ALBERT

Notes: The paper describes two research projects on the application and value of satellite imagery taken, by ERTS 1 and Skylab, for small scale mapping. It describes the methods used in controlling a block of normal system corrected imagery and the accuracies achieved.The interpretation and evaluation of the imagery are discussed and the results of ERTS 1 and Skylab in this field are compared. Finally, some examples are described where ERTS 1 imagery has proved of practical value as a navigational aid when flying conventional photography and airborne geophysical surveys and for providing base maps when concerned with resource evaluation of poorly mapped areas.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On présent les résultats de deux projets de recherche sur les applications possibles el la valeur pratique des imageries satellitaires, prises avec ERTS 1 et Skylab en vue de la cartographie à petite échelle. On décrit les méthodes utilisées pour “appuyer” un bloc à imagerie corrigée (système normal) et l'exactitude obtenue. On compare de ce point de vue ERTS 1 et Skylab. Enfin on donne quelques applications pratiques qui se sont révélées utiles: aide à la navigation pour les levés photographiques et géophysiques aériens; établissement de cartes expédiées en vue d'inventaire de régions souscartographiées.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Beschreibung von zwei Forschungsprojekten über die Anwendung und den Nutzen von Satelliten-Bildern, die von ERTS 1 und Skylab aus aufgenommen wurden, für die Herstellung kleinmassstäbiger Karten. Es werden die Verfahren beschrieben, die beim Festpunktanschluss von korrigierten Bildern angewendet wurden. Die dabei erreichten Genauigkeiten werden mitgeteilt. Diskussion der Interpretation und Bewertung der Bilder und Vergleich der diesbezüglichen Ergebnisse von ERTS 1 und Skylab. Schliesslich werden einige Beispiele beschrieben, wo Bilder von ERTS 1 von praktischem Wert als Navigationshilfe zur Luftbildaufnahme und geophysikalischen Lufterkundung und bei Beschaffung von Grundkarten bei der Ressourcenerkundung in kartographisch schwach erfassten Gebieten waren.

Notes: The author reviews the present state of aerial triangulation methods and outlines the requirements for future research which were suggested at the symposium of Commission III of the International Society for Photogrammetry in 1974. He maintains that none of these research topics is very relevant to aerial triangulation as it is practised in Britain today. A combination of complacency, the natural inertia imposed by economic arguments and the higher priorities accorded to younger developments such as automated cartography is conspiring to prevent replacement of adequate but out-dated methods. He considers that there are nevertheless, strong arguments for selecting a newly designed, optimum, modern system, based on a modular approach, which can be introduced on a national basis and made fully available to all interested organisations.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméRevue de l'état actuel des méthodes de triangulation aérienne et rappel des voies de recherches recommandées au symposium de la Commission III de la SIP en 1974. Aucune de ces voies n'a malheureusement de rapport avec ce qui est actuellement pratiqué en Grande Bretagne en matière de triangulation aérienne. Une certaine complaisance, mêlée à une inertie assez naturelle due à des raisons économiques et à la plus grande priorité accordée à des domaines plus neufs comme la cartographie automatique, a perpétué l'emploi des méthodes pertinentes mais désuètes. L'auteur pense qu'il y a de puissants arguments pour qu'on choisisse et mette en oeuvre une méthode moderne, avec approche modulaire dont l'emploi se ferait à l'échelle nationale et à laquelle tout organisme intéressé pourrait recourir.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDer Autor referiert über den gegenwärtigen Stand der Verfahren der Aerotriangulation und skizziert die Anforderungen für künftige Forschungs-arbeiten, die auf dem Symposium der Kommission III der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie 1974 vorgeschlagen wurden. Er bekräftigt, dass keiner dieser Forschungsgegenstände bezüglich der gegenwärtig in Grossbritannien praktizierten Aerotriangulation relevant ist. Eine Kombination von Selbstzufriedenheit, natürlicher Beschränkung infolge ökonomischer Argumente und der höheren Prioritäten wegen der neueren Entwicklungen z.B. in der automatischen Kartographie verhindert den Ersatz passender, aber unmoderner Verfahren. Der Autor ist der Meinung, dass es trotzdem starke Argumente zur Auswahl eines neuen optimalen, modernen Systems gibt, das auf dem Bausteinprinzip beruht und das auf nationaler Grundlage eingeführt und allen interessierten Organisationen zugänglich gemacht werden kann.

