milk retentate (RMR). The aroma of each model was evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis and by difference-from-control testing using a trained panel. The aroma of reconstituted fresh SMP and liquid skim milk were used as controls. Models containing a mixture of twelve of the thirteen chemicals had the most similar odor characteristics to rehydrated SMP aroma (9.0/10) indicating that these compounds constitute the character impact odorants of rehydrated fresh SMP.

Notes: The sensory characteristic “beany” is a limiting factor in introducing soy products to many consumers in western cultures. This research described sensory properties of beany flavor and described sensory odor characteristics of 19 chemicals that have been associated with beany aroma and flavor in previous literature. Seven concentrations varying from 1 to 100,000 ppm of each chemical (if soluble in propylene glycol) were examined by a five member trained descriptive panel. The panel described beany as having multiple attributes. Musty/earthy, musty/dusty, sour aromatics, and characterizing attributes such as green/pea pod, nutty, or brown collectively imparted beany aroma and flavor of most beans. Starchy flavor and powdery texture also were intrinsically associated with beany in bean product samples. Some chemicals tested were not beany at any level tested. Three alcohols, two ketones, one aldehyde, and one pyrazine exhibited beany characteristics (green/peapod or brown) only at low concentrations, generally 1-10 ppm.

Notes: This paper deals with the analysis of drivers for self-defined craveability assessed in an Internet-based, conjoint analysis task. The stimuli comprised 36 descriptions of restaurant hamburgers, including product features, benefits, restaurant names, and emotional reactions that might ensue after eating the hamburger. Elements were combined into concepts by experimental design, and the resulting concepts evaluated by 145 respondents, on the attribute of craveability. Models relating the presence/absence of concept elements to ratings revealed that statements about the hamburger itself were the most powerful, but that no single element was highest across all the respondents. Segmentation of the 145 individuals by the pattern of their individual utilities revealed four key segments. These are Elaborates who may be sensory-oriented and respond strongly to product descriptions; Classics who like the notion of a grilled hamburger; Imaginers who respond to restaurant name and advertising copy; and Emotionals who respond to statements about food to descriptions how the eater feels after consumption.

Notes: Judges were required to rate the total intensity of NaCl solutions and the sweetness of orange flavored beverages using a variety of unstructured category and line scales. Discrimination errors were noted for each type of scale. No strong differences were observed in discrimination between category and line scales although a 20-point category scale incurred fewer discrimination errors than 9-point category and line scales. Allowing judges to retaste stimuli and review and modify their scores reduced discrimination errors.

Notes: The objectives of this study were to compare oral and nonoral sensory evaluation for discrimination of texture of acid skim milk gels and to establish whether nonoral attributes could be correlated to the oral perception of texture. Trained panelists (n = 13) identified 11 nonoral (visual and in-hand) and 4 oral attributes during a preliminary profiling session that could be used to discriminate textures (P 〈 0.001) in a range of acid gels prepared with different solid contents and heat treatment of the milks. Both methods of sensory appraisal were found to discriminate between gels. Correlation analysis showed high interrelationship between individual oral and nonoral attributes (P 〈 0.01). Principal component analysis revealed that all 4 oral attributes could be combined into one single attribute (PC1), with equal relative importance of the individual attributes in explaining the variance in the oral sensory data set. Canonical correlation analysis revealed good correlation between the oral and nonoral set of attributes (R2 〉 87.5%).

Notes: : This study examined the effects of location within a package and display time on the incidence of premature browning in patties made from ground beef packaged in a high-oxygen modified atmosphere (80% oxygen and 20% carbon dioxide) or in vacuum for up to 14 d. On days 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, and 14 of display, patties were formed from both top and bottom portions of tissue exposed to high-oxygen. These patties contained predominantly oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin at the time of formation and cooking. As display progressed, the percentage of oxymyoglobin decreased (P 〈 0.05) and metmyoglobin increased (P 〈 0.05) in the patties for both locations, whereas the percentage of deoxymyoglobin remained stable at less than 2%. Samples that were vacuum-packaged contained predominantly deoxymyoglobin. Patties from high-oxygen packages cooked to a temperature of 71.1 °C were prematurely brown (P 〈 0.05) compared with vacuum-packaged samples. Patties containing predominantly deoxymyoglobin remained pinker than patties cooked directly from high-oxygen packages (lower visual color score, higher a* value; P 〈 0.05) on the interior after cooking. Data in this study clearly demonstrate that, regardless of time in display, nearly 100% of patties formed from high-oxygen-packaged ground beef would be prematurely brown when cooked and could pose a food safety problem if not cooked to an endpoint temperature ensuring safety.

Notes: : A recently reported, miniaturized method can simultaneously enumerate 4 critical indicator microorganisms in 24 h on a single 96-well microtiter plate, and is a convenient monitoring system for ensuring food plant hygiene. However, the utility of this method is limited by the necessity of plates being freshly prepared prior to each use. This study was undertaken to develop a method that would permit these plates to be prepared and stored in a stable form that could be conveniently used later. A microtiter plate filled with media dedicated to enumerating 4 specific classes of bacteria was freeze-dried. A given series was dedicated to enumerating either, total mesophilic bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, coliform bacteria, or Escherichia coli. Freeze-dried plates were reconstituted simply by adding 100 μL of sterile water to each well. After adding samples, two-fold serial dilutions were performed, and the plate was incubated for 24 h at 32 °C. Growth of 4 indicator microorganisms was detected in each series using metabolic indicators. The numerical estimates that these procedures yielded correlated very closely with numbers gained from conventional spread-plating methods (r2 〉 0.90). Additionally, the estimates obtained from liquid media microtiter plates and freeze-dried media plates showed a significantly strong relationship (r2 〉 0.92). Analysis of commercial ground beef showed a highly associated relationship (r2 〉 0.94) between the liquid four-culture and freeze-dried four-culture plate methods. The greatly enhanced facility of using premanufactured, freeze-dried microtiter plates would make this a most convenient way to perform microbial food quality analysis.

Notes: : Electron beam irradiated sliced cantaloupe was tested for 21 d of storage for total aerobic microbial counts, texture, color, and different sensorial parameters as a function of irradiation doses 0, 0.7, and 1.4 kGy and the wash treatments, 1 and 200 ppm chlorine applied to the melons before cutting. Irradiation resulted in a reduction in the total aerobic microbial counts with increasing doses. Melons washed only with water before cutting had total aerobic bacterial counts of 4.0, 2.0, and 0.8 log colony-forming units (CFU)/g on day 0 at irradiation doses of 0, 0.7, and 1.4 kGy, respectively. Across all doses of irradiation, counts were consistently lower for cantaloupe pieces obtained from melons that had been subjected to chlorine rinse in comparison with those washed with water without chlorine. Melons washed with chlorine before cutting had total aerobic bacterial counts of 2.7, 0.7, and 0.5 log CFU/g on day 0 at irradiation doses of 0, 0.7, and 1.4 kGy, respectively. Objective color analysis indicated no significant effect of irradiation on the color of cantaloupe. Texture measured as compression force was lower only for cantaloupe irradiated at 1.4 kGy. Irradiation did not affect descriptive attribute flavor and texture sensory attributes of cantaloupe pieces. Decontamination of whole cantaloupes before cutting using chlorine wash may be combined with low-dose irradiation for shelf-life extension of sliced cantaloupe.

