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  • Articles  (289)
  • climate change  (131)
  • acidification  (98)
  • environment  (58)
  • Global Warming
  • Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering  (289)
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  • 101
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Scale, context, and decision making in agricultural adaptation to climate variability and change (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 137-165 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; agriculture ; climate change ; decision-making ; variability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract This work presents a framework for viewing agricultural adaptation, emphasizing the multiple spatial and temporal scales on which individuals and institutions process information on changes in their environment. The framework is offered as a means to gain perspective on the role of climate variability and change in agricultural adaptation, and developed for a case study of Australian agriculture. To study adaptation issues at the scale of individual farms we developed a simple modelling framework. The model highlights the decision making element of adaptation in light of uncertainty, and underscores the importance of decision information related to climate variability. Model results show that the assumption of perfect information for farmers systematically overpredicts adaptive performance. The results also suggest that farmers who make tactical planting decisions on the basis of historical climate information are outperformed by those who use even moderately successful seasonal forecast information. Analysis at continental scales highlights the prominent role of the decline in economic operating conditions on Australian agriculture. Examples from segments of the agricultural industry in Australia are given to illustrate the importance of appropriate scale attribution in adapting to environmental changes. In particular, adaptations oriented toward short time scale changes in the farming environment (droughts, market fluctuations) can be limited in their efficacy by constraints imposed by broad changes in the soil/water base and economic environment occuring over longer time scales. The case study also makes the point that adaptation must be defined in reference to some goal, which is ultimately a social and political exercise. Overall, this study highlights the importance of allowing more complexity (limited information, risk aversion, cross-scale interactions, mis-attribution of cause and effect, background context, identification of goals) in representing adaptation processes in climate change studies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009636607038
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  • 102
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The Science of Adaptation: A Framework for Assessment (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 199-213 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; climate change ; impact assessment ; response options ; vulnerability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract This paper outlines what is meant by "adaptation" to climate change, and how it might be addressed in the IPCC Assessments. Two roles of adaptation in the climate change field are identified: adaptation as part of impact assessment (where the key question is: what adaptations are likely?), and adaptation as part of the policy response (where the central question is: what adaptations are recommended?). The concept of adaptation has been adopted in several fields including climate impact assessment and policy development, risk management, and natural hazards research. A framework for systematically defining adaptations is based on three questions: (i) adaptation to what? (ii) who or what adapts? and (iii) how does adaptation occur? The paper demonstrates that, for adaptation purposes, climate extremes and variability are integral parts of climate change, along with shifts in mean conditions. Attributes for differentiating adaptations include purposefulness, timing, temporal and spatial scope, effects, form and performance. The framework provides a guide for the treatment of adaptation in the IPCC assessments, both in the assessment of impacts and in the evaluation of adaptive policy options.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009652531101
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  • 103
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Data Requirements for Developing Adaptations to Climate Variability and Change (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 227-237 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; climate change ; climate variability ; data ; climate applications ; El Niño ; UNFCCC
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract An extensive foundation of high quality data and information on the climate and on the biological, environmental and social systems affected by climate is required in order to understand the climate impact processes involved, to develop new adaptation practices, and to subsequently implement these practices. Experience of the impacts of current and past variability of climate and sea level is a prime source of information. Many practices are in use to reduce climate impacts, for example in engineering design, agricultural risk management and climate prediction services, though their roles as adaptations to climate change are not widely appreciated. While there are good data sets on some factors and in some regions, in many cases the databases are inadequate and there are few data sets on adaptation-specific quantities such as vulnerability, resilience and adaptation effectiveness. Current international action under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) pays little attention to adaptation and its information requirements. Furthermore there are trends toward reduced data gathering and to restrictions on access to data sets, especially arising from cost and commercialisation pressures. To effectively respond to the changes in climate that are now inevitable, governments will need to more clearly identify adaptation as a central feature of climate change policy and make a renewed shared commitment to collecting and freely exchanging the necessary data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009668902876
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  • 104
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change: Can the IPCC Technical Guidelines be applied? (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 239-252 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; coastal zones ; adaptation ; vulnerability ; IPCC Technical Guidelines
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract This paper evaluates the IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations with respect to the guidance offered for coastal-adaptation assessment. It appears that the IPCC Technical Guidelines focus strongly on implementation. This paper uses both conceptual and empirical information is used in this paper to show that coastal adaptation embraces more than selecting one of the "technical" options to respond to sea-level rise (retreat, accommodate or protect). Coastal adaptation is a more complex and iterative process with a series of policy cycles. To be effective, an expanded adapta-tion framework involving four steps is suggested, including (i) information collection and awareness raising; (ii) planning and design; (iii) implementation; and (iv) monitoring and evaluation. The incom-plete coverage of these four steps in existing coastal-adaptation assessments constrains the development of adaptation strategies that are supported by the relevant actors and integrated into existing management. Researchers and policy-makers are recommended to work together to establish a framework for adaptation that is integrated within current coastal management processes and practices and takes a broader view on the subject.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009681207419
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  • 105
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Catastrophes and Climate Change: Concerns and Possible Countermeasures of the Insurance Industry (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 283-293 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: natural catastrophes ; climate change ; changing extremes ; costs of climate ; change ; insurance
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract In the last few decades, the international insurance industry has been confronted with a drastic increase in the scope and frequency of great natural disasters. The trend is primarily attributable to the continuing steady growth of the world population and the increasing concentration of people and economic values in urban areas. An additional factor is the global migration of populations and industries into areas such as coastal regions, which are particularly exposed to natural hazards. The natural hazards themselves, on the other hand, are showing a change for the worse as many atmospheric extremes are strongly influenced by global warming. In addition to the problems the insurance industry has with regard to pricing, capacity and loss reserves, the assessment of insured liabilities, preventive planning and the proper adjustment of catastrophe losses are gaining importance. The present problems will be dramatically aggravated if the greenhouse predictions come true. The changing probability distributions of many processes in the atmosphere will force up the frequency and severity of heat waves, droughts, bush fires, tropical and extratropical cyclones, tornados, hailstorms, floods and storm surges in many parts of the world with serious consequences for all types of property insurance, apart from the consequences of the stratospheric ozone destruction for health and life insurance. Rates will have to be raised and in certain areas insurance cover will only be available after considerable restrictions have been imposed, as for example significant deductibles and low liability or loss limits. In areas of high insurance density the loss potential of individual catastrophes can reach a level at which the national and international insurance industries will run into serious capacity problems. Recent disasters showed the disproportionately high participation of reinsurers in extreme disaster losses and the need for more risk transparency if the insurance industry is to fulfil its obligations in an increasingly hostile environment.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009663605118
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  • 106
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Disaster Loss Mitigation as an Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 295-306 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: disasters ; storms ; floods ; droughts ; climate change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Extremes of climate and weather, storms, floods and droughts, require vigorous adaptation measures in a generally stable climate or in one that is rapidly changing. These adaptation measures, to reduce loss of life, human suffering and economic losses come under the heading "disaster loss mitigation". Since 1990 the United Nations' International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction has provided for international cooperation and information dissemination. Nevertheless, world-wide economic disaster losses in the 1990s have continued to show a rapid increase - and the increase for climate related disasters has been three to four times greater than those for geological disasters. Is some of this increased loss due to anthropogenic climate change? There is some evidence of increases in frequency of heavy rainfalls in a number of regions and of severe winter storms in the northern hemisphere. On the other hand, there is little global trend in frequency or intensity of tropical cyclones whose geographical distribution is more closely related to ENSO events. But is there a possibility that increases in intensity over the past few decades of El Niño and La Niña events are related to increased radiative forcing from greenhouse gases? Whatever the outcome of emerging research on extreme events in a changing climate, it is evident that climate adaptation through disaster mitigation measures is of increasing importance with growing populations in more vulnerable regions. Measures that must be supported vigorously include improved warning and preparedness systems, safer buildings, risk-averse land use planning, better protected urban infrastructure, and more resilient water supply systems, among others. Both national and international efforts must not be allowed to diminish after the end of the IDNDR in 1999. The task is only begun.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009615721957
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  • 107
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Adaptation to the Impacts of Sea Level Rise in Egypt (1999)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 4 (1999), S. 343-361 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: adaptation ; climate change ; socioeconomic impacts ; Egypt
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Assessment of the vulnerability and expected socioeconomic losses over the Nile delta coast due to the impact of sea level rise is carried out in details. Impacts of sea level rise over the Governorates of Alexandria and Port Said in particular, are evaluated quantitatively. Analysis of the results at Alexandria Governorate indicate that, if no action is taken, an area of about 30% of the city will be lost due to inundation. Almost 2 million people will have to abandon their homeland; 195,000 jobs will be lost and an economic loss of over $3.5 Billion is expected over the next century. At Port Said Governorate results indicate that beach areas are most severely affected (hence tourism), followed by urban areas. The agriculture sector is the least affected sector. It is estimated that the economic loss is over $ 2.0 Billion for 0.50 m SLR and may exceed $ 4.4 Billion for 1.25 m SLR. Options and costs of adaptation are analyzed and presented. Multi-criteria and decision matrix approaches, based on questionnaire surveys are carried out to identify priorities for the two cases. Analysis of these techniques of two options; the current policy (hard protection measures on some vulnerable areas) and no action (stopping these activities) have the lowest scores. Beach nourishment and integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) have the highest scores, however ICZM has high cost measures. The most cost-effective option is the land-use change, however with relatively very high cost measure. It is recommended that an ICZM approach be adopted since it provides a reasonable trade off between costs and cost effectiveness.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009684210570
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  • 108
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Desertification, and climate change: the case for greater convergence (2000)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 5 (2000), S. 361-377 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: carbon budget ; climate change ; desertification ; international environmental institutions ; land degradation ; research convergence ; science policy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Poor knowledge of links between desertification and globalclimate change is limiting funding from the Global Environment Facility foranti-desertification projects and realization of synergies between theConvention to Combat Desertification (CCD) and the FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (FCCC). Greater convergence betweenresearch in the two fields could overcome these limitations, improve ourknowledge of desertification, and benefit four areas of global climate changestudies: mitigation assessment; accounting for land cover change in thecarbon budget; land surface-atmosphere interactions; and climate changeimpact forecasting. Convergence would be assisted if desertification weretreated more as a special case in dry areas of the global process of landdegradation, and stimulated by: (a) closer cooperation between the FCCCand CCD; (b) better informal networking between desertification and globalclimate change scientists, e.g. within the framework of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Both strategies wouldbe facilitated if the FCCC and CCD requested the IPCC to provide ascientific framework for realizing the synergies between them.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026537621437
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  • 109
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Migration caused by climate change: how vulnerable are people inn dryland areas? (2000)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 5 (2000), S. 379-406 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; Ethiopia ; historical analogy ; migration ; vulnerability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Climate change has been presented as a likely trigger formigration of people, especially in dryland areas of less developed countries.The underlying research questions focus on the strength of adaptationcapacity of subsistence farmers in Northern Ethiopia, and evaluate historicalexperiences gained from drought-induced migration. Through a survey of104 peasants who had to migrant due to persistent drought, vulnerabilityto climate change has shown to be a complex issue, including themultiplicity of factors comprising a household environment. Still, to bevulnerable does not make someone a potential climate migrant, as peoplein marginal regions have developed a great variety of adaptationmechanisms, which strengthen their ability to cope with both, slow climaticchanges and extreme climatic events.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026570529614
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  • 110
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Greenhouse gas inventory for land use change and forestry in Finland based on international guidelines (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 51-71 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; Finland ; greenhouse gas inventory
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were used to assess a greenhouse gas inventory for land use change and forestry in Finland. In 1952, managed forests represented a carbon (C) sink of 2.3 Tg yr-1 (Tg=teragram=1012g) in terms of total biomass growth and drain, converted into respective biomass. In 1960, forests were a carbon source of 0.1 Tg C yr-1, but since 1970 the size of the forest C sink has increased from 0.5 Tg yr-1 to 8.3 Tg yr-1 in 1990. If the future use of the forest resources remains at the level of late 1980s, the size of forest C sink could increase to 14.2 Tg yr-1 by 2010 and to 24.9 Tg yr-1 by 2030. The maximum use of the forest resources could result in a 2.2 Tg yr-1 C source by 2010, and in a 0.8 Tg yr-1 source by 2030. The average annual C balance for the period 1991–2030 could amount to −0.5−17.6 Tg yr-1, depending on the use of forest resources. Carbon emissions related to forest drainage and soil preparation seem to be extremely uncertain, although they seem to have a potential to decrease the sinks substantially. On the other hand, taking roundwood import, and wood products more precisely, into consideration would increase the C sink. Changing climate may increase carbon accumulation in forests and affect the sink.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00625615
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  • 111
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Climate science and climate policy: Improving the science/policy interface (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 73-93 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; climate policy ; the Netherlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The development of an international climate policy builds on national policy perspectives. These depend on the perceived risks of climate change, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the nations and regions involved, and the technical feasibility of policy measures. Scientific and technological research supports the policy making process about these issues. The perspectives of the scientific community and the policy makers differ and as a consequence communication is often troublesome. The construction and utilization of knowledge under such circumstances can only be effective if all parties involved engage in a continuous dialogue about causes, effects, impacts and responses. This paper describes a project carried out in the Netherlands. It has as its major objective the articulation of a variety of perceptions and positions related to climate change. As a result of the project, policy actors produced five policy options and formulated research questions. The policy options are linked in the framework of a policy life cycle. Research questions focus on the risks of climate change and on feasible social, economic, cultural and technological responses to it. As to the policy options, striving for common means appears to be more promising than pursuing shared goals and philosophies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00625616
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  • 112
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Climate Science and Climate Policy: Improving the Science/Policy Interface (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 73-93 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; climate policy ; the Netherlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The development of an international climate policy builds on national policy perspectives. These depend on the perceived risks of climate change, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the nations and regions involved, and the technical feasibility of policy measures. Scientific and technological research supports the policy making process about these issues. The perspectives of the scientific community and the policy makers differ and as a consequence communication is often troublesome. The construction and utilization of knowledge under such circumstances can only be effective if all parties involved engage in a continuous dialogue about causes, effects, impacts and responses. This paper describes a project carried out in the Netherlands. It has as its major objective the articulation of a variety of perceptions and positions related to climate change. As a result of the project, policy actors produced five policy options and formulated research questions. The policy options are linked in the framework of a policy life cycle. Research questions focus on the risks of climate change and on feasible social, economic, cultural and technological responses to it. As to the policy options, striving for common means appears to be more promising than pursuing shared goals and philosophies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000027540.98192.40
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  • 113
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Greenhouse Gas Inventory for Land Use Change and Forestry in Finland Based on International Guidelines (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 51-71 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; Finland ; greenhouse gas inventory