Notes: A plot of relative parallax measurements in a student exercise is proposed for revealing errors in parallax bar readings taken from a stereo-pair of aerial photographs. The sensitivity of the computed heights to measurement error is also evaluated.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn propose un tracé graphique des mesures de parallaxe pour mettre en évidence des erreurs de lecture à la barre de parallaxe.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungEs wird eine Auswertung relativer Parallaxenmessungen bei einer studentischen Übung vorgeschlagen, um Fehler der an einem Stereomikrometer vorgenommenen Ablesungen aufzudecken, die an Hand eines Luftbildpaars erfolgten. Der Einfluss des Messfehiers auf den Höhenfehler wird ebenfalls abgeschätzt.

Notes: 1:70 000 scale photographs taken over Syria with a Russian AFA topographic camera equipped with a Russar 29b super-wide angle lens have been tested. The tests included (i) the measurement of a field of points using several different instruments and a comparison of the photogrammetrically derived co-ordinates with the values derived by field survey; (ii) the production of plots at 1: 25 000 scale for comparison with a check plot produced from large scale, wide angle photography; and (iii) production of orthophotographs, also at 1: 25 000 scale. Difficulties were experienced with the asymmetrical lens distortion pattern and the variations in illumination and resolution present in the photography. The former were overcome by manufacture of asymmetrical lens distortion correction plates. When this was done, the accuracies attained were comparable to those achieved in previous tests using photographs taken at the same scale with the Wild RC 9 camera equipped with the Super Aviogon I lens and measured on the same or similar types of measuring equipment.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On décrit ici un test relatif à une couverture aérienne au 1: 70 000 exécutée en Syrie avec une chambre russe AFA dotée d'un super-grand angulaire 29 b. Le test comprenait: la détermination d'un polygone au sol, et la comparaison des determinations géodésiques et des déterminations photogrammétriques; la restitution de parcelles au 1: 25 000 en vue de les comparer avec une parcelle-test provenant de photos à grande échelle; et la réalisation d'ortho-photos au 1: 25 000. La distorsion disymétrique de l'objectif a conduit à quelques difficultés, ainsi que des inégalités d'éclairement et de finesse sur les clichés. On a surmonté les premières en faisant fabriquer des plaques correctives. Ceci fait, l'exactitude atteinte s'est trouvée du même ordre que celle de restitutions provenant des clichés aux même échelles pris avec le Wild RC9 et effectuées dans des conditions très voisines.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Bericht über die Testung von Luftbildern (mb= 70 000), die über Syrien mit einer sowjetischen Überweitwinkelkammer mil einem Russar-Objektiv 29b aufgenommen wurden. Die Untersuchungen umfassten (a) die Aus-messung eines Punktfeldes mit verschiedenen Auswertegeräten und einen Vergleich photogrammetrisch und geodätisch bestimmter Koordinaten, (b) die Durchführung einer Auswertung 1: 25 000 und den Vergleich mit einer aus grossmassstäbigen Weitwinkelbildern abgeleiteten Kontrollkarte, (c) die Herstellung von Orthophotos im Massstab 1: 25 000. Schwierig-keiten resultierten aus der asymmetrischen Objektivverzeichnung und den Variationen in der Bildhelligkeit und -auflösung. Die Verzeichnung konnte durch Herstellung von Kompensationsplatten reduziert werden. Danach waren die erreichten Genauigkeiten mit den in früheren Tests erzielten vergleichbar, bei denen mit einer Wild RC9- Kammer (Super Aviogon I) aufgenommene Luftbilder gleichen Massstabs an denselben oder ühnlichen Auswertegeräten ausgemessen wurden.