Notes: : Magnesium is bound as the central atom of the porphyrin ring of the green plant pigments chlorophyll a and b. It has been suggested that chlorophyll-bound magnesium may play an important role in magnesium nutrition because when iron is similarly bound in the porphyrin ring of heme, it is absorbed to a greater extent than non-heme iron. We have analyzed 22 frequently consumed fruits and vegetables for the chlorophyll content by high-pressure liquid chromatography and for magnesium with atomic absorption spectroscopy. Chlorophyll concentrations ranged from 6 μg/g (grape) to 790 μg/g (spinach) (median 63 μg/g). Magnesium concentrations ranged from 48 μg/g (grape) to 849 μg/g (spinach) (median 122 μg/g). In the green leafy vegetables, such as spinach and lettuce, chlorophyll-bound magnesium represented 2.5% to 10.5% of total magnesium whereas other common green vegetables, pulses and fruits contained 〈 1% chlorophyll-bound magnesium. The chlorophyll content of spinach was further decreased by about 35% on thawing frozen spinach or on chopping fresh spinach, and this degradation increased to about 50% after boiling and steaming. Based on the present results and published food consumption data, we estimate that chlorophyll-bound magnesium represents a very low fraction of total magnesium intake in industrialized countries, less than 1% in the case for data obtained from Switzerland. Thus, chlorophyll-bound magnesium is of little relevance to magnesium nutrition.

Notes: : Oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species may be linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Fresh Red Delicious apples, having 232.9 mg/100 g vitamin C equivalent antioxidant capacity, protected the rat pheochromocytoma neuronal (PC-12) cells from H2O2-induced oxidative toxicity in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) reduction assay showed significant increase in cell viability when PC-12 cells were treated with apple extracts. This indicates that the apple phenolics protected oxidative stress-induced neurotoxicity. Because oxidative stress is also known to increase neuronal cell membrane breakdown, we further investigated by lactate dehydrogenase and trypan blue exclusion assays. Apple phenolics inhibited oxidative stress-induced membrane damage in neuronal cells. Therefore, these results may suggest that naturally occurring antioxidants, such as phenolic phytochemicals in fresh apples, may reduce the risk of neurodegenerative disorders.

Notes: : The impact of label information on the liking and closeness to ideal of tomato juice beverages was examined by having 100 judges assess 3 tomato juice beverages (Campbell's tomato juice, V8 juice, and an experimental tomato juice enhanced with soy) either with or without labeling information. Judges rated overall liking of each product and then rated appropriateness of various attributes (saltiness, tomato flavor, thickness, texture, red color, orange color, and brown color) on 5-point just-right scales. Only half of the judges were presented with product-related label information during evaluation. Overall liking scores were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, whereas different attribute ratings were analyzed using Thurstonian Ideal Point modeling and Chi-square. Product-associated label information did not significantly alter overall liking ratings (P 〉 0.05), although a significant difference in liking was found between products (P 〈 0.05). Similarly, the label information did not impact comparison of product attribute levels to ideal attribute levels. Both V8 and Campbell's were significantly different from the ideal for 3 of the attributes (P 〈 0.05). For the soy-enhanced tomato juice, all 7 attributes were significantly different from the ideal (P 〈 0.05). In this instance, labeling information had no notable impact on assessments.

Notes: : The effects of genotype, root size, storage, and processing on the content of bioactive compounds in carrots were determined to investigate the possibilities for optimizing the health-promoting properties of this vegetable. The content of polyacetylenes (falcarinol, falcarindiol, falcarindiol-3-acetate), carotenoids (α-and β-carotene), and isocoumarin 6-methoxymellein (6-MM) varied significantly between 6 genotypes of the Nantes type. The content of falcarindiol, falcarindiol-3-acetate, and 6-MM was significantly higher in small (50- to 100-g root size) than in extra large root sizes (〉250-g root size). Refrigerated storage of the roots for 4 mo at 1 °C before processing resulted in a significantly higher content of polyacetylenes and no differences in the content of carotenoids and 6-MM compared with frozen storage of processed carrots. The content of falcarinol increased and that of falcarindiol and falcarindiol-3-acetate decreased during steam blanching of the carrots before freezing. No changes were observed in the content of carotenoids and 6-MM.

Notes: : The dairy beverage market is a competitive and growing category in the food industry. Within this arena, chocolate milks vary widely in flavor, color, and viscosity. Understanding what sensory properties drive consumer liking is critical for maximum market share. This study was conducted to identify and define sensory characteristics of commercial chocolate milks and to link these differences to consumer preferences through the application of internal and external preference mapping. A sensory language was identified to document the sensory properties (visual, flavor, mouthfeel) of chocolate milks. Twenty-eight commercial chocolate milks were subsequently evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis using the identified sensory language. Thirteen representative milks were chosen for consumer acceptance testing followed by internal and external preference mapping to identify key drivers. Instrumental color and viscosity measurements were also taken. Two different techniques were used for external preference mapping: cluster analysis with generalized procrustes analysis and landscape segmentation analysis. Chocolate milks were differentiated by descriptive sensory analysis (P 〈 0.001). Wide variability was also observed in consumer acceptability of chocolate milks (P 〈 0.001). Correlations were observed among descriptive and consumer, descriptive and instrumental, and instrumental and consumer results (P 〈 0.001). Generalized procrustes analysis revealed 2 groups of consumers with 1 nondistinguishing driver of liking: cocoa aroma. Landscape segmentation analysis confirmed and clarified generalized procrustes analysis results by identifying 3 consumer segments with 3 drivers: cocoa aroma, malty, and cooked/eggy flavors.

Notes: : Pasteurized fluid milk samples were systematically collected from 3 commercial dairy plants. Samples were evaluated for microbial, chemical, and sensory attributes throughout shelf life. In general, product shelf lives were limited by multiplication of heat-resistant psychrotrophic organisms that caused undesirable flavors in milk. The predominant microorganisms identified were Gram-positive rods including Paenibacillus, Bacillus, and Microbacterium. Principal component analysis of sensory data collected using quantitative descriptive analysis showed that attributes related to milk flavor defects explained the largest amount of variance. These findings highlight the need to develop specific strategies for excluding bacterial contaminants from milk to further extend product shelf lives.

Notes: : In this study, pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment of beer, effectiveness of PEF treatment on microbial inactivation, effects of PEF treatment on sensory properties, and detection of electrode material migration were explored. Beer samples were treated by PEF for the inactivation of natural flora and inoculated cultures of Saccaromyces uvarum, Rhodotorula rubra, Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus damnosus, and Bacillus subtilis. Inactivation induced by the PEF treatment was 0.5, 4.1, 4.3, 4.7, 5.8, and 4.8 log10 colony-forming units/mL in the above microorganisms, respectively (P 〈 0.05). There was a significant increase in the amount of Cr, Zn, Fe, and Mn ions in the beer samples after PEF treatment (P 〈 0.05) leading to a statistically significant degradation in flavor and mouth feel. Further studies are needed to optimize electrode materials and PEF treatment to minimize or eliminate this degradation.