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were used to assess a greenhouse gas inventory for land use change and forestry in Finland. In 1952, managed forests represented a carbon (C) sink of 2.3 Tg yr−1 (Tg = teragram = 1012g) in terms of total biomass growth and drain, converted into respective biomass. In 1960, forests were a carbon source of 0.1 Tg C yr−1, but since 1970 the size of the forest C sink has increased from 0.5 Tg yr−1 to 8.3 Tg yr−1 in 1990. If the future use of the forest resources remains at the level of late 1980s, the size of forest C sink could increase to 14.2 Tg yr−1 by 2010 and to 24.9 Tg yr−1 by 2030. The maximum use of the forest resources could result in a 2.2 Tg yr−1 C source by 2010, and in a 0.8 Tg yr−1 source by 2030. The average annual C balance for the period 1991–2030 could amount to −0.5–17.6 Tg yr−1, depending on the use of forest resources. Carbon emissions related to forest drainage and soil preparation seem to be extremely uncertain, although they seem to have a potential to decrease the sinks substantially. On the other hand, taking roundwood import, and wood products more precisely, into consideration would increase the C sink. Changing climate may increase carbon accumulation in forests and affect the sink.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000027539.66049.3f
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  • 114
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Impact of Climate Change on Maize Yield in Central and Northern Greece: A Simulation Study with Ceres-Maize (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 251-271 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: Greece ; maize ; climate change ; CO2 effects ; adaptation ; crop simulation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The potential impacts of climate change on the phenology and yield of two maize varieties in Greece were studied. Three sites representing the central and northern agricultural regions were selected: Karditsa, Naoussa and Xanthi. The CERES-Maize model, embedded in the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT 3.0), was used for the crop simulations, with current and possible future management practices. Equilibrium doubled CO2 climate change scenarios were derived from the GISS, GFDL, and UKMO general circulation models (GCMs); a transient scenario was developed from the GISS GCM transient run A. These scenarios predict consistent increases in air temperature, small increases in solar radiation and precipitation changes that vary considerably over the study regions in Greece. Physiological effects of CO2 on crop growth and yield were simulated. Under present management practices, the climate change scenarios generally resulted in decreases in maize yield due to reduced duration of the growing period at all sites. Adaptation analyses showed that mitigation of climate change effects may be achieved through earlier sowing dates and the use of new maize varieties. Varieties with higher kernel-filling rates, currently restricted to the central regions, could be extended to the northern regions of Greece. In the central regions, new maize varieties with longer grain-filling periods might be needed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000018044.48957.28
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  • 115
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    Factor Biases and Promoting Sustainable Development: Adaptation to Drought in the Senegal River Basin (1996)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1996), S. 139-165 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: Adaptation ; agriculture ; agroforestry ; climate change ; drought ; ecological degradation ; factor bias ; Senegal ; sustainability ; social relations
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The ongoing drought in the Sahel region of West Africa highlights the vulnerability of food-producing systems to climate change and variability. Adaptation to climate should therefore increase the sustainability of agriculture under a long-term drought. Progress towards sustainability and adaptation in the the Senegal River Basin is hampered by an existing set of social and ecological relationships that define the control over the means of production and how people interact with their environment. These relationships are sensitive to the technological inputs and the administration of food production, or the factor bias in the different policy alternatives for rural development. One option is based on state-controlled, irrigated plantations to provide rice (Oryza) for the capital, Dakar. This policy emphasizes a top-down management approach, mechanized agriculture and a reliance on external inputs which strengthens the relationships introduced during the colonial period. A time series decomposition of the annual flow in the Senegal River at Bakel in Senegal suggests that water resources availability has been substantially curtailed since 1960, and a review of the water resources budget or availability in the basin suggests that this policy's food production system is not sustainable under the current climate of the basin. Under these conditions, this program is exacerbating existing problems of landscape degradation and desertification, which increases rural poverty. A natural resource management policy offers two adaptation strategies that favour decentralized management and a reduction of external inputs. The first alternative, “Les Perimetres Irrigués”, emphasizes village-scale irrigation, low water consumption cereal crops and traditional socio-political structures. The second alternative emphasizes farm-level irrigation and agro-forestry projects to redress the primary effects of desertification. The water requirements of both the rice import substitution program and the natural resource management program are calculated. A water resources simulation model/optimization analysis using dynamic programming is used to compare these two alternatives to the rice import substitution programs. Results indicate that the natural resource management policy could potentially bring a large area into production while using far less water than the rice import substitution program. The natural resource management policy, in particular the second alternative with its emphasis on individual ownership and ecological rehabiliation, defines a different set of social and ecological relationships that appear to enhance the sustainability of food production under a long-term drought.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000027382.26287.8c
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  • 116
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    Impacts of Global Climate Change on Mediterranean Agrigulture: Current Methodologies and Future Directions. An Introductory Essay (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 219-232 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; mediterranean region ; agriculture ; cereal production ; impact assessment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Current trends in Mediterranean agriculture reveal differences between the Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries as related to population growth, land and water use, and food supply and demand. The changes in temperature and precipitation predicted by general circulation models for the Mediterranean region will affect water availability and resource management, critically shaping the patterns of future crop production. Three companion papers analyze in detail future impacts of predicted climate change on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) production in Spain, Greece, and Egypt, and test farm- level adaptation strategies such as early planting and cultivar change with the aid of dynamic crop models. Strategies to improve the assessment of the potential effects of future climate change on agricultural production are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000018269.58736.82
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  • 117
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    Modelling Crop-Climate Interactions in Spain: Vulnerability and Adaptation of Different Agricultural Systems to Climate Change (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 273-288 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; vulnerability ; adaptation ; agriculture ; Spain ; wheat ; maize
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract This study evaluates the theoretical impact of climate change on yields and water use of two crops with different responses to increased CO2 and which represent contrasting agricultural systems in Spain. In all cases the simulated effects of a CO2-induced climate change depended on the counteracting effects between higher daily ET rates, shortening of crop growth duration and changes in precipitation patterns as well as the simulated effects of CO2 on the water use efficiency of the crops. For summer irrigated crops such as maize, the yield reductions and the exacerbated problems of irrigation water availability simulated with climate change may force the crop out of production in some regions. For winter dryland crops such as wheat, productivity increased significantly in some regions, suggesting a northward shift of area suitable for wheat production in future climates. The study considered strategies for improving the efficiency of water use based on the optimization of crop management decisions in a CO2-driven warmer climate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000018139.42373.f1
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  • 118
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    Impact of Climate Change on Possible Scenarios for Egyptian Agriculture in the Future (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 233-250 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; vulnerability ; adaptation ; agriculture ; Egypt
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract If no timely measures are taken to adapt Egyptian agriculture to possible climate warming, the effects may be negative and serious. Egypt appears to be particularly vulnerable to climate change because of its dependence on the Nile River as the primary water source, its large traditional agricultural base, and its long coastline, already undergoing both intensifying development and erosion. A simulation study characterized potential yield and water use efficiency decreases on two reference crops in the main agricultural regions with possible future climatic variation, even when the beneficial effects of increased CO2 were taken into account. On-farm adaptation techniques which imply no additional cost to the agricultural system, did not compensate for the yield losses with the warmer climate or improve the crop water-use efficiency. Economic adjustments such as the improvement of the overall water-use efficiency of the agricultural system, soil drainage and conservation, land management, and crop alternatives are essential. If appropriate measures are taken, negative effects of climate change in agricultural production and other major resource sectors (water and land) may be lessened.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000018270.16497.39
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    Impacts of global climate change on Mediterranean agrigulture: Current methodologies and future directions (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 219-232 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; mediterranean region ; agriculture ; cereal production ; impact assessment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Current trends in Mediterranean agriculture reveal differences between the Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries as related to population growth, land and water use, and food supply and demand. The changes in temperature and precipitation predicted by general circulation models for the Mediterranean region will affect water availability and resource management, critically shaping the patterns of future crop production. Three companion papers analyze in detail future impacts of predicted climate change on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) production in Spain, Greece, and Egypt, and test farm- level adaptation strategies such as early planting and cultivar change with the aid of dynamic crop models. Strategies to improve the assessment of the potential effects of future climate change on agricultural production are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00517804
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    Impact of climate change on possible scenarios for Egyptian agriculture in the future (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 233-250 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; vulnerability ; adaption ; agriculture ; Egypt
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract If no timely measures are taken to adapt Egyptian agriculture to possible climate warming, the effects may be negative and serious. Egypt appears to be particularly vulnerable to climate change because of its dependence on the Nile River as the primary water source, its large traditional agricultural base, and its long coastline, already undergoing both intensifying development and erosion. A simulation study characterized potential yield and water use efficiency decreases on two reference crops in the main agricultural regions with possible future climatic variation, even when the beneficial effects of increased CO2 were taken into account. On-farm adaptation techniques which imply no additional cost to the agricultural system, did not compensate for the yield losses with the warmer climate or improve the crop water-use efficiency. Economic adjustments such as the improvement of the overall water-use efficiency of the agricultural system, soil drainage and conservation, land management, and crop alternatives are essential. If appropriate measures are taken, negative effects of climate change in agricultural production and other major resource sectors (water and land) may be lessened.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00517805
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    Modelling crop-climate interactions in Spain: Vulnerability and adaptation of different agricultural systems to climate change (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 273-288 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; vulnerability ; adaptation ; agriculture ; Spain ; wheat ; maize
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract This study evaluates the theoretical impact of climate change on yields and water use of two crops with different responses to increased CO2 and which represent contrasting agricultural systems in Spain. In all cases the simulated effects of a CO2-induced climate change depended on the counteracting effects between higher daily ET rates, shortening of crop growth duration and changes in precipitation patterns as well as the simulated effects of CO2 on the water use efficiency of the crops. For summer irrigated crops such as maize, the yield reductions and the exacerbated problems of irrigation water availability simulated with climate change may force the crop out of production in some regions. For winter dryland crops such as wheat, productivity increased significantly in some regions, suggesting a northward shift of area suitable for wheat production in future climates. The study considered strategies for improving the efficiency of water use based on the optimization of crop management decisions in a CO2-driven warmer climate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00517807
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    Impact of climate change on maize yield in central and northern Greece: A simulation study with CERES-Maize (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 251-271 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: Greece ; maize ; climate change ; CO2 effects ; adaptation ; crop simulation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract The potential impacts of climate change on the phenology and yield of two maize varieties in Greece were studied. Three sites representing the central and northern agricultural regions were selected: Karditsa, Naoussa and Xanthi. The CERES-Maize model, embedded in the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT 3.0), was used for the crop simulations, with current and possible future management practices. Equilibrium doubled CO2 climate change scenarios were derived from the GISS, GFDL, and UKMO general circulation models (GCMs); a transient scenario was developed from the GISS GCM transient run A. These scenarios predict consistent increases in air temperature, small increases in solar radiation and precipitation changes that vary considerably over the study regions in Greece. Physiological effects of CO2 on crop growth and yield were simulated. Under present management practices, the climate change scenarios generally resulted in decreases in maize yield due to reduced duration of the growing period at all sites. Adaptation analyses showed that mitigation of climate change effects may be achieved through earlier sowing dates and the use of new maize varieties. Varieties with higher kernel-filling rates, currently restricted to the central regions, could be extended to the northern regions of Greece. In the central regions, new maize varieties with longer grain-filling periods might be needed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00517806
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    Global and Regional Impacts of Stabilizing Atmospheric CO2 (1997)
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    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 341-361 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: carbon dioxide ; climate change ; Climate Convention ; impact indicators ; crop production ; natural vegetation ; sea level rise ; stabilization of greenhouse gases ; greenhouse gas emissions
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Among the key issues of concern to the Climate Convention is the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations and the minimization of impacts to global agriculture, natural ecosystems and economic development. The purpose of this paper is to couple these issues in consistent, integrated scenarios, using the IMAGE 2.0 model as an integrating tool. Scenarios of gradual stabilization of atmospheric CO2 at 350 and 450 ppm are compared to a baseline of no policy action in which CO2 concentration increases to 777 ppm. Under the stabilizaton scenarios substantially smaller areas of wheat and millet, as well as nature reserves, are threatened by climate change, especially in temperate regions. The amount of sea level rise is also reduced under the stabilization scenarios. However, climate continues to change under the stabilization scenarios and therefore some ‘residual’ climate impacts occur. Hence the integrated scenarios indicate that stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at or slightly above current levels will lessen impacts as compared to baseline levels, but not eliminate them.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:MITI.0000027389.02277.7d
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    Global and regional impacts of stabilizing atmospheric CO2 (1997)
    Springer
    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 341-361 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: carbon dioxide ; climate change ; Climate Convention ; impact indicators ; crop production ; natural vegetation ; sea level rise ; stabilization of greenhouse gases ; greenhouse gas emissions
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract Among the key issues of concern to the Climate Convention is the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations and the minimization of impacts to global agriculture, natural ecosystems and economic development. The purpose of this paper is to couple these issues in consistent, integrated scenarios, using the IMAGE 2.0 model as an integrating tool. Scenarios of gradual stabilization of atmospheric CO2 at 350 and 450 ppm are compared to a baseline of no policy action in which CO2 concentration increases to 777 ppm. Under the stabilization scenarios substantially smaller areas of wheat and millet, as well as nature reserves, are threatened by climate change, especially in temperate regions. The amount of sea level rise is also reduced under the stabilization scenarios. However, climate continues to change under the stabilization scenarios and therefore some ‘residual’ climate impacts occur. Hence the integrated scenarios indicate that stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at or slightly above current levels will lessen impacts as compared to baseline levels, but not eliminate them.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00464887
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    An integrated assessment of climate change and the accelerated introduction of advanced energy technologies (1997)
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    Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 1 (1997), S. 311-339 
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    ISSN: 1573-1596
    Keywords: climate change ; CO2 ; carbondioxide ; integrated assessment ; MiniCAM ; LEESS ; top down ; bottom up ; sulfor ; energy ; emissions mitigation ; energy technology ; advanced energy technologies
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography
    Notes: Abstract We report results from the application of an integrated assessment model, MiniCAM 1.0. The model is employed to explore the full range of climate change implications of the successful development of cost effective, advanced, energy technologies. These technologies are shown to have a profound effect on the future magnitude and rate of anthropogenic climate change. We find that the introduction of assumptions developed by a group of ‘bottom-up’ modelers for the LEESS scenarios into a ‘top-down’ model, the Edmonds-Reilly-Barns Model, leads to ‘top down’ emissions trajectories similar to those of the LEESS. The cumulative effect of advanced energy technologies is to reduce annual emissions from fossil fuel use to levels which stabilize atmospheric concentrations below 550 ppmv. While all energy technologies play roles, the introduction of advanced biomass energy production technology is particularly important. The consideration of all greenhouse related anthropogenic emissions, and in particular sulfur dioxide, is found to be important. We find that the consideration of sulfur dioxide emissions coupled to rapid reductions in carbon dioxide emissions leads to higher global mean temperatures prior to 2050 than in the reference case. This result is due to the short-term cooling impact of sulfate aerosols, which dominates the long-term warming impact of CO2 and CH4 in the years prior to 2050. We also show that damage calculations which use only mean global temperature and income may be underestimating damages by up to a factor of five. Disaggregating income reduces this to a factor of two, still a major error. Finally, the role of the discount rate is shown to be extraordinarily important to technology preference.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00464886
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    Climate Change, Extreme Events and the Canadian Insurance Industry (1997)
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    Natural hazards 16 (1997), S. 135-163 
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    ISSN: 1573-0840
    Keywords: climate change ; extreme events ; insurance