Notes: With present day trends towards smaller scale photography for topographic mapping and photomapping, there is an increasing need for high quality photography and a corresponding need for diagnostic information on potential sources of degradation. Hence subjective judgements must be supplemented by quantitative analyses of image quality that go beyond mere determinations of resolution level. A methodology for evaluating three important parameters governing image quality (development, exposure and spatial frequency content) is presented. By sequentially comparing the values measured on production or test photographs with standard values, the faults most commonly responsible for image degradation (such as errors in development and exposure, excessive image motion, vacuum failure and poor camera focus) can be isolated and measured.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa tendance actuelle en matière de plans topographiques et de photocartes est de diminuer l'échelle de la couverture photo; se fait done jour le besoin d'émulsions de haute qualité et simultanément la nécessité de pouvoir juger objectivement de cette qualité. II faut alors recourir á des analyses quantitatives qui aillent au-delá de la simple mesure du pouvoir de résolution. On présente ici une méthodologie relative au problème de l'évaluation de trois des principaux paramètres effectuant la qualité de l'image (développement, durée d'exposition, résolution de fréquence spatiale). Avec des tests d'homogénéïté on peut alors déceler les variations de qualité, et en particulier déterminer et mesurer les causes d'altération les plus fréquentes (erreurs lors du développement ou lors de la phase d'exposition, filé, défauts internes, qualité médiocre de la chambre).〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungBei dem gegenwärtigen Trend, den Bildmassstab zur Herstellung von topographischen Karten und Photokarten zu verkleinern, ergibt sich zunehmend die Notwendigkeit, Hochleistungsphotos aufzunehmen und diagnostische Informationen über mögliche Quellen der Qualitätsverschlechterung zu erlangen. Insbesondere müssen subjektive Bewertungen durch quantitative Analysen der Bildqualität ergänzt werden, die über Bestimmungen des Auflösungsvermögens hinausgehen. Es wird eine Methodologie zur Bewertung von drei wichtigen Parametern (Entwicklung, Belichtung, Inhalt der Orts-frequenz), die die Bildqualität beeinflussen, angegeben. Durch Vergleich der auf Produktionsbildern oder Testbildern gemessenen Werte mit deren Standards können die Fehler, die meistens eine Bildverschlechterung verursachen (wie zum Beispiel Fehler bei der Entwicklung und Belichtung, unzulässige Bildwanderung, ungenügende Planlage oder Kammerabstimmung) aufgedeckt und gemessen werden.

Notes: Le microscope électronique à balayage donne l'image de la surface d'un objet situé dans une boîte à spécimen où a été fait le vide. Un fin pinceau d'électrons balaie la surface synchroniquement avec un tube cathodique dont l'intensité est modulée en fonction du signal secondaire émanant du spécimen. Le système présente une grande profondeur de champ; on peut donc obtenir différentes perspectives du spécimen en le photographiant sous diverses inclinaisons (perspectives qui sont centrales, mais cependant justiciables d'être traitées comme parallèles pour de forts grandissements) et donc le restituer spatialement. On donne dans la première partie les limitations pratiques de l'appareillage, ainsi que le type et les causes de distorsion de l'image. Dans la deuxième partie, on décrit les caractéristiques d'un appareil de restitution adaptéà un cas standard: grandissement des deux clichés d'un stéréogramme: fixe-angle d'ouverture du faisceau perspectif négligeable (c'est le cas pour de forte grossissements) et convergence relative des deux positions de la plaque porte-spécimen est fixe.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Das Abtast-Elektronen-Mikroskop liefert Bilder der Oberfläche von Objekten, die sich in einer Vakuum-Kammer befinden. Ein feiner Elektronenstrahl tastet die Oberfläche in Synchronisation mit einer Kathodenstrahlröhre ab, deren Lichtpunkthelligkeit von dem sekundären Elektronensignal, das von der Probe ausgeht, moduliert wird. Das System gestattet eine grosse Schärfentiefe und erlaubt dadurch verschiedene Projektionen des zu photo-graphierenden Musters durch Neigung desselben zwischen aufeinanderfolgenden Aufnahmen. Aus der Kenntnis der Geometrie der Projektion (die eine Zentralprojektion ist, jedoch für sehr stark vergrösserte Bilder annähernd als Parallel- oder Orthogonalfall behandelt werden kann) ist es daher möglich, zu dreidimensionalen Analysen durch Messung von Parallaxen zu kommen. Teil I der Arbeit handelt von den praktischen Problemen, die sowohl aus den Grenzen für die mechanische Konstruktion von Muster-Halterungen und Auswertegeräten als auch den Verzerrungen der Bilder resultieren. Teil II beschäftigt sich mit praktischen Gesichtspunkten der bewährten Auswerteinstrumente, die speziell für die Lösung eines standard-isierten Problems der Elektronenmikroskopie konstruiert wurden. Bei diesen wird die Vergrösserung der beiden Halbbilder eines Stereobildpaars konstant gehalten, der Divergenzwinkel der peripheren “Strahlen”, die sich aus dem zentralen “Strahl” ergeben, wird als vernachlässigbar angesehen (was bei Bildern mit starker Vergrösserung der Fall ist) und die Neigungswinkeldifferenz zwischen den zwei Lagen der Probe ist konstant.