Notes: : Physicochemical parameters, sensory attributes, and total aroma emission of ‘Fuji’ apples (Malus×domestica Borkh.) were studied in relation to storage conditions, storage duration, and shelf life period. Commercially ripe fruit were analyzed after 3, 5, and 7 mo of cold storage in normal atmosphere (AIR) (210 L/m3 O2+ 0.3 L/m3 CO2) or under 3 different controlled atmosphere (CA) treatments (10 L/m3 O2+ 10 L/m3 CO2, 20 L/m3 O2+ 20 L/m3 CO2, or 10 L/m3 O2+ 30 L/m3 CO2), after which apples were kept at 20 °C for 1, 5, and 10 d. Data were subjected to partial least square regression (PLSR) analysis. Physicochemical parameters were well preserved throughout storage, especially in CA-stored apples; however, these apples showed lower total aroma emission. Sensory acceptability was also higher for CA-stored fruit after 7 mo of storage, whereas no significant differences were found for shorter storage periods. Accordingly, greater scores in sensory firmness, sensory flavor, sensory acidity, and appearance were observed for fruit stored in 10 L/m3 O2+ 10 L/m3 CO2 after long storage. Two PLSR models were established, 1 for relating physicochemical parameters to overall acceptability, and another for assessing the correlation between sensory acidity and instrumentally measured titratable acidity. The 1st PLSR model indicated that soluble solids concentration, titratable acidity, flesh firmness, and background color of the shaded side have a positive influence on acceptability. The 2nd model indicated that sensory acidity also showed an excellent correlation to instrumentally measured titratable acidity.

Notes: : The 2002 Farm Bill allows irradiated ground beef to be distributed in the Natl. School Lunch Program (NSLP). Sensory properties of irradiated ground beef specified for the NSLP were evaluated. Frozen ground beef patties with 15% fat content were either not irradiated or irradiated at doses of 1.35 and 3.0 kGy. Aroma, taste, aftertaste, and texture as well as overall liking of cooked patties after 0 and 6 mo of storage were evaluated using nontrained panels. Results showed that irradiation had no significant (P 〉 0.05) effect on the ratings of any of the sensory attributes either at 0 or after 6 mo of storage. Average ratings of liking of aroma, taste, aftertaste, and overall were higher at 6 mo than at 0 mo.

Notes: : Two studies, one in Uruguay using Uruguayan white pan bread (WPB) and another in Spain using Spanish WPB, were carried out with trained judges and consumers from the country in question. The objectives were to correlate the consumer panel acceptability, trained sensory panel scores, and instrumental measurements of defects likely to appear during WPB storage, to compare the acceptability prediction models obtained in each country, and to apply survival analysis methodology to estimate the shelf life of the product. Logistic regression was used to predict the acceptance percentage and multiple regression was used to predict acceptability. Sensory variables (strange odor) showed a greater prediction capacity for Uruguayan WPB acceptability and acceptance percentage. For the Spanish WPB, instrumental cohesiveness and moisture content variables showed a greater prediction capacity for the acceptance percentage, whereas sensory (cohesiveness and color) and moisture content variables showed a greater prediction capacity for acceptability. Uruguayan WPB shelf life was 15 d for a 50% probability of consumer rejection and 13 d for a 25% probability of consumer rejection, whereas for Spanish WPB it was 23 d for a 50% probability of consumer rejection and 16 d for a 25% probability of consumer rejection.

Notes: : Squid skin color is one of many important factors to evaluate market values. The effects of chilling and hypoxia treatments on skin color of Japanese common squid Todarodes pacificus and spear squid Loligo bleekeri were investigated to prevent highly fresh squids from abnormal fading skin color with inappropriate commercial value losses. Skin color of the squids gradually faded away during ice-cold storage. Measurements of chromato-phores expansion showed that skin color can be maintained well after death by keeping the bodies well-oxygenated and avoiding direct contact with ice.

Notes: : Lysozyme-chitosan composite films were developed for enhancing the antimicrobial properties of chitosan films. A 10% lysozyme solution was incorporated into 2% chitosan film-forming solution (FFS) at a ratio of 0%, 20%, 60%, and 100% (w lysozyme/w chitosan). Films were prepared by solvent evaporation. Lysozyme release from the film matrix, the antimicrobial activity of films against Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis, and basic film properties were investigated. The lysozyme release proportionally increased with increasing initial concentration of lysozyme in the film matrix, and the amount of released lysozyme was in natural log relationship with time. The films with 60% lysozyme incorporation enhanced the inhibition efficacy of chitosan films against both S. faecalis and E. coli, where 3.8 log cycles reduction in S. faecalis and 2.7 log cycles reduction in E. coli were achieved. Water vapor permeability of the chitosan films was not affected by lysozyme incorporation, whereas the tensile strength and percent elongation values decreased with increased lysozyme concentration. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed that lysozyme was homogeneously distributed throughout the film matrix. This study demonstrated that enhanced antimicrobial activity of lysozyme-chitosan composite films can be achieved by incorporating lysozyme into chitosan, thus broadening their applications in ensuring food quality and safety.

Notes: : Color is one of the determinant sensory qualities for green tea. As cold tea beverages in clear bottles are getting more popular, the traditional evaluation methods are gradually being altered to attach more importance to the tea infusion color. For quality control, experiments were carried out on 10 green tea samples to investigate the compounds influencing the colors of dry tea leaves and infusions. By calculating the coefficients of determination between the greenness (expressed in tristimulus data) and chemical composition, chlorophylls proved to be the influential compounds for the color of dry tea leaves; water-insoluble chlorophylls were also released from the fragile tea leaves during infusion and increased both the greenness and turbidity of tea infusions. Among the flavonoids (catechins and flavonols) detected in green tea infusions, quercetin was shown to be the most important phenolic compound contributing to the greenness of tea infusion.

Notes: : The hypothesis was tested that total thermal input (combined time and temperature), rather than merely heating rate, is the determining factor in heat-induced gel formation by muscle proteins. For comminuted pastes of pollock surimi and turkey breast, rapid heating plus a brief holding time at the endpoint temperature produced similar textural properties to gels, which were heated by a slower cook schedule and cooled immediately. These results suggest that the equivalent point method, a tool used to compare and communicate equivalent heat treatments for effecting bacterial reduction and/or enzyme inactivation, can be used to identify other heat processes having similar effects on gelation.