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geography , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract At the same time that a scientific consensus has arisen that the world will most likely experience a changing climate in the near future, with more frequent extreme events of some weather hazards, the insurance industry, worldwide, has been hit with rapidly escalating costs from weather-related disasters. This conjunction of scientific belief and economic impact has raised the questions as to (1) whether more frequent extreme events have contributed to the rising insurance costs and (2) how will future climate change affect the industry? Based upon historical data, it is difficult to support the hypothesis that the recent run of disasters both world-wide and in Canada are caused by climate change; more likely other factors such as increased wealth, urbanization, and population migration to vulnerable areas are of significance. It seems likely, though, that in the future some extreme events such as convective storms (causing heavy downpours, hail and tornadoes), drought and heat waves will result in increased costs to the industry, should the climate change as anticipated.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007934511961
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    Litter mass loss rates in pine forests of Europe and Eastern United States: some relationships with climate and litter quality (1993)
    Springer
    Biodegradation 20 (1993), S. 127-159 
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    ISSN: 1572-9729
    Keywords: decomposition ; litter mass loss ; climate ; climate change ; pine ; actual evapotranspiration
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The purpose of this study was to relate regional variation in litter mass-loss rates (first year) in pine forests to climate across a large, continental-scale area. The variation in mass-loss rate was analyzed using 39 experimental sites spanning climatic regions from the subarctic to subtropical and Mediterranean: the latitudinal gradient ranged from 31 °N to 70 °N and may represent the the largest geographical area that has ever been sampled and observed for the purpose of studying biogeochemical processes. Because of unified site design and uniform laboratory procedures, data from all sites were directly comparable and permitted a determination of the relative influence of climateversus substrate quality viewed from the perspective of broad regional scales. Simple correlation applied to the entire data set indicated that annual actual evapotranspiration (AET) should be the leading climatic constraint on mass-loss rates (Radj 2 = 0.496). The combination of AET, average July temp. and average annual temp. could explain about 70% of the sites' variability on litter mass-loss. In an analysis of 23 Scots pine sites north of the Alps and Carpatians AET alone could account for about 65% of the variation and the addition of a substrate-quality variable was sufficiently significant to be used in a model. The influence of litter quality was introduced into a model, using data from 11 sites at which litter of different quality had been incubated. These sites are found in Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Finland. At any one site most ( ≫ 90%) of the variation in mass-loss rates could be explained by one of the litter-quality variables giving concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus or water solubles. However, even when these models included nitrogen or phosphorus even small changes in potential evapotranspiration resulted in large changes in early-phase decay rates. Further regional subdivision of the data set, resulted in a range of strength in the relationship between loss rate and climatic variables, from very weak in Central Europe to strong for the Scandinavian and Atlantic coast sites (Radj 2 = 0.912; AETversus litter mass loss). Much of the variation in observed loss rates could be related to continentalversus marine/Atlantic influences. Inland locations had mass-loss rates lower than should be expected on the basis of for example AET alone. Attempts to include seasonality variables were not successful. It is clear that either unknown errors and biases, or, unknown variables are causing these regional differences in response to climatic variables. Nevertheless these results show the powerful influence of climate as a control of the broad-scale geography of mass-loss rates and substrate quality at the stand level. Some of these relationships between mass-loss rate and climatic variables are among the highest ever reported, probably because of the care taken to select uniform sites and experimental methods. This suggest that superior, base line maps of predicted mass-loss rates could be produced using climatic data. These models should be useful to predict the changing equilibrium litter dynamics resulting from climatic change.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00000785
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    Overview of Safety and Environmental Issues for Inertial Fusion Energy (1997)
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    Journal of fusion energy 16 (1997), S. 133-140 
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    ISSN: 1572-9591
    Keywords: Inertial fusion ; tritium ; activation products ; safety ; environment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper summarizes safety and environmental issues of Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE): inventories, effluents, maintenance, accident safety, waste management, and recycling. The fusion confinement approach among inertial and magnetic options affects how the fusion reaction is maintained and which materials surround the reaction chamber. The target fill technology has a major impact on the target factory tritium inventory. IFE fusion reaction chambers usually employ some means to protect the first structural wall from fusion pulses. This protective fluid or granular bed also moderates and absorbs most neutrons before they reach the first structural wall. Although the protective fluid activates, most candidate fluids have low activation hazard. Hands-on maintenance seems practical for the driver, target factory, and secondary coolant systems; remote maintenance is likely required for the reaction chamber, primary coolant, and vacuum exhaust cleanup systems. The driver and fuel target facility are well separated from the main reaction chamber.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022581400624
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    Energy and the Environment in the 21st Century: The Challenge of Change (1998)
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    Journal of fusion energy 17 (1998), S. 141-150 
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    ISSN: 1572-9591
    Keywords: energy ; environment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The availability of affordable energy is an essential element to global economic development. Energy is needed for virtually every important function in modern society from growing and cooking food, to manufacturing, the heating and cooling of buildings, and transportation. The interruption of supplies by storms, earthquakes, wars, or other disasters quickly demonstrates how totally dependent we have become on the energy-consuming machines that shape and support our lives.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021873521786
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    External Factors Affecting Fusion Energy Development (1999)
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    Journal of fusion energy 18 (1999), S. 109-115 
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    ISSN: 1572-9591
    Keywords: Fusion energy ; environment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A number of external factors affecting the pace and direction of fusion energy development are reviewed and discussed. These include the changing electric utility marketplace environment, the availability of fossil fuels, competing power sources, and environmental issues.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018890131503
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    Dolomite limits acidification of a biofilter degrading dimethyl sulphide (1999)
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    Biodegradation 10 (1999), S. 399-404 
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    ISSN: 1572-9729
    Keywords: acidification ; biofilter ; dimethyl sulphide ; dolomite ; inoculation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The applicability of dolomite particlesto control acidificationin a Hyphomicrobium MS3inoculated biofilter removingdimethyl sulphide (Me2S) wasstudied. While direct inoculationof the dolomite particles with theliquid microbial culture was notsuccessful, start-up ofMe2S-degradation in thebiofilter was observed when thedolomite particles were mixed with33% (wt/wt) of Hyphomicrobium MS3-inoculatedcompost or wood bark material.Under optimal conditions, anelimination capacity (EC) of 1680~g Me2S m-3 d-1 wasobtained for the compost/dolomitebiofilter. Contrary to a wood barkor compost biofilter, no reductionin activity due to acidificationwas observed in these biofiltersover a 235 day period because ofthe micro environmentneutralisation of the microbialmetabolite H2SO4 with thecarbonate in the dolomite material.However, performance of thebiofilter decreased when themoisture content of the mixedcompost/dolomite material droppedbelow 15%. Next to this, nutrientlimitation resulted in a gradualdecrease of the EC andsupplementation of a nitrogensource was a prerequisite to obtaina long-term high EC (〉 250 gMe2S m-3 d-1) forMe2S. In relation to thisnitrogen supplementation, it wasobserved that stable ECs forMe2S were obtained when thisnutrient was dosed to the biofilterat a Me2S-C/NH4Cl-Nratio of about 10.Abbreviations:DW – dry weight,EC – elimination capacity,Me2S – dimethyl sulphide,OL – organic loading rate,VS - volatile solids
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1008345609743
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    Trends in the perception of ecological problems in the United Nations general debates (1981)
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    Human ecology 9 (1981), S. 23-45 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: ecology ; environment ; perceptions ; United Nations ; international
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract To what extent have recent warnings of deepening ecological problems become topics of discussion among international political elites? To address this question a content analysis was undertaken of the speeches comprising the general debates of the 1968, 1972, and 1976 sessions of the UN General Assembly to identify all instances in which ecological issues were mentioned. Despite other indications of an increase in environmental consciousness in the international community, it was found that ecological problems have not been discussed very extensively in the general debates and are far less salient than several other agenda items for which data were also collected. Moreover, the environment peaked as an issue in the 1972 session and declined in prominence in 1976. It was also found that the more developed a country is, the greater the tendency for its delegates to mention environmental problems in their speeches. The lack of prominence of ecological issues is interpreted on the basis of two alternative assumptions: first, that the degree of international awareness of environmental problems is not adequately represented in the general debates and, second, that the findings accurately reflect what is generally a low level of environmental concern in international circles.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00887854
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    Catastrophe and social order (1979)
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    Human ecology 7 (1979), S. 41-52 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: technology ; catastrophe ; environment ; risk
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents three propositions. First, the author suggests that there is a growing potential for technologically induced catastophes. Second, our capacity to analyze technological risk is inhibited in part because: (1) we tend to confuse low-probability/low-consequence events with low-probability/high-consequence risks; (2) we seldom adopt a holistic approach to the analysis of risk; and (3) we tend to underestimate the effects of catastrophic events. The author further argues that existing control systems, including federal regulatory bodies, are inadequate. In the conclusion the author discusses difficulties likely to accompany the design and creation of risk control systems.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00889351
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    Introduction: A perspective from the humanities-science boundary (1994)
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    Human ecology 22 (1994), S. 1-22 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: climate change ; episodes ; radiation balance ; global change ; historical ecology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract The articles in this special issue range across such influences on climate as solar emissions, orbital precession, atmosphere, oceans, and precipitation, and generally approach, each in some context, human implications of these phenomena. The common underlying theme of all of the papers is the effect the phenomena have on radiation balance as measured by global average temperature. This introductory paper undertakes a formulation of radiation balance theory that makes it serviceable to students of regional science. The objective is to go beyond inference of cause and effect by correlation to causal accounts of cause and effect through regional climatic and cultural processes. This is accomplished primarily by revisualization of the energy system with regions as dependent spatiotemporal entities, and temporally through a protocol for regional episode definition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02168760
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    Environment and development in Sikkim Himalaya: A review (1989)
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    Human ecology 17 (1989), S. 257-271 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: environment ; Sikkim
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract This paper discusses the problems of environment and development in Sikkim Himalaya. Two features of Sikkim, the fragile mountain environment and the very rapidly growing population, are crucial in formulating future development plans. An integrated approach to development and environmental conservation is suggested.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00889715
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    Solar history and human affairs (1994)
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    Human ecology 22 (1994), S. 23-35 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: solar variation ; climate change ; global climate
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract Historical research at different time scales from 10s to 1000s of years suggests that solar variation may have influences on global climate. Climate change has had significant impacts on cultures during these periods. Very high solar output during the Medieval Optimum would be expected to have particularly large impacts on peoples of that time as sunspot numbers are thought to have reached one third again any values observed in the current century. Certain other impacts can be inferred from modern populations. For example, the higher parts of the solar cycle are associated with greater incidence of skin melanoma.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02168761
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    On integrating climatic change and culture change studies (1994)
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    Human ecology 22 (1994), S. 115-128 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: climate change ; culture change ; models
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract In the last few decades, advances in understanding and modeling climate have paralleled the growth of an impressive log of radiocarbon dates and quantitative analyses of climatic indicators including pollen, tree rings, and lake levels. At the same time, archeological research has given us an impressive assemblage of cultural information. We also have the tools for sorting out the diverse sources of variance in our datasets. The time has come to begin to integrate these lines of scientific endeavor to produce a mutually coherent picture of at least one of the mechanisms that have affected the history of humankind, and one that undoubtedly will affect the future as well.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02168766
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    The Value of Forests to World Food Security (1997)
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    Human ecology 25 (1997), S. 91-120 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: forests ; food ; economics ; environment ; ecology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract We assembled information on the contribution and value of forests to world food security. An assessment was made of the role of forests and non-timber products in the food system of developing countries. We estimated that upwards of 300 million people annually earn part or all of their livelihood and food from forests. A total of about $90 billion in non-timber products are harvested each year. Forests also help to protect land, water, and biological resources, and they play an important role in maintaining the productivity of agricultural and environmental systems.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021987920278
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    The international politics of national parks (1996)
    Springer
    Human ecology 24 (1996), S. 521-539 
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    ISSN: 1572-9915
    Keywords: development ; environment ; national parks ; state policy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Ethnic Sciences
    Notes: Abstract National parks are the keystone institutions of environmental conservation. Because national parks make certain lands part of the state itself, international agencies and nongovernmental organizations that promote national parks propose, in effect, to alter the state, as well as the local economy and state relations with social groups. Has international political pressure caused states to create national parks? I consider whether countries highly involved in international politics have the largest proportions of land in national parks. I conclude that many states create minimal park systems as symbolic gestures to the international community. Field researchers may find it easier to explain the success or failure of parks if they identity why state officials decide that adopting international conservation norms will enhance state authority over people and state sovereignty over land.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02168865
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    Terrestrial ecosystem sensitivity to acidic deposition in developing countries (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2319-2324 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: sensitivity ; buffering ; acidification ; vegetation effects ; soil ; Al toxicity ; GIS ; mapping ; nutrient
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Acidic deposition is considered a problem in Europe and North America but the potential for ecosystem damage from this pollution is also increasing rapidly in many developing countries. It is therefore important to assess current and future risks of ecosystem effects due to acidic deposition in these areas. It is possible to indicate risk areas by linking an assessment of sensitivity to net acidic input rates derived from deposition estimates for sulphur and nitrogen compounds and base cations. A method to assess and map a relative scale of terrestrial ecosystem sensitivity using international datasets is presented. The assessment relies on the determination of buffering mechanisms that prevent effects related to acidic deposition. Land-cover data, edaphic and climate datasets are combined using a GIS. Large areas are assessed as highly sensitive to acidic deposition in tropical regions of Asia, South and Central America and Africa, and also in the Boreal forests of northern Asia. Sensitive areas cover forest and non-forest ecosystems and some areas of agricultural production. Critical loads are not evaluated in this project but initial estimates will be applied to sensitivity classes at a further stage which will allow estimation of areas at risk by comparison with deposition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186180
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    Mapping base cation deposition in Europe on a 10 × 20 km grid (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2389-2394 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: atmospheric deposition ; base cations ; Europe ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Atmospheric deposition of base cations in Europe is mapped on a 10×20 km grid using the inferential modeling technique. Deposition fields are found to resemble the geographic variability of sources, climate and land use. In large parts of southern Europe, more than 50% of the potential acid deposition is found counteracted by deposition of base cations. In central and northwestern Europe, however, base cation deposition usually amounts less than 25% of the acid input. An uncertainty analysis to assess the quality of the base cation deposition maps revealed that for an average grid cell the deviation from the estimated value can be as large as 140%.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186191
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    A palaeolimnological assessment of the impact of acid deposition on surface waters in North-West Scotland, a region of high sea-salt inputs (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2425-2430 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Surface waters ; north-west Scotland ; acidification ; critical loads ; sea-salts ; palaeolimnology ; diatoms
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Recent critical loads assessments suggest that sensitive surface waters in the north-west of Scotland have acidified, whereas earlier surveys indicate little chemical or biological evidence of acidification. It has been suggested that regionally high sea-salt inputs are affecting either critical loads calculations or the susceptibility of surface waters to acidification. We use palaeolimnological techniques to test the hypothesis that the critical load exceedances in north-west Scotland are real. Pre-industrial and present day loch-water pH are inferred from diatom assemblages in sediment cores from 21 lochs in order to estimate recent pH change. The results indicate consistent post-1800 declines in loch-water pH, although the magnitude of this decline is small (〈0.4 pH unit) and in most cases within the error of the technique. It is concluded that although slight acidification might have taken place, this has not been of sufficient magnitude to significantly effect most biological communities (e.g. higher plants, invertebrates and fish).