Notes: The article describes an experiment in which a production block of aerial triangulation, observed by the method of independent models, was repeatedly computed using differing amounts and configurations of control. The block was recomputed to investigate the effects of control errors, of dispensing with the tie strips and of applying different weights to control and tie points. The connexion between the quality of the join of individual models and that of the adjusted block was also investigated.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn décrit une série d'essais effectués sur un bloc de production de triangulation aérienne analytique traité par la méthode des modèles indépendants, destinés àétudier l'influence du nombre et de la configuration des points du canevas d'appui, l'effet d'erreurs sur les points d'appui, l'effet des bandes transversales, et du choix des poids pour les points d'appui et de liaison. On a aussi examiné la corrélation entre la qualityé de l'enchaînement des modèles individuels et celle du bloc compensé.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungBeschreibung eines Versuchs, bei dem ein Aerotriangulationsblock aus der Produktion, der nach der Methode der unabhängigen Bildpaare beobachtet worden war, wiederholt bei verschiedenen Anzahlen und Anordnungen von Passpunkten berechnet wurde. Die Berechnungen erfolgten zur Abschätzung der Einflüsse von Passpunktfehlern. Weiter wurde der Anschluss zu Nachbarstreifen und die Anwendung verschiedener Gewichte für Pass- und Verbindungspunkte untersucht. Desgleichen wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen der Qualität des Zusammenschlusses einzelner Modelle und der des ausgeglichenen Blockes untersucht.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Fine structure and development of Encephalitozoon cuniculi from rabbits were studied in rabbit choroid plexus (CP) cell cultures and were compared to hamster and mouse microsporida.Sporoplasms had a single limiting membrane and contained a large nucleus. Proliferative forms (schizonts) had double outer membranes, the outermost being associated with the formation of the limiting membrane of vacuoles formed within the host cell cytoplasm. These organisms were often binucleate and divided to form sporonts. Sporonts divided once to form 2 sporoblasts which developed into electron-dense spores. Spores had a thick, 3-layered wall and contained a polar filament.The developmental cycle of E. cuniculi in rabbit CP cultures progressed rapidly. Sporoplasms were observed in host cells at 3 hr postinoculation (PI). By 24 hr PI proliferative forms were associated with host cell cytoplasmic vacuoles which contained developing organisms. Mature spores were present in vacuoles by 2 days PI, indicating that the life cycle in the CP system is ∼ 48 hr.The fine structure and the sequential developmental cycle of the mouse and hamster isolates were observed to be identical to those of the rabbit isolate and different from those of the genus Nosema. It is proposed, therefore, that the 3 organisms represent the same species, Encephalitozoon cuniculi.

Notes: RESUME. Deux espèces d'Enteromonas sont observées, provenant, l'une de l'intestin de Triton, l'autre des crottes du Lapin domestique. La cellule piriforme porte un noyau antérieur et 4 flagelles insérts près du pôle ventral du noyau. Le flagelle récurrent (R) est logé dans une dépression ventrale ou cytostome. Les cinétosomes, disposés en une paire antérieure (#1, #2) et une paire postérieure (#3, R), sont liés entre eux par des microfibrilles. Une fibre microtubulaire située au-dessus du noyau est reliée au cinétosome #1. Une autre fibre microtubulaire sous-nucléaire est homologue de la fibre microtubulaire croisée qui existe chez les cellules de Diplozoaires. Le cytostome est bordé par 2 lèvres: la gauche proéminente et armée par plusieurs rangées de microtubules, la droite contenant seulement une mince fibre microtubulaire associée à des microfibrilles. Le cytostome occupe les 2/3 de la face ventrale. Le flagelle récurrent pénètre dans le cytostome puis dépasse l'extrémite de la cellule. Les Bactéries sont phagocytées au fond du cytostome, entre les 2 lèvres distendues. Elles sont digérées dans les nombreuses vacuoles et les corps résiduels sont évacués par rupture de la membrane cellulaire. L'ergastoplasme est concentré près de la périphérie de la cellule. Il n'y a pas de mitochondrie ni d'appareil de Golgi. Dans les kystes observés la cellule plurinucléée est enfermée dans une enveloppe kystique microfibrillaire, les axonèmes sont libres dans le cytoplasme.Les formes diplomonades sont nombreuses et ressemblent aux cellules d'Hexamita, excepté par le cytostome qui est différent. Dans ces formes, les 2 monades sont souvent disposées selon une symétrie axiale binaire mais quelquefois elles sont associées de façon