Notes: : Nonenzymatic browning (NEB) rates of amorphous, carbohydrate-based, freeze-dried and spray-dried food model systems containing L-lysine and D-xylose as reactants (5% w/w) were investigated at different temperatures (40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, 80 °C, 90 °C). Samples were exposed to various relative vapor pressure levels (11%, 23%, and 33%) to adjust water contents. Water sorption was determined gravimetrically, and data were modeled using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller and Guggenheim-Anderson-deBoer equations. Glass transition, Tg, was observed by differential scanning calorimetry. NEB was followed spectrophotometrically. The surface structures of freeze-dried and spray-dried models were observed by scanning electron microscopy. The freeze-dried samples and the spray-dried samples showed different surface structures and slight differences in thermal behavior. Crystallization of component sugars in the freeze-dried samples was slightly more delayed than in spray-dried samples. The glass transition temperatures in spray-dried samples were higher than those of the freeze-dried samples at the same water activity. The temperature dependence of NEB rate in both systems followed the Arrhenius kinetics, but the activation energies were different. Williams-Landel-Ferry equation could be used to model the NEB kinetics in the freeze-dried system, but for the spray-dried system, negative constant values were not within the allowable range.

Notes: : The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of various concentrations of glucono-δ-lactone (GDL) and skim milk powder, as well as the addition of prebiotics, on the rheology and probiotic viabilities of dairy tofu. Additionally, modern optimization techniques were applied to attempt to determine the optimal processing conditions and growth rate for the selected probiotics (Lactobacillus. acidophilus, L. casei, Bifidobacteria bifidum, and B. longum). There were 2 stages in this research to accomplish the goal. The 1st stage was to derive surface models using response surface methodology (RSM); the 2nd stage performed optimization on the models using sequential quadratic programming (SQP) techniques. The results were demonstrated to be effective. The most favorable production conditions of dairy tofu were 1% GDL, 0% peptides, 3% isomaltooligosaccharides (IMO), and 18% milk, as confirmed by subsequent verification experiments. Analysis of the sensory evaluation results revealed no significant difference between the probiotic dairy tofu and the GDL analog in terms of texture and appearance (P 〈 0.05). The viable numbers of probiotics were well above the recommended limit of 106 CFU/g for the probiotic dairy tofu throughout the tested storage period.

Notes: : Fresh ground pork patties from longissimus dorsi muscle were cooked to endpoint temperatures of 54.4 °C, 60.0 °C, 65.6 °C, 71.1 °C, 76.7 °C, or 82.2 °C. After cooking, patties were immersed in a solution of sodium nitrite (125 ppm) and water for 24 h. All patties then were heated again to a final endpoint temperature of 82.2 °C to allow possible formation of nitrosohemochrome. Instrumental color data, spectrophotometric 650/570 nm reflectance ratio, and visual panelists’ scores on both exterior and interior surfaces revealed greater redness (pinking) at the lower initial cooked temperature endpoints. Most importantly, this study showed that all patties developed pink color on reheating, regardless of initial endpoint cooked temperature.

Notes: : Lycopene, a tomato carotenoid, has been associated with the inhibition of certain chronic diseases including prostate cancer. Tomato oleoresin is a lipid-rich material resulting from successive solvent extraction of the tomato fruit. Thermal stability and isomerization of lycopene in oleoresins prepared from 3 different tomato varieties, Roma, High Lycopene, and Tangerine, and tomato peel waste, were studied at 25 °C, 50 °C, 75 °C, and 100 °C in the dark. Thermally degraded lycopene compounds and isomers of lycopene were analyzed by a combination of C30 reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatograph with a photodiode array detector, UV-visible spectrometer, or mass spectrometer. Effects of antioxidants on lycopene were also studied at 50 °C. As the storage temperature increased from 25 °C to 100 °C, the degradation of total lycopene in oleoresin from all samples increased significantly (P 〈0.05). Lycopene at 25 °C and 50 °C may degrade mainly through oxidation without isomerization. Isomerization of lycopene in tomato oleoresins increased at 75 °C and 100 °C. Tetra-cis lycopene in Tangerine tomato varieties followed different degradation and isomerization pathways compared with all-trans lycopene in other tomato varieties. Addition of α-tocopherol or butylated hydroxytoluene slowed the rate of degradation of lycopene in oleoresin.

Notes: : The effectiveness of temperature, SO2, citric acid, and industrial juice-processing enzymes (n= 9) for producing extracts of blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum, cv. Rubel) and blueberry skins that are rich in anthocyanins and polyphenolics were evaluated individually and/or in combination. Enzyme treatment had little effect on total monomeric anthocyanins and on total phenolics recovery. Various combinations of heat, SO2, and citric acid yielded extracts with higher concentrations of ACY and TP than the control. The distribution of anthocyanins and polyphenolics in ‘Rubel’ was also investigated. Anthocyanins existed almost exclusively in the skins, and polyphenolics were mostly in the skins with lesser amounts in flesh and seeds. Skins were also highest in antioxidant activity. All portions contained the same individual anthocyanins but in varying amounts. Cinnamic acid derivatives and flavonol-glycosides were found in the skins and seeds, whereas the flesh contained only cinnamic acids.

Notes: : The functional properties of egg white (EW) glycated with a rare D-psicose and 2 alimentary sugars (D-fructose and D-glucose) were investigated. Glycation led not only to the formation of cross-links but also to the formation of antioxidative substances to EW, the extent of which depended on the sugar used, modification, and incubation time. The temporal development of browning and fluorescence of psicose-EW was relatively faster than those of fructose-EW and glucose-EW. The psicose-EW showed the greater 2,3-bis (2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5carboxanilide (XTT) reducibility, 2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical scavenging activity, and gelling rheological properties. These results indicated that psicose-EW as a food ingredient might have the ability to improve gelling behavior and decrease oxidation reactions during food processing and storage.

Notes: : A high-performance liquid chromatography/evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC/ELSD) method was developed to determine natural forms of soyasaponin B with (αg, βg, βa, γg, γya) and without (V, I, II, III, IV) 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP) in soybean. The coefficient of variance of intra-day assays was 〈 9.51% and that of inter-day assays was 〈 10.91%. The soyasaponin I was used as external standard for quantification of all soyasaponins because it was established that their ELSD signal responses were essentially the same under the specific operating conditions. The extraction conditions were optimized and the extract storage conditions were established for analysis of soyasaponin Bs in their natural state. The energy of activation of soyasaponin Pg was 40.76 kJ/mol. The recovery rates for soyasaponin I and II were 98.3% and 93.1%, respectively. The average of total soyasaponins content from 5 soybean samples was 3.37 μmol/g with ranges from 2.78 to 4.03 μmol/g. This method is simple and easy to use, and the sample preparation takes less time than existing methods.

Notes: : Oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) appears to play a pivotal role in atherosclerosis. In the present study the effect of several concentrations of rutin, its aglycon quercetin, cyanidin 3-O-β-d-glucoside, its aglycon cyanidin, hydroxycinnamic acids, and a standardized red orange (Citrus sinensis varieties) extract (ROE) on LDL oxidation was tested. Lipid peroxidation was monitored by conjugated diene formation and by different electrophoretic mobility of native LDL and oxidized LDL. Results obtained in the present study suggest specific effects of flavonoids tested and, in particular, of ROE on the prevention of LDL oxidation involved in the development of cardiovascular diseases.