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186197
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    Predicting freshwater critical loads from national data on geology, soils and land use (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2443-2448 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: critical loads ; freshwaters ; geology ; soil ; land use ; sensitivity ; acidification ; catchments
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Using information on geology, soils and land use, a map has been generated for Great Britain which indicates five classes of sensitivity of surface waters to acidification. This map has been used for designing sampling strategies for mapping critical loads of acidity for freshwaters. This paper evaluates the freshwater sensitivity map using a data set of water chemistry collected as part of the UK critical loads programme. Discriminant analysis was used to predict five critical load classes from information on geology and soil sensitivity for freshwater sites. This showed geology and soil information can correctly predict approximately 50% of all critical loads classes. In addition, 77% of sites fall within one critical loads class of that predicted. Predictions may be improved by including other variables eg altitude and geographical location. Differences between lake, stream and reservoir sites are also examined. Ranges of critical loads values were determined for each of the five classes of surface water sensitivity. While a trend in critical load values was evident between classes, there was significant overlap. A simplified sensitivity map with only three classes related more closely to critical loads values. The paper demonstrates the usefulness of the surface water sensitivity map for assessing acidification at a national scale, but highlights the difficulties of predicting critical loads for individual sensitive catchments using national data.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186200
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    Critical loads — A valuable catchment management tool? (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2485-2490 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Critical loads ; water ; catchment assessments ; forestry ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Planning advice for forest planting in acid sensitive areas suggests that, where calculated critical loads for acidity are exceeded at a catchment level, new conifer planting may not be appropriate. In south west Scotland, acid waters are currently found in areas where critical loads are not exceeded. The rivers Cree and Bladnoch show a decline in pH of about one unit since 1970, when major afforestation of the headwaters began. No equivalent decline in pH was observed in the adjacent Water of Luce, although it receives similar inputs and has similar geology and soils. Little of the Luce catchment is afforested. Recent surveys of water quality, invertebrate fauna and salmonid fish reveal a picture of widespread acid conditions, impoverished benthos and absence of young salmon. 25 streams (total catchment 〉150km2) recorded pH 〈4.5 in high flow conditions. Critical loads for acidity were 〉1.5keqha−1yr−1 for 12 and 〉2keqha−1yr−1 for 6 of the 25 streams. Published deposition data suggested that one stream with pH 〈4.5 and 7 streams with pH 〈 5 were in areas where critical load was not exceeded. In 22 catchments, forestry was a major land use. To be effective as planning and management tools, systems must be robust and easy to operate. Critical load exceedance calculations remain research tools at the catchment level where deposition data is generally inadequate. The uncertainties inherent in critical load exceedances render them sources of argument and not beacons of enlightenment.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186207
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    Application of the critical loads approach in South Africa (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2577-2582 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: South Africa ; Eastern Transvaal ; Mpumalanga ; critical loads ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract South Africa is the most industrialised country in southern Africa and stands at some risk from negative pollution impacts. To the authors' knowledge, this paper presents the first attempt to apply the critical loads approach on the African continent; although sensitivity mapping has been performed for Africa and the rest of the world (Kuylerstierna et al, this conference). Actual sulphate and base cation deposition loads in Mpumalanga (formerly the Eastern Transvaal province of South Africa) were mapped from 16 monitoring sites. The region is characterised by long, dry periods with little rain, high evaporation (up to 8 mm per day) and low run-off (15% of MAP). Provisional critical load and exceedance maps were produced for the surface waters using the Steady-State Water Chemistry Model and the Diatom model. Maps of soil sensitivity to acid deposition, based on bedrock lithology, soil chemical characteristics and land cover, were produced. A weathering rate of 0.39–0.86 keq/ha/year was calculated for the most sensitive sites and taken as the critical load, based on the assumption that the weathering rate represents the buffering ability of the system. The critical loads were contrasted with measures of actual deposition to examine potential scenario's for critical load exceedances. Akey factor in refining the sensitivity maps, and allowing estimation of the critical loads, is the accurate calculation of weathering rates under the warmer and more arid environmental conditions prevalent in South Africa. In a developing country such as South Africa, where research resources are limited, the critical loads approach is a valuable means of assessing the risk of potential impacts of atmospheric deposition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186222
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    Assessment of the economic costs of damage caused by air-pollution (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2583-2588 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Air pollution ; external costs ; economic instruments ; health ; building materials ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Cost-benefit analysis is one of the fundamental tools for the development of economic instruments for pollution control. The costs of various abatement measures are reasonably well characterised. However, assessment of the economic costs of pollutant impacts is less well developed. This paper reports on two studies carried out for DGXII of the European Commission, the ExternE-Project and the Green Accounting Research Project. Both studies have been performed by international, multi-disciplinary research teams. Analysis of the effects of emissions of PM10, SO2, NOx and VOCs (as ozone precursors) has included assessment of human health, materials, crops and other terrestrial ecosystems, and freshwater fisheries. The analysis follows the ‘impact pathway’ approach, linking dose-response functions, valuation data and other models. It differs significantly to earlier ‘top-down’ approaches that made only very limited use of the wealth of scientific data available. Most success has been achieved in analysis of impacts on human health, building materials and crops. Significant uncertainties exist for these receptors, though these have been identified and are now being addressed. Assessment of impacts on other receptors, perhaps most notably forests, is more limited. The methodology is particularly applicable for analysis of impacts on receptors for which the critical loads approach is not appropriate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186223
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    Developing optimal abatement strategies for the effects of sulphur and nitrogen deposition at European scale (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2601-2606 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Integrated Assessment Modelling ; eutrophication ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Integrated Assessment Models were successfully used to provide input to the negotiations for the Oslo Protocol on Further Reductions of Sulphur Emissions, finalized within the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution in Oslo in June 1994. The techniques developed within this framework will be extended now to the simultaneous analysis of sulphur and nitrogen deposition. In addition to acidification, atmospheric deposition of nitrogen contributes to eutrophication of certain ecosystems, through a nutrient effect, and originates from the long-range transport of emissions of both oxidised and reduced nitrogen (NOx and NH3). Modelling reductions in nitrogen deposition thus introduces a need to establish multi-pollutant multi-effect modelling techniques. This paper investigates the development of a model set up to examine reductions of these pollutants in an economically and environmentally efficient manner. The control of nitrogen deposition encompasses action across several economic sectors, particularly the power, transport and agricultural sectors. Combining sulphur and nitrogen deposition limits on a European scale will require a flexible modelling approach and the issues governing possible approaches are presented.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01186226
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    Testing, improvement, and confirmation of a watershed model of acid-base chemistry (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2607-2612 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; model testing ; modeling ; acid deposition
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Strategies to control the emission of atmospheric pollutants such as sulfur and nitrogen, are generally based in large part on projections using models that simulate the influence of sulfur and/or nitrogen deposition on the acid-base chemistry of surface waters. One of the principal models used throughout Europe and North America for such assessment is the Model of Acidification of Groundwater in Catchments (MAGIC). All watershed models are simplified representations of reality, and as such require careful testing to establish their veracity prior to use for making policy projections. This is particularly true where the use of these model projections has the potential for serious environmental or economic consequences. During the past five years, we have tested the MAGIC model in a large variety of settings and under quite varying environmental conditions. This work has included comparing model hindcast simulations with diatom-inferences of historical acidification, sensitivity analyses to examine the response of the model to alternative assumptions and formulations, and detailed testing of model forecasts by comparing simulated chemistry with the results of catchment-scale and plot-scale experimental acidification and deacidification. Our analyses have elucidated a number of potentially-important deficiencies in model structure and method of application. These have resulted in changes to the model and its calibration procedures. Our work has included in-depth evaluation of issues related to regional aggregation of soils data, background sulfur deposition, natural organic acidity, and aluminum mobilization. The result has been an improved and more thoroughly-tested version of MAGIC. The process we have followed to improve and confirm the MAGIC model has been iterative and time consuming. It required the availability of large volumes of data from experimental manipulation and paleolimnological studies. We believe that such model testing and confirmation efforts should be a critical prerequisite for regional or national assessment activities that are based largely on the results of environmental models.
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    Ecosystem recovery after emission reductions: Sudbury, Canada (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1783-1788 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: recovery ; smelter ; acidification ; copper ; nickel
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A case history is presented describing the ecosystem changes that accompanied the nearly 90% reduction of SO2 and metal particulate emissions from Sudbury smelters during the past 25 years. The instances of severe ground-level fumigations that caused acute damage to vegetation in an area of approximately 1,000 km2 have been nearly completely eliminated. Significant improvements in water quality have also occurred in many of the estimated 7,000 acid-damaged lakes. Several species of acid-sensitive phytoplankton, Zooplankton and insects have invaded lakes where improvements have occurred. Epiphytic lichens have reinvaded the former “lichen desert” that once extended out 7 km from the smelters. Sensitive species such as Evernia mesomorpha and Usnea hirta now exist throughout the area. The vascular plant communities have been relatively slow to recover in the most severely damaged terrestrial areas. Metal-tolerant grasses (e.g. Agrostis scabra. Deschampsia caespitosa) were the first species to invade the barrens. Acid- and metal-contamination of soil, severe microclimate conditions, and the damaging effects of insect pests appear to delay recovery of terrestrial ecosystems. Recovery rates of aquatic ecosystems are also affected by a suite of physical, chemical and biotic interactions and many lakes remain severely damaged.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00477238
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    Modelling ”clean rain” treatments in acidified soils-EXMAN project results (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1807-1812 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Modelling ; experimental manipulation ; acidification ; recovery
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The SAFE dynamic model was applied to a ”clean rain” roof experiment performed within the EXMAN project. In the experiment ambient throughfall was removed and replaced with artificial ”clean throughfall”. Input of S, N and H to the forest ecosystem was reduced by 75–100%. The results of the modelling show, that the time scales of model predictions and experiments are the same. The change in base cation flux was well reproduced, while the simulation of changes in aluminum flux was less successful. pH stayed constant in the experiment as well as in the calculations.
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    Methods for treating acid groundwater results and evaluation of long-term tests (1995)
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    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1849-1854 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; groundwater ; countermeasures ; liming ; filters
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Acid groundwater can corrode plumbing systems and solubilize metals in the soil or in the plumbing systems. Since the soluble forms of some metals are toxic, concerns regarding the effects of groundwater acidification on human health have been raised. A number of new methods for treating acidified groundwater have been developed and tested during the last decade. In addition conventional filter devices have been tested and evaluated. Seven methods of in situ alkalization, i.e. treatment of the soil around the well with an alkalizer, have been tested for 1–8 years. These methods involve the application of limestone or slaked lime in the recharge area of the well or in/near the well. Target values set for the tests were: pH〉6,5 and alkalinity 〉60 mg/l. Almost all of these methods have led to improvements in water quality, but in some cases target values were not reached. Most of the treatments have resulted in significant reductions in iron and aluminium contents in drinking water. Eight types of more conventional devices for processing acidified well water have been tested for a couple of years. These de-acidification filters are installed indoors or in some cases inside the well. The majority of them performed well, providing acceptable values of pH and alkalinity under normal water flows. However,after periods of more intense water flushing, some of the filters showed a decreased capacity to neutralize the water. Inexpensive types of equipment, e.g. some of the filters placed inside the well, performed just as well as the more expensive types.
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    Increasing role of nitrogen in the acidification of surface waters in the Adirondack Mountains, New York (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 95 (1997), S. 313-336 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: nitrogen ; acidification ; Adirondack Mountains ; atmospheric deposition
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Assessments of the aquatic effects of acidic deposition have focused on sulfur, as have recent efforts to control the emissions of acidifying compounds. Nitrogen dynamics were excluded from most acidic deposition modeling studies because it was believed that terrestrial ecosystems strongly retain N and because modeling N is a more formidable task than modeling S due to the influence of complex biological processes on N cycling. Re-examination of available data for the Adirondack Mountains of New York suggests that N deposition may be contributing to both chronic and episodic acidification of freshwaters to a greater extent than is generally believed. Previous research concluded that N has played a limited role in acidification processes in these lakes, based on regional averages of chronic chemistry. However, it is now known that historic acidification responses have been spatially variable within the Adirondack Mountains and that the declines in lakewater pH have been less than previously believed. Lakewater NO3 − concentrations are commonly in the range of 5 to 25 μeq L−1 on a chronic basis in portions of the Adirondack region that have experienced significant chronic acidification. These NO3 − concentrations correspond in magnitude to inferred historical acidification. Furthermore, the relative importance of NO3 − as an agent of acidification increases dramatically during snowmelt when conditions are most toxic to fish. The consequence of not addressing N in formulating acidification recovery strategies for the Adirondacks includes the likelihood that we will overestimate the response of surface water to the mandated sulfur emissions reductions.