plus anarchique. La cinétide d'Enteromonas est organisée comme celle d'un zoïde de Diplozoaire. Il est possible que le genre Enteromonas soit à l'origine des Diplomonadida et que l'état diplomonadien transitoire chez Enteromonas se soit stabilisé ensuite chez les Diplomonadida. Enteromonas apparaît plus primitif que les autres genres de Diplomonadida aussi nous proposons de créer 2 sous-ordres: celui des Enteromonadina avec le genre Enteromonas et celui des Diplomonadina avec les genres Trepomonas, Trigonomonas, Hexamita, Spironucleus, Octomitus, Giardia. La disposition des cinétosomes et l'existence du cytostome sont les principaux caractères communs entre Enteromonas et les Retortamonadida, cependant les fibres annexes ne sont pas homologues. Une étude plus complète de la division nucléaire et cellulaire de ces 2 ordres de Zooflagellés est nécessaire pour donner un meilleur schéma évolutif.SYNOPSIS. Fine structure of 2 species of Enteromonas, one from the intestine of the salamander, Triturus vulgaris, and another from the feces of domestic rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculi, is described. The pyriform cell has an anteriorly located nucleus. The 4 flagella originate from an area near the anterior end of the nucleus. The recurrent flagellum (R) is lodged in a ventral depression or cytostome. The kinetosomes, arranged into 2 pairs, anterior (#1, #2) and posterior (#3, R), are interconnected by microfibrils. One microtubular fiber, connected to kinetosome #1, is situated near the anterior surface of the nucleus. Another, subnuclear, microtubular fiber is homologous to the “crossed'’fiber found in Diplozoa. The cytostome is bordered by 2 lips: the preeminent left lip is equipped with several rows of microtubules, while the right lip contains only a thin microtubular fiber associated with microfibrils. The cytostome occupies 2/3 of the ventral surface. The recurrent flagellum passes over the anterior surface of the cell and then comes to lie in the cytostome. The bacteria are phagocytosed in the bottom part of the cytostome between the 2 distended lips. They are digested in numerous vacuoles. The undigested residual bodies are evacuated by a rupture of the cell membrane. The ergastoplasm is concentrated near the cell periphery. Mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus are absent. In the cyst stage, the multinucleate cell is enclosed in a microfibrillar membrane; the axonemes lie free in the cytoplasm.Diplomonad forms of Enteromonas resembling Hexamita are numerous, except that the cytostome is different in these 2 genera. In such forms, the arrangement of the 2 individuals often has binary axial symmetry, but on occasion they are associated in a more anarchic fashion. The mastigont of Enteromonas is organized like that of a single zooid of a diplozoon. It is possible that the genus Enteromonas is ancestral to Diplomonadida and that the diplomonad state, transitory in Enteromonas, became permanently established in Diplomonadida. Enteromonas appears to be more primitive than the other genera of Diplomonadida. Thus we propose 2 suborders: Enteromonadina, subord. nov. with the genus Enteromonas, and Diplomonadina Wenyon, emend., with the genera Trepomonas, Trigonomonas, Hexamita, Spironucleus, Octomitus, Giardia. The arrangement of the kinetosomes and the existence of a cytostome are the principal characters common to Enteromonas and Retortamonadida, while their “accessory'’fibers are not homologous. A more complete study of division of the 2 zooflagellate orders is necessary for the presentation of a more detailed evolutionary scheme of these groups.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. In diphasic blood agar media Trypanosoma vespertilionis developed spheroid clusters as compared to rather long, sausage-shaped (sometimes branched) clusters formed by Trypanosoma dionisii. The former species attained a greater population density (∼6 × 107 organisms/ml) than the latter (∼ 2 × 107 organisms/ml). Greater numbers of epimastigotes, some in active binary divisions, were observed during the logarithmic phase of growth, and morphologic changes occurred during cultivation which correlated with increased acidity and a depletion of glucose. Maximum numbers of trypomastigote forms were found during the stationary and early death phases. Most of the forms observed after 20 days were sphaeromastigotes. Glucose concentrations decreased to 0 M in T. vespertilionis and to 4.4 × 10−5 M in T. dionisii cultures during the stationary and death phases. By the 12th day of incubation cultures of T. vespertilionis were more acid (pH 5.5) than those of T. dionisii (pH 6.5). No antigenic changes during cultivation of each of the parasites were detected by immunodiffusion. Trypanosoma vespertilionis and T. dionisii contained common and specific antigens. At least 2–3 common antigens were detected in extracts reacted against heterologous antisera. Specific antigens were observed as nonidentical lines formed by extracts reacted against homologous and heterologous antisera and with antisera absorbed with heterologous antigens. At least 2 specific antigens were evident in extracts of T. vespertilionis and 1 in extracts of T. dionisii.