Notes: : An approach to classify potato chips using pattern recognition from color digital images consists of 5 steps: (1) image acquisition, (2) preprocessing, (3) segmentation, (4) feature extraction, and (5) classification. Ten chips prepared for each of the following 6 conditions were examined: 2 pretreatments (blanched and unblanched) at 3 temperatures (120°C, 150°C, and 180°C). More than 1500 features were extracted from each of the 60 images. Finally, 11 features were selected according to their classification attributes. Seven different classification cases (for example, classification of the 6 classes or distinction between blanched and unblanched samples) were analyzed using the selected features. Although samples were highly heterogeneous, using a simple classifier and a small number of features, it was possible to obtain a good performance value in all cases: classification of the 6 classes was in the confidence interval between 78% and 89% with a probability of 95%.

Notes: : The fat fraction of an oil-in-water emulsion was measured in vitro and in vivo in the gastric lumen using inversion recovery echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging and a non-exchanging, 2-compartment longitudinal relaxation model. This predicted the oil emulsion fat fraction in vitro well (Pearson's R= 0.97). Intragastric measurements in vivo correlated well with nasogastric aspirates taken from the stomachs of 7 healthy human subjects (R= 0.72). This method has potentially important applications in studying the properties of oil-in-water emulsions and also in assessing the intragastric distribution of fat emulsions in vivo and in correlating physiologic gastric emptying of fat and lipid blood absorption profiles.

Notes: : The possibility of modeling the cross-contamination of Listeria species, total Listeria monocytogenes, or specific L. monocytogenes strains using a quantitative mathematical model using Monte Carlo simulation techniques is proposed. This article illustrates this approach using 2 different models: one that tracks L. monocytogenes number and prevalence for 4 different strains (Model I) and one that tracks only prevalence for a single strain (Model II). These models have been developed to provide a starting framework for predictive modelers and scientists studying L. monocytogenes to begin research together with the ultimate goal of understanding and controlling L. monocytogenes in food-processing plants.

Notes: : The aim of the present study was to clarify by means of sensory tests whether taste, aroma, or texture is the dominant contributor to people's ability to identify the animal species of meat. The meat samples used were loins of beef, pork, and lamb; chicken thigh; and aigamo (crossbreed of domestic duck and wild duck) breast. Panelists (32 to 35 persons) wearing eye masks ate cooked pieces, patties, and heated soups prepared from the meats of these 5 species with and without pinching their noses to regulate the aroma sensation, attempted to identify the species, and gave reasons for their identifications. In the test involving meat pieces and pinched noses, the percentage of panelists identifying chicken correctly was the highest, at 72%, whereas the percentages of correct identification for all other animal species were less than 50%; however, values were higher for each species in tests without nose pinching. In the tests of meat patties involving pinched noses, the percentage of correct identification for each animal species was slightly lower in comparison with the tests of meat pieces; however, the values were higher in tests without pinched noses. In the tests of soups using pinched noses, the percentage of correct identification for each animal species was lower than 30%; however, the values were higher in tests without pinched noses. These results led us to the conclusion that aroma is the most important contributor to the identification of the animal species of meat, and texture is the 2nd most important contributor. The contribution of taste appears much smaller than that of aroma and texture.

Notes: : Consumption of omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids is beneficial for human health. Incorporation of ω-3 fatty acids into functional foods is limited by their high susceptibility to oxidative degradation. Oil-in-water emulsions may be a more effective method to deliver ω-3 fatty acids into functional foods. Protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions at pH values below the isoelectric point of the protein produce cationic emulsion droplets that decrease the oxidation of lipids by decreasing iron-lipid interactions. This research showed that whey protein isolate (WPI)-stabilized algal oil emulsions at pH 3.0 had good physical and oxidative stability after pasteurization. Addition of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

Notes: : Boldo is an endemic plant from Chile widely used in folk medicine, whose biological (mainly antioxidant) activity has been attributed to the presence of the alkaloid boldine. The aim of this study was to determine the contribution of the flavonoid and other crude fractions from boldo leaves to the antioxidant activity of extracts. The main constituent in the flavonoid fraction was also isolated. The antioxidant activity and reducing power of crude boldo extract and fractions were measured and compared with natural and synthetic antioxidants. The antioxidant activity of boldo leaf extracts came mainly from the flavonoid fraction (44.1%) followed by the alkaloid fraction (15.6%), with catechin and boldine being the main contributors of the antioxidant activity of these 2 fractions (60.9% and 35.6% of the total activity, respectively). On the basis of these results, we propose to use catechin and boldine as markers for the antioxidant activity of boldo leaves. Tailor-made antioxidants to be used in foods can be prepared by enriching these 2 fractions.

Notes: : Seven potential variables, pretreatment temperature, pretreatment time, concentration of OH−, concentration of H+, extraction temperature, extraction time, and skin/water ratio, were investigated by a 27-3 fractional factorial design to identify critical control factors for pollock skin gelatin extraction, and 3 responses, yield, gel strength, and viscosity, were evaluated. The results suggest that 4 variables, pretreatment temperature, concentration of OH−, concentration of H+, and extraction temperature, have significant effects on gelatin extraction, and these key factors were then selected for the subsequent optimization using response surface methodology with a 4-factor, 5-level central composite rotatable design. It suggests that a concentration of OH− at 0.25 mol/L, a concentration of H+ at 0.09 mol/L, a pretreatment temperature at 2°C, and an extraction temperature at 50°C, will give the highest values for the 3 responses. The predicted responses for these extraction conditions are that the yield will be 18%, gel strength will be 460 g, and viscosity will be 6.2 c P.

Notes: : Detection of irradiated ostrich meat with doses of 1 to 10 kGy using the DNA comet assay and hydrocarbon determinations by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was investigated. The irradiated ostrich meat showed comets with long tails whereas nonirradiated controls showed intact cells only slight comets. Concentrations of radiation-induced hydrocarbons increased with irradiation dose. Radiation-induced hydrocarbons in ostrich meat were detected at doses of 1 kGy or more; however, they were not detected in nonirradiated controls. The prominent radiation-induced hydrocarbons included 14:1, 15:0, 16:2, 16:3, 17:1, and 17:2, with 16:2 the most abundant.

Notes: : Anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the attractive red to purple to blue colors of many fruits, vegetables, flowers, and cereal grains. In plants they serve as attractants for pollination and seed dispersal, give protection against the harmful effects of UV irradiation, and provide antiviral and antimicrobial activities. Anthocyanin-based colorants are commercially manufactured for food use from horticultural crops and from processing wastes. There is a large body of knowledge on anthocyanin chemistry in the literature that includes established, systematic methods for identifying anthocyanins and measuring their concentration and color properties. Structural variation (B-ring substitution, glycosidic substitution, and acylation) produces a multiplicity (over 400) of anthocyanins. Color intensity and hue, as well as stability, are markedly affected by pH, which can be a major limitation for many food applications. Increased glycosidic substitution and acylation with cinnamic acids will improve pigment stability. However, the matrix in which the pigments exist can have a much greater impact on pigment degradation. Anthocyanin pigments are very effective scavengers of free radicals. Currently, there is much research activity on their possible health benefits. While anthocyanin-based colorants are universally approved for food use, there are considerable regulatory differences among countries.