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    Long-term modelling of airborne pollution within the Northern Hemisphere (1995)
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    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 2051-2056 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; air pollution ; air pollution modelling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A long-term modelling (1991–1994) of oxidised sulphur, bound nitrogen and some heavy metals has been carried out by MSC-E/EMEP for the Northern Hemisphere. The transport unit of the model is an Eulerian scheme which could be classified as Pseudo-Lagrangian one. Vertical distribution described by means of Gaussian approximation and the exchange with the free troposphere are taken into account. Vertical movement is calculated proceeding from local mixing conditions, state of the surface, its height (topography) etc. The chemical unit for acid compounds contains 25 reactions and 14 compounds including sulphur and nitrogen compounds peroxyacetylnitrate, tropospheric ozone, volatile hydrocarbons (but methane) are considered as a whole via ozone creation potential. The model time step is 1 hour, meteorological data (winds, temperature, precipitation etc.) cover 6-hour intervals. The model results show that very significant part of the Arctic and West Asian acid pollution is produced by European countries. On the whole the Arctic pollution by SOx, NOx and NHx comes from sources of Old World. The main source of sulphur pollution is located in Russia and of nitrogen compound — in Central and Northern Europe. About 50% SOx, 70% NOx and 40% NHx deposition in Central Asia and Kazakhstan is-imported from external sources. A similar situation is observed in European and Asian parts of Russia.
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    Weathering processes under various moisture conditions in a lignite mine spoil from as pontes (N.W. Spain) (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 347-366 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; chemical weathering ; hydroxysulfates formation ; mine spoil ; sulfides oxidation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Processes contributing to acid release/consumption during weathering of a lignite mine spoil (2.3% w/w S as sulfides) from As Pontes (N.W. Spain) were studied under three moisture conditions (at field capacity or under alternate wetting-drying or forced percolation), which were simulated in laboratory experiments. Oxidation of sulfides to sulfates was favoured under all three moisture conditions, releasing most acid in spoil kept at field capacity. Hydroxysulfates formed in spoil kept at field capacity or under alternate wetting-drying conditions, thereby contributing to acid release. Acid consumption by dissolution of clay minerals, especially micas, was favoured under all three moisture conditions, but was particularly intense in spoil at field capacity. Dissolution of aluminium oxides was also favoured under all the moisture conditions studied.
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    INFLUENCE OF PEATLANDS ON THE ACIDITY OF LAKES IN NORTHEASTERN ALBERTA, CANADA (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 17-38 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acid-sensitive lakes ; acidification ; organics peatlands ; Sphagnum
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract About a third of the lakes surveyed in the Birch Mountains Upland of northeastern Alberta, Canada, have pH below 7.0; 25% have alkalinities below 10 mg/L identifying them as acid-sensitive following criteria established by the National Research Council of Canada (1981). Lakes in this region vary greatly as to surface area and depth. Watersheds also vary in area and in amount of peatland cover. Peatlands in the form of peat plateaus and collapse scars, continental bogs, treed and open fens, and shallow organic deposits cover over 50% of some watersheds. Surface water chemistries of these peatlands form three distinct classes: bogs, poor fens and shallow organic deposits. The acidity of certain lakes in this northern area is best explained by effects from high cover of Sphagnum-dominated peatlands in surrounding watersheds. Due to greater flow-through, poor fens appear to be more important than bogs in affecting the acidity of associated lakes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026433231110
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    WEATHERING PROCESSES UNDER VARIOUS MOISTURE CONDITIONS IN A LIGNITE MINE SPOIL FROM AS PONTES (N.W. SPAIN) (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 347-366 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; chemical weathering ; hydroxysulfates formation ; mine spoil ; sulfides oxidation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Processes contributing to acid release/consumption during weathering of a lignite mine spoil (2.3% w/w S as sulfides) from As Pontes (N.W. Spain) were studied under three moisture conditions (at field capacity or under alternate wetting-drying or forced percolation), which were simulated in laboratory experiments. Oxidation of sulfides to sulfates was favoured under all three moisture conditions, releasing most acid in spoil kept at field capacity. Hydroxysulfates formed in spoil kept at field capacity or under alternate wetting-drying conditions, thereby contributing to acid release. Acid consumption by dissolution of clay minerals, especially micas, was favoured under all three moisture conditions, but was particularly intense in spoil at field capacity. Dissolution of aluminium oxides was also favoured under all the moisture conditions studied.
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    Influence of Peatlands on the acidity of lakes in northeastern Alberta, Canada (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 17-38 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acid-sensitive lakes ; acidification ; organics peatlands ; Sphagnum
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract About a third of the lakes surveyed in the Birch Mountains Upland of northeastern Alberta, Canada, have pH below 7.0; 25% have alkalinities below 10 mg/L identifying them as acid-sensitive following criteria established by the National Research Council of Canada (1981). Lakes in this region vary greatly as to surface area and depth. Watersheds also vary in area and in amount of peatland cover. Peatlands in the form of peat plateaus and collapse scars, continental bogs, treed and open fens, and shallow organic deposits cover over 50% of some watersheds. Surface water chemistries of these peatlands form three distinct classes: bogs, poor fens and shallow organic deposits. The acidity of certain lakes in this northern area is best explained by effects from high cover ofSphagnum-dominated peatlands in surrounding watersheds. Due to greater flow-through, poor fens appear to be more important than bogs in affecting the acidity of associated lakes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02407194
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    Thinner eggshells of dipper (Cinclus cinclus) eggs from an acidified area compared to a non-acidified area in Norway (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 93 (1997), S. 255-266 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Ratcliffe index ; egg size ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Eggs of dippersCinclus cinclus from a chronically acidified area in Southern Norway were compared with eggs from a non-acidified area in Central Norway. There were no differences in egg size, as measured by volume, weight, length and calculated surface area, between the two areas. Eggshells were 7.0% lighter and 6.1% thinner, as measured by the Ratcliffe index and 7.0% as measured by the eggshell index (shell weight/surface area) in Southern Norway than in Central Norway. The Ratcliffe and eggshell indices were highly correlated. Scanning electron micrographs showed that the palisade layer of eggshells of eggs from the acidified area was 10.7% thinner than that of eggshells of eggs from the non-acidified area. Eggshell vapour permeability was not significantly influenced by area. Since the moderately lower thickness in Southern Norway was not accompanied by higher vapour permeability, this indicates that the reduced eggshell thickness did not cause desiccation of dipper eggs in the acidified area. The possibility of underestimating the environmental effects of acidification on dippers is discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02404760
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    Simulation of forest and wood product carbon budget under a changing climate in Finland (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 309-320 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: carbon budget ; forest ecosystem ; wood products ; forest management ; carbon sequestration ; climate change
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Flows of carbon (C) in the forest ecosystem were simulated with a gap-phase dynamics type model, while flows of C in wood products were simulated using a model that processes raw material into final products. In southern Finland, the ratio between gross production and total storage for the 500 year period was 3052–3572 Mg C ha−1: 192–223 Mg C ha−1 under the current climate and 4257–5096 Mg C ha−1: 260–318 Mg C ha−1 under the predicted changing climate. In northern Finland, the respective ratios were 1721–2021 Mg C ha−1: 103–134 Mg C ha−1 and 3409–4475 Mg C ha−1: 212–244 Mg C ha−1. The average total C storage in southern Finland over the 500 year period was 174–181 Mg C ha−1 under the current climate, and 206–217 Mg C ha−1 under the changing climate. In northern Finland, average total storage was 101 Mg C ha−1 under the current climate, and 191–198 Mg C ha−1 under the changing climate. The average C storages in unmanaged forest ecosystems under the current climate and under changing climate were 200 and 191 Mg C ha−1 respectively in southern Finland, and 142 and 193 Mg C ha−1 in northern Finland. Approximately 27–43% of total C was stored in wood products over a 500 year period. Wood products contributed 15–22% of the total emissions to the atmosphere. Over short periods, C sequestration potentials are much greater than over longer periods.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182843
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    The aspen parkland in western Canada: A dry-climate analogue for the future boreal forest? (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 391-400 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: climate change ; drought ; evapotranspiration ; Populus tremuloides ; prairie-forest boundary
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Predicted future changes in regional climate under a doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentrations were applied to the 1951–80 normals of 254 climate stations to examine future impacts on the boreal forest of western Canada. Previous analyses have indicated that in this region, the southern boreal forest is presently restricted to areas where annual precipitation (P) exceeds potential evapotranspiration (PET). The present analysis suggests that a predicted 11% increase in P would be insufficient to offset the increases in PET resulting from a predicted warming of 4–5°C. As a result, half of the western Canadian boreal forest could be exposed to a drier climate similar to the present aspen parkland zone (P 〈 PET), where conifers are generally absent and aspen is restricted to patches of stunted trees interspersed with grassland. Future changes could result in permanent losses of forest cover following disturbance and an increase in the proportion of exposed edge habitat in remaining stands, where environmental conditions might induce additional stresses on tree growth. Thus if the predicted warming and drying occurs, productivity of aspen and other commercial species in the southern boreal forest would be greatly reduced.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182849
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    Potential effects of climatic change on some western Canadian forests, based on phenological enhancements to a patch model of forest succession (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 401-414 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Alberta ; British Columbia ; climate change ; chilling requirement ; coniferous forests ; frost tolerance ; gap model ; temperature response ; succession ; ZELIG
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract We enhanced the forest patch model, Zelig, to explore the implications of 2×CO2 climate change scenarios on several forest regions in British Columbia and Alberta, Canada. In addition to the processes and phenomena commonly represented in individual-based models of forest stand dynamics, we added some species-specific phenology and site-specific frost events. The consideration of bud-break heat sum requirements, growing season limits, and chilling requirements for the induction of dormancy and cold hardiness slightly improved the ability of Zelig to predict the present composition of B.C. forests. Simulations of the predicted effects of future climatic regimes (based on the averaged predictions of four general circulation models) include some major shifts in equilibrial forest composition and productivity. Lowland temperate coastal forests are predicted to be severely stressed because indigenous species will no longer have their winter chilling requirements met. High-elevation coastal forests are expected to increase in productivity, while interior subalpine forests are expected to remain stable in productivity but will gradually be replaced by species currently characteristic of lower elevations. Dry, interior low-elevation forests in southern B.C. are likely to persist relatively unchanged, while wet interior forests are expected to support dramatic increases in yield, primarily by western hemlock. Northern interior sub-boreal forests are likewise expected to increase in productivity through enhanced growth of lodgepole pine. Conversely, the precipitous collapse of spruce stands in the true boreal forests of northeastern B.C. is expected to be associated with reduced productivity as they are replaced by pine species. Boreal-Cordilleran and Moist Boreal Mixedwood forests in Alberta are less likely to undergo compositional change, while becoming somewhat more productive. We believe these model enhancements to be a significant improvement over existing formulations, but the resulting predictions must still be viewed with caution. Model limitations include: (1) the current inability of climate models to predict future variation in monthly temperature and precipitation; (2) sparse information on the phenological behaviour of several important tree species; and (3) a poor understanding of the degree to which growth is constrained by different suboptimal climatic events.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182850
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    Predicting the effects of climate change on fire frequency in the southeastern Canadian boreal forest (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 82 (1995), S. 437-444 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: boreal forest ; wildfire ; climate change ; GCM
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Although an increasing frequency of forest fires has been suggested as a consequence of global warming, there are no empirical data that have shown climatically driven increases in fire frequency since the warming that has followed the end of the “Little Ice Age” (∼1850). In fact, a 300-year fire history (AD 1688–1988) from the Lac Duparquet area (48°28′N, 79°17′W) shows a significant decrease both in the number and extent of fires starting 100 years ago during a period of warming. To explore this relationship between climatic change and fire frequency we used daily data from the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service's General Circulation Model to calculate components of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index (FWI) System for the 1xCO2 and 2xCO2 scenarios. The average FWI over much of eastern Canada, including the Lac Duparquet region, decreased under the 2xCO2 simulation, whereas FWI increased dramatically over western Canada. According to these results, fire frequency would decrease over the southeastern boreal forest which is in agreement with the empirical data from the fire history. Our results stress the importance of large regional variability and call into question previous generalisations suggesting universal increases in the rate of disturbance with climate warming.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01182853
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    INCREASING ROLE OF NITROGEN IN THE ACIDIFICATION OF SURFACE WATERS IN THE ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, NEW YORK (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 95 (1997), S. 313-336 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: nitrogen ; acidification ; Adirondack Mountains ; atmospheric deposition
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Assessments of the aquatic effects of acidic deposition have focused on sulfur, as have recent efforts to control the emissions of acidifying compounds. Nitrogen dynamics were excluded from most acidic deposition modeling studies because it was believed that terrestrial ecosystems strongly retain N and because modeling N is a more formidable task than modeling S due to the influence of complex biological processes on N cycling. Re-examination of available data for the Adirondack Mountains of New York suggests that N deposition may be contributing to both chronic and episodic acidification of freshwaters to a greater extent than is generally believed. Previous research concluded that N has played a limited role in acidification processes in these lakes, based on regional averages of chronic chemistry. However, it is now known that historic acidification responses have been spatially variable within the Adirondack Mountains and that the declines in lakewater pH have been less than previously believed. Lakewater NO3 - concentrations are commonly in the range of 5 to 25 μeq L-1 on a chronic basis in portions of the Adirondack region that have experienced significant chronic acidification. These NO3 - concentrations correspond in magnitude to inferred historical acidification. Furthermore, the relative importance of NO3 - as an agent of acidification increases dramatically during snowmelt when conditions are most toxic to fish. The consequence of not addressing N in formulating acidification recovery strategies for the Adirondacks includes the likelihood that we will overestimate the response of surface water to the mandated sulfur emissions reductions.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026422031266
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    Integrated assessment of potential health impact of global environmental change: Prospects and limitations (1997)