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Five proteins capable of stimulating [3H]thymidine uptake by Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro were isolated from fetal calf serum by (NH4)2SO4 precipitation and ion exchange column chromatography. The proteins were partially characterized by immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel disc electrophoresis, and SDS electrophoresis. As estimated by SDS electrophoresis, using 4 standards, the molecular weight of protein 1 was 100,000, that of protein 2 was 76,000. and that of proteins 3–5 was 68,000 daltons.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Amylopectin granules were purified from Eimeria tenella oocysts following digestion with sodium dodecyl sulfate and pronase. The oval granules had a uniform size of 0.5 × 0.7 μm, and consisted of only glucose polymers. α-Amylase treatment yielded 235 nmoles of maltose from the granules from 106 unsporulated oocysts and 93 nmoles maltose from those from 106 sporulated oocysts.Amylopectin phosphorylase activity was detected in the cytoplasm of unsporulated oocysts of E. tenella. It had a specific activity of 13 U/mg protein in crude extracts, and a pH optimum of 6.0. The Km values determined were 9.1 mM for glucose-1-phosphate and 5.6 mM for glucose end groups in potato amylopectin. Enzyme activity declined at a linear rate during sporulation, sporulated oocysts containing less than 8% of the activity of unsporulated oocysts. No amylase-type activity was found in the parasite.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Plasmodium (Huffia) hermani sp. n. is described from wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo Linnaeus) in Florida. It produces rounded schizonts with 6–14 nuclei arranged peripherally as a rosette and elongate, slender gametocytes with irregular margins. Asexual stages parasitize all cells in the erythrocyte series and, in heavy infections, predominantly occur in erythroblasts and their precursors. Presence and degree of pigmentation vary with maturity of the host cell. Gametocytes occupy erythrocytes only, with pigment dispersed in black granules throughout the cytoplasm. Cells containing schizonts are often rounded and enlarged and those parasitized by gametocytes may be somewhat distorted in shape by lateral hypertrophy. Host cell nuclei may be displaced, but are not distorted, except slightly by pressure from the parasite. Plasmodium hermani differs from P. (Giovannolaia) durae by producing low level (〉 6%), nonlethal parasitemias in turkey poults, an absence of phanerozoites in capillary endothelium of the brain and viscera, and inability to infect chicks. Plasmodium hermani is more like P. (Huffia) elongatum in gametocyte morphology, schizogony in all types of erythrocyte precursors, with gametocytes occurring in erythrocytes only, and concentration of schizonts in heavy infections in bone marrow and spleen. It differs from P. elongatum by its lack of infectivity to passeriform and anseriform hosts and by a strong immune response which develops in infected birds.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Light and electron microscope observations on Dunaliella primolecta Butcher from logarithmic and stationary phases of batch cultures are correlated. Except for the lack of a cell wall the fine structure has typical volvocid features. The transition from logarithmic to stationary phase is marked by changes in content and size of cytoplasmic vacuoles, accumulation of cytoplasmic lipid, accumulation of starch in the plastid matrix, and by the formation of autophagosome-like bodies. The organelles in stationary-phase flagellates are closely packed together because of the cytoplasmic lipid and starch-distended chloroplast. Organisms from logarithmic phase have an abundant ribosome-packed groundplasm supporting the organelles. In the cytochemical demonstration of acid phosphatase activity, Golgi cisternae and smooth and coated Golgi vesicles contain Gomori reaction product. The possible roles of the Golgi apparatus in this flagellate are discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The succession of morphologic changes in the feeding apparatus (peristome) accompanying conjugation and postconjugant development in the hypotrich Euplotes aediculatus has been examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The details of stomatogenesis inferred from earlier light-microscopic studies of silver-stained preparations have been confirmed and extended.The