Notes: : Structural and rheological properties have been investigated for an aerated system containing a high content of invert sugar and 2 to 10 wt% egg albumen. The specific gravity and the overrun were found to be influenced by the protein concentration and the whipping time. The systems exhibited rheopexy and shear-thinning at high shear rate, with flow data fitted to a power-law model. At small deformations, viscous character was found to dominate over elastic character over the frequency range 10−2 to 10 Hz. Images taken from confocal microscopy indicated that mean bubble size and concentration varied systematically with protein concentration and whipping time, and that more protein accumulated on the bubble surfaces as whipping proceeded. The study of this model system illustrates how the texture of a high sugar content aerated food depends on protein content and whipping conditions.

Notes: : Trials were conducted to evaluate the potential for using bacteriophages to control Salmonella in sprouting seeds. Two phages (Phage-A, capable of lysing S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, and Phage-B, capable of lysing S. Montevideo) were isolated and characterized as members of the Myoviridae and Siphoviridae families, respectively. Salmonella counts increased in all inoculated seeds during soaking and mustard seeds supported greater growth of the inoculated Salmonella than broccoli seeds. A 1.37 log suppression of Salmonella growth was achieved by applying Phage-A on mustard seeds. The mixture of Phage-A and Phage-B caused a 1.50 log suppression of Salmonella growth in the soaking water of broccoli seeds. Host specificity observed in the study stresses the importance of developing phage mixtures that can control a broad range of potential contaminants.

Notes: : Ingestion of probiotics can be recommended as a preventative approach to maintaining intestinal microflora balance and thereby enhance‘well-being'. Undoubtedly, probiotic bacteria will vary in their efficacy. The literature indicates positive results in over 50 human trials with prevention/treatment of infections the most frequently reported. In theory, increased levels of probiotics may induce a ‘barrier’ influence against common pathogens. Mechanisms of effect are likely to include the excretion of acids (lactate, acetate), competition for nutrients and gut receptor sites, immuno-modulation and the formation of specific antimicrobial agents. An alternative, or additional, approach is the prebiotic concept. This takes the view that probiotics are present indigenous to the gut and that a rational approach towards increasing their numbers would be to consume food ingredients (carbohydrates) that have a selective metabolism in the lower gut. A prebiotic is‘a nondigestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon that can improve the host health.' In particular, the ingestion of fructo-oligosac-charides, galacto-oligosaccharides, and lactulose has shown to stimulate bifidobacteria in the lower gut.

Notes: : We report the development of automated flourometric immunoassay for the detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7, using antibody-directed liposomes (immunoliposomes) encapsulating fluorophore as an analytical reagent. Thiolated antibodies (anti-E. coli O157:H7) were coupled to malemide-tagged liposomes encapsulating dye. To automate the assay, a fluorescence plate reader was included in the assay system to detect fluorophore released from lysed liposomes in a microplate. The detection limit of the current assay with pure cultures of the serotype was about 104 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL. The assay can detect E. coli O157 in ground beef samples inoculated with as few as 0.8 CFU/mL after a 12-h enrichment. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using fluorophore-encapsulated immunoliposomes in a microtiter plate for the rapid and automated detection of molecules with multivalent antigenic sites.

Notes: : Flat oysters, Ostrea edulis, were emersed and stored for 23 d in freshwater ice and cold stored without ice. A control group was maintained in running seawater. Death, histological changes, bacterial growth, and changes in sensory profile were measured and described. Death of the oysters could be determined by measuring tissue pH. The sensory profiles of iced and cold-stored oysters were significantly different from the controls, and changes in sensory profile correlated with the appearance of spoilage bacteria and degradation of digestive tissues. Changes were most pronounced in iced specimens. Freshness of the oysters was correlated to the smell of sea, fresh fish, and shellfish and the appearance of the mantle.

Notes: : To construct a Cheddar taste in media similar to Cheddar cheese, we developed dairy, nondairy, and mozzarella model systems. We trained a descriptive analysis panel to evaluate real and model cheeses for a variety of taste attributes and for Cheddar-like taste. We added sodium chloride, lactic acid, citric acid, and monosodium glutamate to the model systems using mixture designs and used response surface methodology to determine optimum levels of these 3 components. Less sodium chloride and acids were needed to simulate the taste of mild Cheddar compared with aged Cheddar. None of the model cheeses closely mimicked the texture of real Cheddar. We approximated, but did not match, the taste of aged cheddar using our mozzarella base. Panelists generally rated the optimized tastes in the dairy model system as more Cheddar-like than the optimized tastes in the nondairy model.

Notes: : Eight cooked chuck muscles were subjected to Warner-Bratzler shear (WBS) force analysis in phase I of the study to choose the cooking methods and temperature combinations suitable for descriptive sensory analysis in phase II. WBS force analysis was unable to discriminate (P 〉 0.05) cooking and temperature combinations among various muscles. Nine chuck muscles were then subjected to cooking by grilling, roasting, and braising to an internal temperature of 63°C and 77°C. A panel of 10 trained judges performed the descriptive analysis of the cooked chuck muscle steaks. Grilling, under medium rare conditions, was most suitable for the chuck muscles because it yielded more juiciness and roasted flavor than any other cooking method/temperature combinations.

Notes: : Different washing treatments with chlorinated and ozonated water were applied to carrots (Daucus carota L.) on an industrial scale to improve the sensorial and microbial quality of packaged ready-to-eat produce. Quality of shredded carrots was determined by sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis. Washing shredded carrots resulted in increased sugar leaching and loss of sensorial quality, whereas prewashing uncut carrots with chlorine ensured sugar retention, reduced microbial load, and concurrently minimized cross-contamination. Comparable germ reduction was not achieved by prewashing with ozone. These findings demonstrated that prewashing uncut carrots with chlorine provided sufficient microbiological safety paired with improved sensorial properties.

Notes: : Data were collected from 902 rural and urban residents of Ohio during the winter of 2003 to assess attitudes toward the production of genetically modified (GM) plants and animals. Attitudes were assessed using Likert-type attitude statements. The theoretical perspective used in the investigation was developed from diffusion and risk perception theories. Regression modeling demonstrated that the theoretical model was very good for predicting variability in attitudes toward GM plants and animals. Approximately 61% of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by the statistical model. The findings are discussed in the context of the social acceptability of GM food and fiber products among Ohio residents.

Notes: : Modern food production technology is given great challenges by the emerging fields of biotechnology and molecular biology. Knowledge of conventional fermentation technology is upgraded by the gene level explanations of enzyme actions and physiological functions of biomaterials derived therefrom. The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products in food widens the availability of resources while also raising public interest about safety and labeling. As an example of the application of molecular biology in conventional fermentation technology the selection of proteases from a Bacillus species grown in Korean traditional soybean fermentation starter, Meju, and the production of peptides with blood cholesterol lowering effect, obtained from soybean protein hydrolysate, are presented. Recent developments in the Korean bioindustry are reviewed as an example of the role of biotechnology in the food industry. The present status of GMO enzymes in food production is reviewed and safety issues about GMO use in the food system are discussed.