    Springer
    Environmental modeling and assessment 2 (1997), S. 129-137 
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    ISSN: 1573-2967
    Keywords: integrated health risk assessment ; mathematical modelling ; global environmental change ; climate change ; scenarios ; human health ; epidemiology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Estimating the future health impact of global environmental change requires scientific methods that extend beyond conventional health risk assessment in relation to existing exposures. The dynamic and non‐linear nature of these changes in large complex biophysical systems, the interactions between them, and the reference to future scenarios all contribute uncertainty. Potential health impacts can be estimated from historical analogues, by mathematical modelling, or by reasonable foresight (especially in relation to social and economic disruptions). Integrated assessment methods draw upon all these techniques. In particular, integrated mathematical modelling techniques are evolving, as scientists (and policy‐makers) come to terms with this complex scenario‐based impact assessment task.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1019061311283
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    Economic effects of CO2 fertilization of crops: transforming changes in yield into changes in supply (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental modeling and assessment 5 (2000), S. 157-168 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2967
    Keywords: climate change ; crops ; carbon dioxide ; economic welfare
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide CO2 have a beneficial effect on crop production that would tend to offset some of the economic losses that might be generated in some areas by the climatic effects of atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Previous estimates of the economic benefits of CO2 fertilization on world crop production, however, were based on the assumption that percent changes in supply are equal to percent changes in yield. This assumption is not valid, however, because it confounds changes in supply with changes in quantity supplied. This error leads to an overestimation of the real economic benefits of CO2 fertilization by 61–166%. The effects of CO2 fertilization on crop production, therefore, will reduce some of the potential damages caused by the climatic impacts of greenhouse gases, but by significantly less than that indicated in earlier research.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1019013712133
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    Ecological Impacts of Chile's Neoliberal Policies, with Special Emphasis on Agroecosystems (1999)
    Springer
    Environment, development and sustainability 1 (1999), S. 55-72 
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    ISSN: 1573-2975
    Keywords: Chile ; environment ; neoliberal policies ; sustainability
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Sociology
    Notes: Abstract Although Chile has been touted for developing a broad market liberalization and opening to the international economy, evidence is emerging that such neoliberal economic policies are dramatically impacting biodiversity and the natural resource base. This paper examines the evidence on the plundering of forestry and fishery resources and the damming and pollution of aquatic ecosystems. Although it may be argued that economic liberalization policies have been effective in reallocating agricultural resources toward more competitive activities, the ecological toll imposed by the expansion of export-led modern agriculture has been heavy. An effective agricultural development strategy in Chile should confront such ecological costs and should promote alternatives to high input agriculture.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010063724280
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    The Bioaccumulation of Mercury in Aquatic Organisms from Two Similar Lakes with Differing pH (1999)
    Springer
    Ecotoxicology 8 (1999), S. 49-56 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-3017
    Keywords: mercury ; methylmercury ; fish ; acidification ; biomagnification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Two small drainage lakes of similar surface area (0.4–0.6 km 2 ) and depth, and situated in close proximity to one another (about 9 km apart) in the Muskoka-Haliburton district of rural Ontario, Canada were chosen to investigate the effects of differing pH on Hg accumulation in fish and other biota. Blue Chalk Lake is circumneutral (pH = 6.3–6.9) with an average dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration of 2.69 mg/L; Plastic Lake is acidic (pH = 5.2–5.6) with a similar DOC level (2.72 mg/L). Neither lake is an impoundment, and neither receives inputs from point-source urban or industrial waste emissions. Surficial (top 4 cm) sediments and various aquatic biota, including crayfish (Orconectes virilis)], and 5 species of fish [brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus), yellow perch (Perca flavenscens) and rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris)] were sampled for Hg analysis. Only creek chub and pumpkinseed occurred in both lakes. Significant size (length) vs. Hg-concentration relationships were observed for brown bullhead, pumpkinseed, yellow perch and rock bass, but not for crayfish nor for creek chub in either lake. Rock bass had the highest mean Hg concentration (1.02 ± 0.98 μg/g dry wt.). Pumpkinseed from Plastic Lake had the highest overall rate of accumulation with increasing size. Several individual pumpkinseed and rock bass sampled from the acidic Plastic Lake had Hg concentrations equal to or greater than levels reported to be hazardous to breeding piscivorous birds, such as common loons (Gavia immer), whereas no fish from Blue Chalk approached this threshold (0.3 μg/g wet wt). This study illustrates the importance of within-lake parameters, particularly pH, and species trophic level, in determining Hg accumulation in fish in lakes of similar size that receive similar atmospheric Hg inputs.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1008936910823
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    Nitrogen turnover on organic and conventional mixed farms (1995)
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    Journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 8 (1995), S. 30-51 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-322X
    Keywords: nitrogen balance ; nitrogen loss ; efficiency ; fertilization ; environment ; dairy farms ; intensity ; system modelling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Separate focus on crop fertilization or feeding practices inadequately describes nitrogen (N) loss from mixed dairy farms because of (1) interaction between animal and crop production and between the production system and the manager, and (2) uncertainties of herd N production and crop N utilization. Therefore a systems approach was used to study N turnover and N efficiency on 16 conventional and 14 organic private Danish farms with mixed animal (dairy) and crop production. There were significant differences in N surplus at the farm level (242 kg. N/ha. vs. 124 kg. N/ha. on conventional and organic dairy farms respectively) with a correlation between stocking rate and N surplus. N efficiency was calculated as the output of N in animal products divided by the net N import in fodder, manure and fertilizer. N turnover in herd and individual crops calculated on selected farms showed differences in organic and conventional crop N utilization. This is explained via a discussion of the rationality behind the current way of planning the “optimum fertilizer application” in conventional agriculture. The concept of marginal N efficiency is insufficient for correcting problems of N loss from dairy farms. Substantial reductions in N loss from conventional mixed dairy farms is probably unlikely without lower production intensity. The concept of mean farm unit N efficiency might be a way to describe the relation between production and N loss to facilitate regulation. This concept is linked to differing goals of agricultural development—i.e. intensification and separation vs. extensification and integration. It is discussed how studies in private farms—using organic farms as selected critical cases—can demonstrate possibilities for balancing production and environmental concern.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02286400
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    Response to the environmental and welfare imperatives by U.K. Livestock production industries and research services (1995)
    Springer
    Journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 8 (1995), S. 65-84 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-322X
    Keywords: environment ; greening ; livestock
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Production methods for food from U.K. livestock industries (milk, dairy products, meat, eggs, fibre) are undergoing substantial change as a result of the need to respond to environmental and animal welfare awareness of purchasing customers, and to espouse the principles of environmental protection. There appears to be a strong will on the part of livestock farmers to satisfy the environmental imperative, led by the need to maintain market share and by existing and impending legislation. There has been support forthcoming in the form of Government-sponsored scientific research and technological development to provide the necessary framework for new environmentally sensitive practices. The agricultural community has itself made substantial responses to market demand through the inception of Farm Assured Quality Assurance Schemes. These appear to have a more sustainable future than the extremes of organic farming and free-range practices. Pollution of agricultural land with nitrate and phosphate by intensive livestock industries is a greater problem in some parts of continental Europe than it is in the U.K. The distribution of livestock out of intensive units and into mixed farming systems, would require substantial restructuring of the industry. Many of the animal welfare requirements which have been forwarded as a part of the environmental agenda for agriculture have been voluntarily accepted by livestock producers. However, some major aspects, such as alternative housing systems for pigs and poultry, remain unresolved. Analysis of the science and technology support for the environmental imperative, especially from Government sources, would suggest that, although dramatically increased in recent years, environmentally orientated research remains a relatively small proportion of the whole. Whilst a movement away from governmental funding of volume production appears to be justifiable, there has not been an equivalent balancing of effort toward funding for product quality, sustainability, environmental protection and animal welfare. Nevertheless, the university education system is producing a generation of more environmentally aware agricultural science graduates who are opting to pursue Government-sponsored environmentally orientated postgraduate research programs.
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    Environmental Risks of Pesticides Versus Genetic Engineering for Agricultural Pest Control (2000)
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    Journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 12 (2000), S. 279-303 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-322X
    Keywords: environment ; genetic engineering ; biotechnology ; pesticides ; agriculture ; pest control ; risks
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Despite the application of 2.5 million tons ofpesticides worldwide, more than 40% of all potentialfood production is lost to insect, weed, and plantpathogen pests prior to harvest. After harvest, anadditional 20% of food is lost to another group ofpests. The use of pesticides for pest control resultsin an estimated 26 million human poisonings, with220,000 fatalities, annually worldwide. In the UnitedStates, the environmental and public health costs forthe recommended use of pesticides total approximately$9 billion/yr. Thus, there is a need for alternativenon-chemical pest controls, and genetic engineering(biotechnology) might help with this need. Diseaseand insect pest resistance to various pests has beenslowly bred into crops for the past 12,000 years;current techniques in biotechnology now offeropportunities to further and more rapidly improve thenon-chemical control of disease and insect pests ofcrops. However, relying on a single factor, like theBacillus thuringiensis toxin that has beeninserted into corn and a few other crops for insectcontrol, leads to various environmental problems,including insect resistance and, in some cases, athreat to beneficial biological control insects andendangered insect species. A major environmental andeconomic cost associated with genetic engineeringapplications in agriculture relates to the use ofherbicide resistant crops (HRC). In general, HRCtechnology results in increased herbicide use but noincrease in crop yields. The heavy use of herbicidesin HRC technology pollutes the environment and canlead to weed control costs for farmers that may be2-fold greater than standard weed control costs. Therefore, pest control with both pesticides andbiotechnology can be improved for effective, safe,economical pest control.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009571131089
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    Silvicultural use of wood ashes — Effects on the nutrient and heavy metal balance in a pine (Pinus sylvestris, L) forest soil (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1039-1044 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: pine ; recycling ; amelioration ; vitalization ; acidification
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract In a sustainable forestry recirculation of nutrients through the application of ashes from forest residues can be an essential way to guarantee healthy and vital forests. Wood ashes can also be regarded as a measure against soil acidification. Wood ashes were applied at various rates to the soil in a 35 years old pine (Pinus sylvestris, L) stand at Ringamåla in Blekinge, South Sweden. The experiments started in 1984. The different treatments gave a clear effect on soil chemistry with decreased acidity and aluminum ion concentrations. The base saturation increased in both mor and upper mineral soil layers. Generally no significant increases were found in soil concentrations of heavy metals, except for Cu which increased significantly in the mor layer. Also the extractable Mn concentration increased, in spite of the increased pH in the soil after application of ashes. In order to achieve a biological circulation of nutrients through ash application without polluting the environment, it is of ultimate importance that the wood chips used in power plants and other furnaces have a low concentration of heavy metals and other pollutants.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00476967
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    The effect of pH and atmospheric deposition on concentrations of trace elements in acidified freshwaters: A statistical approach (1996)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 88 (1996), S. 227-246 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: trace elements ; trace metals ; freshwaters ; median concentrations ; acidification ; atmospheric deposition ; effect of pH ; surface waters ; mobilization ; Czech Republic
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A statistical evaluation of 5 338 analysis of freshwaters from little polluted stream basins in the Czech Republic indicated a relationship between the Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Be, As, Mn, Sr, F− and Fe concentrations and the pH, over a range of pH 3.6 to 9.6. Except for Sr, the median concentrations of all the trace metals increase with decreasing pH, but the increase never extends over the whole studied acidic range (pH 3.6 to 7.0). Acid deposition related mobilization of Mn and Be into freshwaters explains the sharp increase in their concentrations with decreasing pH. Cadmium and Zn are also mobilized n strongly acidic environment. The concentrations of Be, As, F− and Mn in strongly acidic waters and those of Zn and Cd in weakly acidic ones are considerably higher in areas receiving a higher atmospheric loading. For Be and Mn, the higher concentrations are caused by higher acid deposition rates, while for As and F−, the concentrations are probably greater due to higher atmospheric deposition of these elements over more intensely acontaminated areas of the Czech Republic. In extremely acidic waters (pH 〈 4.2), the concentrations of Mn, Be, Cd, Zn and Al no longer increase with decreasing pH; on the contrary, those of Mn and Be actually decrease. This seems to be primarily caused by a decrease in their concentrations within the surface horizons of soils and vegetation induced by prolonged leaching. The Cd and Zn concentrations are independent of pH over an interval of pH 5.4 to 6.0 and thus the increase in the mean concentrations of Cd and Zn with decreasing pH involves two separate stages, at pH 〉 6.0 and at pH 〈 5.4. The concentrations of Cu in acid freshwaters are controlled by both the presence of high molecular weight organics plus biota uptake and by their atmospheric deposition levels; the concentrations of As and Pb are in addition controlled by sorption on Fe - oxyhydroxides. These elements accumulate in the topsoil, even under conditions of severe acidification. The surprisingly lower concentrations of Pb and Cu were found in acidic waters of more contaminated areas.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00294103
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    Acidifying emissions in The Netherlands (1995)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 85 (1995), S. 1909-1914 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: Emissions ; acidification ; SO2 ; NOX ; NH3 ; Netherlands
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The emission of acidifying compounds to air in the Netherlands, expressed as acidifying equivalents, consisted in 1992 mainly of NOX (45%), NH3 (35%) and SO2 (20%). Transportation, agriculture and large combustion plants each contributed about 30% to the national total emission of acidifying compounds. The emissions from transportation activities mainly consisted of NOX, while in agriculture NH3 emission strongly dominated. Combustion processes in large combustion plants resulted both in SO2 emissions (especially from refineries) and NOX emissions (especially from public power plants). The total emission of acidifying substances decreases steadily in the Netherlands. The emission in 1992 was 24% lower than in 1985. It is expected to decrease further in future. The emission levels in 1992 and 1993 still are more than twice as high as the emission objective for the year 2000, set by Dutch environmental policy.