Notes: : Casein was hydrolyzed by trypsin to 5% degree of hydrolysis, and the hydrolysate was fractionated by ultrafiltration. While screening for the best emulsifying properties, the retentate fraction was systematically fractionated by ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange, and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Residue from 30% ammonium sulfate saturation yielded 3 fractions on anion exchange chromatography. Preparative reverse-phase HPLC was used to isolate 4 peptides with good emulsifying properties for characterization. Computational methods were used to complement amino acid sequencing, and the peptides were identified as originating from αs-1 casein (f167-208), β-casein (f48-63), and (f129-184). A 4th peptide could not be conclusively identified. Properties of the emulsifying peptides are discussed.

Notes: : Mean methanethiol headspace concentrations above aqueous slurries of isolated soy proteins (ISP) increased 17-to 36-fold over the controls with the addition of L-cysteine. Corresponding hydrogen sulfide levels were also greatly increased. Dithiothreitol, sodium sulfite, and glutathione increased headspace methanethiol from aqueous ISPs 23-to 44-fold, 8-to 9-fold, and 5-fold, respectively, but did not elevate hydrogen sulfide. These observations, along with the effects from the addition of dithiothreitol/O-acetyl-serine, the addition of a pyridoxial phosphate inhibitor and the intrinsic sulfite content of ISP samples (22 to 31 ppm), indicate that methanethiol from soy proteins is formed by way of components of a sulfite-to-cysteine pathway.

Notes: Water solubility, hermal properties, tensile strength, percent elongation, oxygen permeability (OP), water-vapor permeability (WVP) of cross-linked glycerol plasticized whey protein isolate films were studied to determine the effect of cross-linkers (glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, dialdehyde starch, carbonyldiimidazole, and UV irradiation) on film properties. With the exception of UV treatment, solubility of the films decreased (P〉0.05) upon treatment of the film-forming solutions with chemical cross-linkers. Tensile strength increased (P〉0.05), whereas percent elongation was not affected by cross-linking. Chemical cross-linking increased (P〉0.05) WVP and decreased (P〉0.05) OP of the films. UV treatment had no effect on WVP and O P. With the exception of UV-treated films, both onset temperature and degradation temperatures, as determined by differential scanning calorimetry, were increased upon cross-linking.

Notes: : The properties of total sarcoplasmic proteins from oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps)have been assessed. Ammonium sulfate fractionation of total sarcoplasmic proteins yielded 5 different fractions. The UV-ab-sorption spectra of all 5 sarcoplasmic proteins fraction showed a peak in the wavelength range of 275 to 280 nm indicating aromatic amino acid residues in its composition. The SDS-PAGE of different fractions showed components in the molecular weight range of 97 to 29 kD. The thermal stability in the temperature range of 40° to 80 °C of different fractions were varied in nature. The flow profile of different fractions indicated pseudo-plastic behavior and minimum structural impairment for fraction V at 30 and 40 °C, respectively. The gelation profile of washed sardine meat in combination with different sarcoplasmic proteins fraction revealed fraction V could enhance the storage modulus values during heating regime.

Notes: : We studied the effectiveness of partial replacement of glycerol with citric, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids on the antimicrobial activities of nisin (205 IU/g protein)-incorporated soy protein film against Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella gaminara. S. gaminara inoculated into 2.6% malic acid-incorporated films and lactic acid-incorporated films with nisin (5.7 and 3.4 log number colony-forming units (CFU)/mL, respectively) and without nisin (3.2 and 3.0 log number CFU/mL, respectively) had fewer survivors than HCl-incorporated film with and without nisin (8.6 and 7.9 log number CFU/mL, respectively). Malic acid (2.6%)-incorporated soy protein film had the fewest survivors of L. monocytogenes, S. gaminara, and E. coli O157:H7 (5.5, 3.0, and 6.8 log number CFU/mL, respectively) and has the potential to inhibit a wide spectrum of microbes in product application.

Notes: : The objective of this study was to apply mathematical expressions commonly used in the analysis of mass-transfer processes to the study of the cod desalting operation to be able to predict the changes suffered by cod during the process. The NaCl concentration in the cod liquid phase at equilibrium was well predicted by using a mass balance. It was observed that the changes in the cod liquid phase concentration and the total weight changes throughout the process could be predicted by using a pseudo-diffusional approach or a biexponential equation, whereas a linear relation was observed between the NaCl cod liquid phase concentration and the cod density.

Notes: : Low-density polyethylene film was coated with a solution containing a high-molecular-weight or low-molecular-weight methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Films contained 10000, 7500, 5000, 2500, or 0 IU/cm2 nisin. Film samples were placed into peptone water, and 10-μL samples were removed and placed onto spiral plated lawns of Listeria monocytogenes. Zones of inhibition were measured using a caliper. Films containing 5000, 7500, and 10000 IU/cm2 nisin inhibited L. monocytogenes after 30 min; films with 7500 and 10000 IU/cm2 nisin inhibited L. monocytogenes after 60 min and 8 h, respectively. No zones of inhibition were observed after 24 h and 4 d for all films. After 8 d, zones of inhibition were observed for films with all levels of nisin except 2500 IU/cm2. Films with 0 and 2500 IU/ cm2 nisin did not produce zones of inhibition throughout the study. Molecular weight of the cellulose-based carrier had no effect on inhibition of L. monocytogenes. A standard curve of inhibition was developed using solutions of 10000, 7500, 5000, 2500, or 0 IU/cm2 nisin applied directly to lawns of L. monocytogenes. The amount of inhibition using a direct application of a solution was 25% to 50% more effective for inhibition of L. monocytogenes compared with the coated film samples. Overall, the coated film samples were effective for inhibition of L. monocytogenes, particularly when 7500 and 10000 IU/cm2 nisin were used, but the release of nisin was not controlled and did not provide consistent inhibition throughout the 8-d study.

Notes: : Development of a browning inhibitor for fresh-cut apples that would not support human pathogen survival was investigated. Granny Smith and Fuji wedges were treated with acidic or neutral browning inhibitors with and without addition of sodium hexametaphosphate. Wedges in modified atmosphere packaging pouches were observed for browning during storage at 4 °C and 10 °C. A pH 2.9 dip containing ascorbic acid, citric acid, and sodium hexametaphosphate suppressed browning for at least 3 wk at 4 °C, whereas formulations without hexametaphosphate failed within 1 wk. These results demonstrate that browning in fresh-cut apples can be controlled with a formulation unlikely to support human pathogen survival or growth.

Notes: : Protein isolate (PI) was prepared from 3 cowpea varieties and 2 soybean varieties in each of 2 y. The protein contents of cowpea PI (CPI) (91.4% to 91.8%) and soy PI (SPI) (93.0% to 93.5%) were significantly different (P 〈 0.05). Electrophoretogram showed that CPI was concentrated at 60 and 40 kDa, whereas SPI showed bands at 95, 65, 60, 40, and 35 kDa. The CPI had higher lysine (49.3 to 51.8 mg/g) than SPI (41.9 to 43.4 mg/g). The CPI and SPI had surface hydrophobicities ranging from 387.8 to 572.9 and 640.6 to 643.1, respectively. Denaturation temperature (85.2 to 88.4 °C) and enthalpy (8.42 to 10.33 J/g) of CPI were similar to the 7S fraction of SPI (82.6 °C and 96.0 to 96.3 J/g). These characteristics of CPI might be useful to explain its functionalities for application in food systems.