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    Beryllium in environmental air, water and soil (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 95 (1997), S. 133-146 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: beryllium ; environment ; air ; water ; soil
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The study was specifically aimed to obtain concentration of beryllium in various environmental matrices such as air, water and soil in the vicinity of the Beryllium Metal Plant situated at Turbhe, New Bombay. Two analytical techniques - Morin fluorescence method and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry using graphite furnace were standardised for beryllium estimation. The beryllium concentration in the natural matrices studied - air, water and soil were in the range of 0.41–0.43 ng m−3, 0.01–0.02 ng mL−1 and 325–767 ng g−1 respectively.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02406161
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    The difference in brown trout (Salmo Trutta L.) blood composition from acidic and limed sites of two rivers in Western Norway (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 203-210 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; blood ; environment ; fish
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Certain blood morphology parameters: red blood cell (RBC) sizes; percentage of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and ratio polychromatocyte/RBC in Brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) from acidified water (mean pH value 4.94) and limed water (mean pH value 5.66) were investigated. The sizes of RBC long axises were significantly larger in fish from acidic environment than from limed condition (14.37 and 12.96μm respectively). The percentage of polymorphonuclear cells (7.86 and 3.32) and polychromatocyte/RBC ratio (0.079 and 0.019) were also significantly larger in fish from the acidified environment. Blood morphology parameters are concluded to be usefull for testing and detection of long-term acidic stress in fish in nature.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02407205
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    THE DIFFERENCE IN BROWN TROUT (SALMO TRUTTA L.) BLOOD COMPOSITION FROM ACIDIC AND LIMED SITES OF TWO RIVERS IN WESTERN NORWAY (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 96 (1997), S. 203-210 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; blood ; environment ; fish
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Certain blood morphology parameters: red blood cell (RBC) sizes; percentage of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and ratio polychromatocyte/RBC in Brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) from acidified water (mean pH value 4.94) and limed water (mean pH value 5.66) were investigated. The sizes of RBC long axises were significantly larger in fish from acidic environment than from limed condition (14.37 and 12.96 μm respectively). The percentage of polymorhonuclear cells (7.86 and 3.32) and polychromatocyte/RBC ratio (0.079 and 0.019) were also significantly larger in fish from the acidified environment. Blood morphology parameters are concluded to be usefull for testing and detection of long-term acidic stress in fish in nature.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026404417464
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    Environmental Implications of Magnetic Measurements on Recent Sediments from Lake Donghu, Wuhan (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 98 (1997), S. 187-195 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: environment ; industrial pollution ; lake ; magnetic measurements ; metals ; sediment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Mineral magnetic measurements have been made on three sediment cores from Lake Donghu, Wuhan, which reveal evidence for changes in magnetic properties of the sediments. It is suggested that the recent lake sediment profiles contain deposited magnetic minerals and atmospherically derived fly ash from industrial processes. In the cores, the record of ‘magnetite’ deposition shows that the environment of the lake has been affected by heavy industrial processes in intensity and range beginning from the 1950's onwards and remaining relatively uniform in the last decades. In Core I the record of ‘hematite’ deposition parallels that for influence of urban waste water input.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026496904708
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    Holling's Figure-Eight Model: A Technical Reevaluation in Relation to Climate Change and Biodiversity (1998)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 49 (1998), S. 157-168 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: biodiversity ; carbon storage ; climate change ; conservation ; creative destruction ; ecological succession ; ecosystem stability ; Holling figure-eight ; nitrogen ; resilience
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Holling proposed a four-phase conceptual model of ecosystem dynamics that includes exploitation, conservation, and destructive and renewal components to explain the failure of many natural resource management schemes. The model is drawn as a sideways figure-eight i.e. ∞. There are two dimensions in this model, connectivity (abscissa) and the amount of capital stored in the system (ordinate). This conceptual model has been suggested as a guide to thinking about the impact of climate change on biodiversity, but the two dimensions are insufficient and the alignment of the figure-eight model is problematic when compared with actual data. Kay has adjusted the dimensions of the figure-eight model and renamed the abscissa as exergy stored and the ordinate as exergy consumed. We realign the original figure-eight model, labeling the abscissa as carbon stored and the ordinate as nutrients, such that the relative values of both axes are in qualitative agreement with data from four different studies. This new alignment is then shown to fit relatively well with Holling's original labels. This revision of the figure-eight model brings Holling's model into agreement with observations and provides insight into the linkages between biodiversity and climate change.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005813702080
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    Aircraft Emissions: A Comparison of Methodologies Based on Different Data Availability (1999)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 56 (1999), S. 51-74 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: aircraft emissions ; climate change ; emission inventories ; greenhouse gases
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The impact of air traffic on the global atmosphere is characterised by a high degree of uncertainty, concerning both the physico-chemical phenomena involved and the extent of the forcing due to anthropogenic emissions. The different effects of these emissions (e.g. on climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, acidification, tropospheric ozone formation) are dealt with by different international bodies and conventions (e.g. IPCC, EMEP. . .) which are trying to define a standard methodology allowing countries to evaluate their contributions to global aircraft emissions and to report these figures in a standardised way. The paper compares different methodologies proposed by the joint EMEP/CORINAIR 'Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook' for estimating aircraft emissions. Adjustments to these methodologies have been proposed, in order to integrate some additional data such as the total amount of flight hours per aircraft type or fuel consumption per trip. In case detailed information is not available, we recommend the use of a VERY SIMPLE methodology which may yield acceptable results, provided that every country makes adequate assumptions on the average aircraft type.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005972024261
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    Vulnerability Assessment of Sea Level Rise Over Port Said Governorate, Egypt (1999)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 56 (1999), S. 113-128 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: climate change ; coastal erosion ; GIS ; Mediterranean coast ; Nile delta ; remote sensing
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract An assessment of the impact of sea level rise on the city of Port Said, Egypt has been carried out using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Bruun's is used to estimate horizontal retreat, due to three scenarios of sea level rise, taking into account local subsidence rates. Overlaying horizontal retreat on land use obtained by remote sensing enabled us to estimate possible losses and socio-economic impacts. Results indicate serious physical and socio-economic impacts. It is suggested that protection measures must be carried out with emphasis on building breakwaters along the most vulnerable shoreline area.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005946819600
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    Adaptation Scenarios of Agriculture in Poland to Future Climate Changes (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 61 (2000), S. 133-144 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: adaptation scenarios ; climate change ; agriculture ; Poland
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper demonstrates the ability of Polish agriculture to adapt to predicted climate change according to GISS and GFDL scenarios. Both climate-change scenarios will significantly affect farming conditions in Poland through water deficit, shifts in planting and harvesting seasons, changes in crop yields and crop structure. Neither scenario seems to endanger the self-sufficiency of Poland as long as preventative measures are taken. Moreover, the realization of GISS creates the possibility of a surplus in production. It must be emphasized that regardless of the scenario, the adaptation of agriculture to an expected climate change cannot be handled by the farming community itself.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006378420994
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    Water Resources of Central Asia and Adaptation Measures for Climate Change (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 61 (2000), S. 161-166 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: adaptation measures ; water resources ; climate change ; Central Asia
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A large part of the Central Asian region is located within the inner flow of the Aral Sea basin. The water resources are formed from renewed superficial and underground waters of natural origin, and also with returnable waters. The intensive increase of water intake, that took place in the second half of the twentieth century caused practically complete assimilation of the river inflow. That was the main reason for the Aral Sea crisis. On the basis of the analysis of long periodical rows of observation by meterological and hydrological stations, the estimation of regional water resources and calculations of changes of some components of the hydrological cycle due to the expected climate changes are presented. Measures for adaptation in the southern part of the Aral Sea region are considered.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006394808699
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    Impact of Global Climate Change on China's Water Resources (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 61 (2000), S. 187-191 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: climate change ; adaptation ; water resources ; China
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract It is indicated that up to the year 2030, the annual average temperatures in China will increase by 0.88 to 1.2°C, with increments in the south less than in the north. Annual average precipitation would raise slightly, but the increment could be 4% in northeastern China. The increment of annual mean runoff could rise over 6% in the northeastern area, and decrease in the other regions 1.4 to 10.5%. The increased water shortage due to climate change could achieve 160 to 5090 million m3 in some areas of China. Financial loss due to the lack of water could reach 1300 million yuan, and up to 4400 million yuan in serious drought years in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan area.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006351126446
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    The Precariousness of North American Boreal Forests (2000)
    Springer
    Environmental monitoring and assessment 62 (2000), S. 261-272 
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    ISSN: 1573-2959
    Keywords: boreal forests ; climate change ; ecosystem theory ; nonlinear thermodynamics ; resource management
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Over the past two centuries progressive anthropogenicperturbations to natural, boreal forest-climateinteractions have contributed increasingly to awidespread transition from coniferous to deciduouslandscapes. This transition is associated withchanges, at boreal latitudes, in temperature,photosynthetic activity, atmospheric CO2 andspring snow cover. These signals convey thediminished capacity of boreal landscapes to store andcycle materials and energy.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006201904039
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    Sustainable Development and Environment: a Renewed Effort in the OECD (1999)
    Springer
    Environment, development and sustainability 1 (1999), S. 41-53 
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    ISSN: 1573-2975
    Keywords: environment ; OECD ; sustainable development
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Sociology
    Notes: Abstract The importance of sustainable development has been clearly recognised by the OECD Council at Ministerial Level. The Communiqué of the 1998 Ministerial Meeting states that ‘Ministers agreed that the achievement of sustainable development is a key priority for OECD countries. They encouraged the elaboration of the Organisation's strategy for wide-ranging efforts over the next three years in the areas of climate change, technological development, sustainability indicators, and the environmental impact of subsidies...’. Further, ‘Ministers asked the OECD to enhance its dialogue with non-member countries in these areas and to engage them more actively, including through shared analyses and development of strategies for implementing sustainable development’ (OECD, 1998d). To help countries achieve the transition to sustainable development, a framework is required for the integration of economic, environmental and social policy. This was the main recommendation of the report in November 1997 to the OECD Secretary-General, Donald J. Johnston, of the High-Level Advisory Group on the Environment (OECD, 1997b). The OECD and its affiliates (including the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), the Development Centre and the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT)) are well equipped with the broad, multidisciplinary expertise to assist Member governments in this task. Work on sustainable development encompasses the full range of activities of the Organisation: macro and micro-economic analysis; environmental policy; labour markets, education, health and social policies; agricultural and fisheries policies; energy policy; technology policy; regional, local and urban policies; and development co-operation. Activities with non-members add an essential global perspective. The challenge is to move beyond a sectoral approach to integrated policies, and to exploit potential synergies and interrelationships between this wide range of competencies. The aim is to move as far as possible towards the harmonisation and integration of policies within an overall economic framework.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010052116045
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    Amounts of pesticides reaching target pests: Environmental impacts and ethics (1995)
    Springer
    Journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 8 (1995), S. 17-29 
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    ISSN: 1573-322X
    Keywords: pesticides ; pests ; targets ; application ; technology ; agriculture ; environment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Philosophy
    Notes: Abstract Less than 0.1% of pesticides applied for pest control reach their target pests. Thus, more than 99.9% of pesticides used move into the environment where they adversely affect public health and beneficial biota, and contaminate soil, water, and the atmosphere of the ecosystem. Improved pesticide application technologies can improve pesticide use efficiency and protect public health and the environment.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02286399
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    Studies of Soils, Soil Water and Stream Water at a Small Catchment near Guiyang, China (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 101 (1998), S. 137-162 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; acid rain ; catchment ; China ; geochemistry ; soil ; soil water
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Acid deposition is considered to be a major environmental problem in China, but information about effects on soils and waters is scarce. To contribute to increased knowledge about the problem a small catchment (about 7 ha) in the outskirts of Guiyang, the provincial capital of Guizhou in south-western China, was instrumented for collection of precipitation, throughfall, soil water and stream water. In addition soil samples have been collected and analyzed for key properties. Median pH in the precipitation is 4.40 (quartiles: 4.19 and 4.77) and the median sulfate concentration 228 µeq/L (quartiles: 147 and 334 µeq/L). The dry deposition of both SO2 and alkaline dust is considerable. The sum of wet deposition of sulfate and dry deposition of SO2 has been estimated to about 8.5 gSm-2yr-1. The total S-deposition may be somewhat higher due to dry deposition of sulfate and occult deposition. In soil water, SO4 2- is the major anion, generally ranging from 300 to 2500 µeq/L in the different plots. Calcium is an important cation, but there is also a considerable contribution of aluminum from the soil. In some of the plots the concentrations of inorganic monomeric aluminum (Ali) are typically between 200 and 400 µm. Potential harmful levels of aluminum and/or high Ali/(Ca2+ + Mg2+) molar ratios occur in the catchment, but damages to vegetation have not yet been reported. In most cases exchangeable aluminum accounts for between 75 and 95% of the total effective cation exchange capacity (CECE) in the mineral soils. The aluminum chemistry cannot easily be explained by conventional models as the Gaines-Thomas ion-exchange equation or equilibrium with an Al(OH)3 mineral phase. The stream water is generally less acidic and has considerably lower concentrations of aluminum than the soil water, even though quite acid events have been observed (pH 〈 4.4). The median pH values are 4.9 and 5.0 in the two first order streams and 6.3 in the dam at the lower boarder of the catchment.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004985209931
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    Predicting Freshwater Critical Loads of Acidification at the Catchment Scale: An Empirical Model (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 105 (1998), S. 31-41 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; catchments ; freshwater critical loads ; predictive model ; Scotland ; statistical modeling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Current applications of the critical loads concept are geared primarily toward targeting emission control strategies at a national and international level. Maps of critical loads for freshwaters have been produced in grid form based on water samples of representative sites within each grid square. However, the water chemistry data required to calculate freshwater critical loads are not always readily available at a national level and maps are therefore limited to catchments where such data exist. This paper describes the development of an approach that uses nationally available secondary data to predict freshwater critical loads for catchments lacking the appropriate water chemistry information. An empirical statistical model is calibrated using data from 78 catchments throughout Scotland. Water chemistry for each catchment has been determined. Each catchment is characterized according to a number of attributes. Redundancy analysis of these data shows clear relationships between catchment attributes and the critical load derived from the water chemistry. The key variables that explain most of the variation in critical load relate to soil, geology and land use within the catchment. Using these variables as predictors in a regression analysis, the critical load can be predicted across a broad gradient of sensitivity (R2 adj=0.81). The predictive power of the model was maintained when different combinations of explanatory variables were used. This accords the approach a degree of flexibility in that model parameterization can be geared toward availability of secondary data. There are limitations with the model as presently calibrated. However, the approach offers considerable scope for environmental managers to undertake national inventories of catchment sensitivity and specific assessments of individual catchments.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005085021429