Notes: : The effects of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and alginate-based edible coatings on the rate of respiration, C2H4 production, color, texture, and total ascorbic-acid level of minimally processed and stored Baby Butterhead lettuce were determined. Samples were stored at 2 °C and 6 °C for 12 d. It was observed that the 1-MCP-treated lettuce had the lowest respiration and ethylene production rates. Russet spotting on the midribs of the leaves in 1-MCP-treated lettuce was the most retarded, and the total ascorbic acid level was the highest. Alginate treatment of lettuce had the most pronounced effect on crispness. Overall, the 1-MCP-treated lettuce had the best quality, followed by the alginate-coated and the control lettuce.

Notes: : We analyzed the effects of press aids on strawberry, raspberry, and blueberry juice quality and evaluated the effectiveness of dried apple pomace as an alternative press aid. Juice yields with apple pomace were similar to the yields from using rice hulls and paper. Triangle difference tests showed that there were differences between the berry juices pressed with conventional press aid to the berry juices pressed with apple pomace press aid, and paired comparison preference tests showed that the berry juices pressed with apple pomace were preferred. Flavor analysis using gas chromatography-olfactometry indicated possible off-flavors being extracted from rice hulls, such as indole and 4-vinylguaical, and from paper, such as (Z)-2-octenal and 2-nonenal, into the berry juices.

Notes: : Food entrepreneurship is a vital part of the food industry that focuses on creating specialty foods from agricultural products. Many entrepreneurial businesses are farm-based to complement the fresh market with longer shelf-life value-added processed foods that utilize products not suited for the fresh market, and excess production that commonly ends up as farm waste/losses. In some cases, the agricultural production is solely dedicated to fulfill the specialty niche market targeted by the small processor. Food entrepreneurs need comprehensive assistance to become successful processors and marketers. As start-up ventures, their knowledge and economic resources are limited. Support from university-based food venture centers must include training, counseling, technical services, regulatory compliance assistance, technology transfer, and specialized referrals. The Northeast Center for Food Entrepreneurship, a joint effort of Cornell Univ. and the Univ. of Vermont, is a successful model that benefits from key partnerships to promote food ventures in rural and urban communities. For the last 3 years the center has provided assistance and training to more than 3500 individuals interested in food entrepreneurship, and assisted the development and marketing of over 1000 specialty products. Three examples of farm-based value-added enterprises are presented to highlight the center's accomplishments and economic impact.

Notes: : Indigenous knowledge and practices are important aspects of a society's culture and its technology. They include accumulated knowledge, as well as skills and technology of the local people, usually derived from their direct interaction with their local environment. These aspects need due recognition and full understanding and utilization because of the valuable contributions to food security, especially in African communities.Africa's people have traditionally utilized indigenous knowledge, skills and structures, most often locally developed and handed down in the course of centuries. Insufficient attention has been given to this local knowledge within the mainstream food security development and management interventions. However, there is now increasing awareness of the fact that technology includes not only energy sources and tools, but also knowledge and skills, as well as social organizations. It is, therefore, imperative to approach indigenous communities as partners and collaborators in all food security endeavors in order to realize the objective of sustainability. African communities offer a vast array of indigenous knowledge and practices in food technology that are favorable to the food supply, as well as to food quality and food safety and thus directly contribute to food security. As such, indigenous knowledge and practices in food technology that have proved capable of ensuring food security need to be implemented before considering the introduction of external ones if food security is to be realized in Africa. Emphasis of the same should be especially made for foods that are adapted to local conditions thus improving food access, safe food availability, and utilization to meet local and regional needs. This paper seeks to outline the numerous contributions and enormous potentials that indigenous knowledge and practices in food technology have in ensuring food security in Africa.

Notes: : Total polyphenols, total anthocyanins, and reduced ascorbic acid were evaluated in berries belonging to the genera Rubus, Ribes, and Aronia by means of spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) techniques. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of the fruit extracts was tested. Total polyphenols ranged from 140.6 to 888.5 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW), total anthocyanins ranged from 22.0 to 460.5 mg/100 g FW, and reduced ascorbic acid ranged from 12.4 to 153.8 mg/ 100 g FW. The average EC50 values for Aronia melanocarpa, Ribes nigrum, Ribes rubrum, Rubus fruticosus, and Rubus idaeus were 1.8, 2.8, 5.3, 6.4, and 8.2 mg FW, respectively. The results indicate that the fruits tested are good sources of natural antioxidants.

Notes: : At the same protein concentration, the protein extracts from Se-enriched Ganoderma lucidum(Se-GLPr) exhibited strong DNA protective effects from oxidative damage, which increased with the increase of Se content as suggested by chemiluminescence analysis, indicating indirectly that Se plays an important role in increasing the antioxidant activities of protein extracts. This was confirmed by spin-trapping experiments showing that Se-GLPr exhibited higher activities of scavenging superoxide and hydroxyl radicals than its analog, common Ganoderma lucidumextract. All Se-GLPr samples showed stronger activities of attenuating the production of superoxide radical than that of hydroxyl radical.

Notes: : Cold-pressed black raspberry seed oil and meal were analyzed for their fatty acid contents and antioxidant properties. The oil contained about 35%α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) and 55% to 58% linoleic acid. The meal exhibited strong free radical scavenging activities against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid diammonium salt (ABTS'+) radicals and had a total phenolic content (TPC) of 46 mg gallic acid equivalent/g meal. The ABTS+ scavenging capacity and TPC of the meal were 300 and 290 times greater than that of the oil. In addition, the oil stability iodine value, and color were examined. The results from this study suggest the possible food application of black raspberry seed and its fractions in improving human nutrition and potential value-adding opportunities in black raspberry production and processing.

Notes: : Fresh and frozen-thawed cod raw materials were subjected to brining, dry salting, and rehydration. The effects of salting and desalting on fillet water-related properties, salt content, and salt distribution were studied using 23Na MRI, 23Na NMR, and low-field (LF) 1H NMR. The results were compared with the Volhard titration method for salt determination, fillet pH, water content, and water-holding capacity. The rehydrated end product showed significant difference only with respect to water-holding capacity (unfrozen raw material higher) when fresh and frozen-thawed raw materials were compared. Excellent correlation was obtained between quantitative salt determinations using 23Na NMR and Volhard titration. When using a typical salting method, it was shown that the salt uptake and salt distribution in the fillets were inhomogeneous. Proton relaxation times, obtained from LF 1H NMR, were processed using either a 2-exponential model or the CONTIN algorithm. In several instances, a clear dependence on fillet pH, water-holding capacity, or salt content during fish processing was observed. Our results indicate that NMR and MRI can be used as useful tools to evaluate and optimize fish processing unit operations and that rapid (LF) NMR methods have the potential for replacing traditional salt and water-related analytical methods.