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    Proton Budgets of Forest Ecosystems on Volcanogenous Regosols in Hokkaido, Northern Japan (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 105 (1998), S. 63-72 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; atmospheric deposition ; forest canopy ; Japan ; leaching ; proton budgets
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The proton budgets of deciduous and coniferous forest ecosystems on volcanogenous regosols in Hokkaido, northern Japan, were studied by measuring the biogeochemical fluxes (atmospheric deposition, canopy leaching, vegetation uptake and leaching from soil) at each site during a three year period. The proton budgets were developed for individual compartments of the ecosystem: vegetation canopy, organic and mineral soil layers. At both sites, atmospheric S deposition was the dominant proton source in the vegetation canopy. In organic horizons, dissociation of weak acids (bicarbonate and/or organic acids) and vegetation uptake of base cations were the dominant proton sources, and the net mineralization of base cations was the dominant proton sink. Atmospheric acid deposition was almost neutralized in the forest canopy and organic horizon. At both sites, weathering and/or ion exchange of base cations and protonation of weak acids (mainly bicarbonate) were the dominant proton sinks in the mineral soil. In both organic and mineral soil, internal proton sources (mainly vegetation uptake of base cations and dissociation of weak acids) exceeded external proton sources, indicating that acid deposition was not the main driving force of soil acidification in the studied forest ecosystems.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005086400473
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    Integrated Assessment of Soil Chemical Status. 2. Application of a Regionalized Model to 622 Forested Sites in Switzerland (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 105 (1998), S. 11-20 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; recovery ; forest soils ; regional dynamic modeling ; Switzerland
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract A regionalized version of the dynamic, process-oriented, multi-layer soil chemistry model SAFE was applied to 622 forest sites in Switzerland to assess effects of acidifying atmospheric deposition on the soil chemistry between 1850 and 2050. Simulation indicates that the present day chemical status of Swiss soils is a result of the last 50 years of acid deposition. Indicative soil parameters such as soil solution pH, acid neutralizing capacity, total Al concentration, base cation to total A1 molar ratio and base saturation consistently deteriorate since the beginning of the 1950s, when acid loads start to increase. The simulated adverse evolution of soil chemistry persists until some time between 1975 and 2010, and apart from being site-dependent, the turning-point is also dependent on which parameter is considered at which soil depth.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005055020945
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    Effects of Water Chemistry and Habitat on the Density of Young Brown Trout Salmo trutta in Acidic Streams (1999)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 112 (1999), S. 85-106 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; Brown trout ; calcium ; density ; juveniles ; streams
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract We examined the relationship between young brown trout ( Salmo trutta) density in lake tributaries, and water chemistry and habitat variables. The study was carried out during the autumn in three acidic, softwater river systems in western and southwestern Norway; Gaular and Vikedal (1987–1993) and Bjerkreim (1988–1993). The streams had mean calcium concentrations of 0.35 mg L-1 (Gaular), 0.52 mg L-1 (Vikedal) and 0.84 mg L-1 (Bjerkreim). The concentration of inorganic Al was generally low, with mean values of 8.40 (Gaular), 22.22 (Vikedal) and 43.36 μg L-1 (Bjerkreim). In multiple regressions that involved different water chemistry variables, brown trout density correlated best with calcium concentration and with a combination of calcium and pH; the Ca2+:H+ ratio. In Vikedal and Gaular, calcium explained 51 and 57%, respectively, of the variability in brown trout densities. Althoug alkalinity exhibited the best correlation with brown trout density in Bjerkreim ( r2=0.33), it was similar to that of the model that included all major ions plus pH. The Ca2+:H+ ratio had a larger effect for variability in brown trout density in Gaular (r2=0.66) than calcium alone. In Vikedal and Bjerkreim, the Ca2+:H+ ratio also correlated with brown trout density, but considerably less than in Gaular. The predictive power of habitat variables was much lower than that of water chemistry; the single most important factors were altitude in Gaular (r2=0.22), mean water temperature in Vikedal (r2=0.11) and depth SD (index of heterogeneity) in Bjerkreim (r2=0.07). Models that included both habitat and water chemistry variables showed that the density of young brown trout was predicted primarily by calcium concentrations in Gaular (r2=0.75) and Vikedal (r2=0.54), as opposed to pH in Bjerkreim (r2=0.25). Habitat had low effect in all three river systems (r2=0.01–0.04). The final model explained 86, 68 and 32%, respectively, of the variability in brown trout density in the three catchments. Thus, water chemistry variables seem to be factors that limit the density of young brown trout in acidic softwater streams.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005068404832
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    Overview of Recent Growth Trends in European Forests (1999)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 116 (1999), S. 33-46 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: growth trends ; site productivity ; European forests ; climate change ; management
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Natural environmental changes and human activities have altered forest growth for centuries. Recent long-term growth investigations indicate an increasing growth trend in European forests. The investigations are based on forest inventory, permanent plot and tree analysis data. The observed trends are species specific, locally varying and modified by remarkably large periodic growth variations. On a European scale, species and site specific quantitative information about the extent and spatial as well as temporal variation in growth acceleration is lacking. Future growth development may differ from past observations. A better understanding of changes in site conditions, their causes and consequences is needed to guide sustainable management of European forests.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005205515952
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    Terrestrial ecosystem sensitivity to acid deposition in South China (2000)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 118 (2000), S. 231-244 
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    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; air pollution ; critical loads ; ecological factors
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Ecosystem sensitivity to acid deposition can be a basis for thederivation of cost-effective strategies to sulfur and nitrogenpollutant control, consequently is widely concerned around theworld. In the article, the relative sensitivity of terrestrialecosystem to acid deposition in South China is assessed andmapped using a new sensitivity classification system suitable tosubtropical ecosystem. The result shows that the distribution ofecosystem sensitivity to acid deposition in South China isalmost zonal, on the whole, sensitivity increases from the northand west to the south and east. The most sensitive areas are thenorthwest and southeast of Zhejiang province, the central partof Fujian province, and the northeast of Guangdong province andGuangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, which are all in the old acidsoil areas with high precipitation and coniferous forests. Theresulting distribution of sensitive regions is different othermaps, including the sensitivity map which is implemented in theRAINS-Asia model.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005139719658
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    Effects of environmental stress on forest crown condition in Europe. Part I: Hypotheses and approach to the study (2000)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 119 (2000), S. 317-333 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acid deposition ; acidification ; air pollution ; critical load ; defoliation ; drought ; meteorological stress ; N deposition ; nitrogen oxides ; ozone ; sulphur
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract This paper is the first in a series of four,describing the hypothesis and approach of acorrelative study between observed data on crowncondition in Europe, monitored since 1986 at asystematic 16 × 16 km grid, and site-specificestimations of various natural and anthropogenicstress factors. The study was based on the hypothesisthat forests respond to various natural andanthropogenic stress factors, whose contributiondepend on the geographic region considered. In view ofthis hypothesis, major stand and site characteristics,chemical soil composition, meteorological stressfactors (temperature and drought stress indices) andair pollution stress (concentrations and/ordepositions of SOx, NOy, NHx andO3) were included as predictor variables. Theresponse variables considered were actual defoliationand changes/trends in defoliation for five major treespecies. The spatial distribution of the averagedefoliation during the period 1986–1995 shows highdefoliation in Central Europe and in parts ofScandinavia and of Southern Europe. There are,however, sharp changes at country borders, which aredue to methodological differences between countries.The spatial distribution of the calculated trends showa distinct cluster of large deterioration in parts ofCentral and Eastern Europe and in Spain and a ratherscattered pattern of positive and negative trends for most of Europe, indicating that other factors than airpollution only have a strong impact on defoliation.The limitations of the study are discussed in view ofthe quality of the considered response and predictor variables.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005157509454
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    Acidification of Solid and Solution Phases at Greater Depths (〉 150 cm) at Solling Spruce Site (2000)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 120 (2000), S. 89-105 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; cation exchange ; denitrification ; element fluxes ; lysimetry ; proton buffering ; silicateweathering ; Solling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The acidification of the soil and percolation water at soildepths from 150 to 500 cm was studied at the Solling spruce sitefrom 1991 to 1996. NH4Cl exchangeable cations of the fineearth and bedrock fractions were obtained from different depthsand the soil solution composition was monitored at 150, 200,300, 400 and 500 cm depths using seven suction lysimeters at each depth.In the seepage water collected from 150 and 200 cm depth, pHvalues decreased in the period 1991 to 1996, but no significantchanges were observed in solutions collected below 200 cm depth.Element budgets of Al and Mb (Na, K, Mg, Ca) cationsindicated that buffering by exchange of Al with Mb cationsoccurred mainly in surface 200 cm soil depth. High variabilities in concentrations of SO4 (at 150 cm) andMa (Al, Mn, H, Fe) cations (at 300 and 500 cm) wereobserved. High variabilities in Ma cations could beassigned to one of the lysimeters at each depththat extracted low pH solutions. The amount of exchangeablecations in the fine earth and the bedrock fractions indicatedthat the acidification front (exchangeable Mb cations 〈 80equivalent percent) had occurred to soil depth of more than 360cm, but the extent of acidification that might have occurred inthe preindustrial period is not known. In both fine earth andbedrock fractions, depthwise changes of exchangeable Ma andMb cations were quite similar, suggesting that rockfractions have contributed to proton buffering not only bysilicate weathering but also by cation exchange.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005281126507
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    Effects of Atmospheric Sea-Salt Deposition on Soils and Freshwaters in Northeast Scotland (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 105 (1998), S. 83-94 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acidification ; river water chemistry ; sea salt deposition ; Scotland ; soil solution chemistry
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The majority of Scottish upland soils are particularly sensitive to acid deposition because of their low weathering rates. The compositions of the exchangeable base cations of such soils in the United Kingdom are dominated by sea salt inputs rather than by mineral weathering inputs of base cations. Catchments with low mineral weathering rates are also those particularly susceptible to freshwater acidification. Therefore, catchments exhibiting a high sea salt effect should also exhibit the most acid waters under base flow and storm flow conditions. A field evaluation study based on 61 catchments in NE Scotland has shown that this is indeed the case. River water pH under both base flow and high flow conditions is correlated stronhly with the relative contribution of Na+ to the sum of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+. From these results, an attempt is being made to produce a quantitative signature of weathering for the soils within the catchment upstream of the sampling point. Representative soil samples from the LFH, AE, B and C horizons and on 4 different parent materials have been obtained from the surrounding catchments to validate the above results for associated soil solutions. Sampling took place on upland moorland podzols under Calluna vulgaris. Tension lysimeters were used to sample the soil solutions so that their chemistry could be compared with that of the relevant river water.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005090518219
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    Modeling the Concentration of Aluminum in Surface Waters (1998)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 105 (1998), S. 643-659 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: acid deposition ; acidification ; aluminium ; modeling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Although the increased mobilization of aluminum from soils to surface waters is widely recognized as one of the most important ecological effects of acidic deposition, lumped-parameter mathematical models of acidification response typically overestimate the change in Al concentration under changing deposition by a considerable margin. The assumption of equilibrium with gibbsite (Al(OH)3) in the MAGIC model and other models of acid-base chemistry is shown to be inconsistent with measured values for a large variety of lake and stream databases. A modified algorithm for predicting Al concentration, based on empirical relationships evident in field data, provided superior estimates of changes in Al concentration in three long-term monitoring data sets and under experimental conditions at two experimental watershed manipulation sites.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004957426629
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    A Future for Sustainability? (2000)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 123 (2000), S. 467-476 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: education ; environment ; environmental education ; environmental philosophy ; philosophy ; sustainability ; sustainable development
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Sustainability has become a focal topic and important goal for many people concerned about environmental issues. It is, therefore, important for educators, and others, to talk about sustainability with their students and colleagues—about its meaning, curricular application, and practice. However, I do not think this is sufficient. In this paper I will examine limitations of the language of sustainability and implications for environmental thinking. Before launching into a critique, I do acknowledge the importance of "sustainability" and the usefulness of this concept. Many ecological processes are not sustained—not kept going continuously. Species are going extinct at an alarming rate and whole ecosystems are at risk. So, sustainability is important. However, we must also pay attention to what sustainability is not. And, we should consider why these limitations matter. For example, "education for sustainability" has gained rapid acceptance, yet little critical attention has been given to the term. Just as many environmental educators have expressed reservations about "education for sustainable development," I believe there are serious problems associated with allowing our work to be subsumed by the term "education for sustainability." In this presentation I will explore reasons for educators, and others, to be concerned about relying on the language and goals of sustainability. These areas of concern, or limitations, are discussed in terms of determinism, exclusivity, and conceptualization. Some suggestions are provided to help refocus our direction.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005211410123
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    The role of climate variability and global warming in the dieback of Northern Hardwoods (1996)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 91 (1996), S. 163-186 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: birch ; cavitation ; climate change ; climatic variability ; decline ; dieback ; drought ; freezing ; global warming ; Northern Hardwoods ; temperate forests ; sugar maple
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract The severity of dieback in Northern Hardwood Forests of Canada and the United States this century (1910–1990) was reconstructed from pathology records and compared to indices of extreme weather stresses in the region, and to changes in global temperatures and climatic variability over the same period. Thaw-freeze and root-freeze events in winter and early spring were key factors intriggering (and synchronizing) severe episodes of dieback. Once trees were injured by freezing, forest dieback correlated significantly with heat and drought stress. Freezing (but not drought) stresses in Northern Hardwoods correlated significantly (r = 0.70, p 〈 0.001) with increasing global mean annual temperatures and low values of the Pacific tropical Southern Oscillation Index. Major diebacks did not occur early in the century at a time of notable freezing stress. Prior to 1940, the Northern Hardwoods consisted of relatively young populations of trees regrowing following extensive cutting and forest burning in the late 19th century (1860–1890). It appears that forest maturation is the key factorpreconditioning trees to climatic injury, and dieback. A simple projection of climate and forest maturation ages suggested the recurrence of major dieback episodes on white/yellow birch, sugar maple and red spruce in the latter half of the 21st century (2045–2085).
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00666255
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    Environmental implications of magnetic measurements on recent sediments from lake Donghu, Wuhan (1997)
    Springer
    Water, air & soil pollution 98 (1997), S. 187-195 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-2932
    Keywords: environment ; industrial pollution ; lake ; magnetic measurements ; metals ; sediment
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering
    Notes: Abstract Mineral magnetic measurements have been made on three sediment cores from Lake Donghu, Wuhan, which reveal evidence for changes in magnetic properties of the sediments. It is suggested that the recent lake sediment profiles contain deposited magnetic minerals and atmospherically derived fly ash from industrial processes. In the cores, the record of ‘magnetite’ deposition shows that the environment of the lake has been affected by heavy industrial processes in intensity and range beginning from the 1950's onwards and remaining relatively uniform in the last decades. In Core I the record of ‘hematite’ deposition parallels that for influence of urban waste water input.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02128657
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