elaborate peristome is the dominant surface feature of vegetative Euplotes. In conjugation, the ciliates are joined in their peristomial regions; as the conjugants separate, the old feeding apparatus is seen to be disrupted and partially resorbed. In its place is the crescent-shaped primordium of a new peristome, which develops as part of a general cortical reorganization. This primordium expands anteriorly, unfurling a new crown of ciliary membranelles that soon replaces the remaining preconjugant membranellar band. The resulting “exconjugant peristome'’is characterized by a greatly reduced number of adoral membranelles and the absence of paroral membranelles, buccal cavity, and cytostome. Exconjugants thus cannot feed for 2–3 days, until the missing peristomial components are replaced. This occurs by means of a 2nd cortical reorganization, during which new membranelles, developing from another peristomial rudiment, are added directly to the abbreviated exconjugant set. A new buccal cavity is concurrently sculpted as the primordial depression enlarges, and the cells can resume feeding sometime during the 4th day after separation.The implications of this mode of stomatogenesis and the nonfeeding condition are discussed, as are the advantages of SEM for studies of ciliate morphogenesis.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Monolayers of bovine kidney cells were overlaid with Eimeria magna sporozoites and observed with phase-contrast optics until penetration of the cells by the parasites had begun. Cells and penetrating parasites were fixed with glutaraldehyde and OsO4-containing ruthenium red, dehydrated, and embedded in situ. Cells being penetrated were selected for study in the electron microscope. The lack of intracellular staining with ruthenium red and intact plasmalemmas of cells being penetrated, was accepted as evidence that the sporozoites did not disrupt the plasma membranes. The sporozoite caused invagination of the host cell plasmalemma until the parasite was entirely within the cell, after which the invagination was sealed off by short pseudopodia enclosing the sporozoite within a membrane-lined vacuole inside the cell. Often myelin-forms, apparently of host cell origin, were seen in the space between the sporozoite and the cell.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Oocysts and endogenous stages of new species of Eimeria and Isospora from the house lizard, Gehyra mutilata, are described. The ellipsoid to subspherical 2-layered oocysts of E. cicaki averaged 24.0 × 21.0 μm. Polar granules are present. Micropyle and oocyst residuum are absent. Ellipsoid sporocysts average 12.2 × 9.0 μm. A sporocyst residuum is present, but the Stieda body is absent. Endogenous stages are in epithelial cells of the small intestine. The subspherical single-layered oocysts of I. thavari average 23.8 × 22.8 μm. The polar granule is present; micropyle and oocyst residuum are absent. Ellipsoid sporocysts average 12.8 × 9.4 μm. Stieda body and sporocyst residuum are present. There are endogenous stages in epithelial cells of the small intestine.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Oocysts of Eimeria natricis sp. n. and Eimeria sipedon sp. n. were isolated from 2 Northern Water Snakes, Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus), in Iowa. Oocysts of E. natricis were elongate, slightly ovoid, averaging in size 32.3 × 17.5 μm; sporocysts averaged 15.7 × 8.2 μm. Oocysts of E. sipedon were broadly ovoid averaging in size 18.0 × 15.9 μm; sporocysts averaged 12.0 × 7.4 μm. In both species, sporocyst residua were present, but micropyles, polar granules and oocyst residua were lacking.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Oocysts of Isospora serini and Isospora canaria, from the canary Serinus canarius, were broken, added to a cell suspension, fixed in Karnovsky's fluid, and studied in the electron microscope. The oocyst wall of each species had an electronlucent inner layer, a more osmiophilic middle layer and an outer layer of electron-lucent (I. serini) or electron-dense material interspersed with some electron-lucent material (I. canaria). A few, relatively large lipid-like bodies were present in the outer or middle layer of the oocyst wall of I. canaria. As many as 9 membranes were present in the oocyst wall of I. canaria and 3 in that of I. serini. When exposed to a trypsin-sodium taurocholate fluid, sporozoites of I. serini excysted from 5-month-old sporocysts in vitro, but not from sporocysts stored for more than 6 months. No excystation occurred in 15-month-old I. canaria sporocysts. Similarities and differences in excystation between I. serini and other Isospora, Eimeria, and Sarcocystis species are discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The shock reaction of Euglena gracilis strain Z to a sudden increase in light intensity (the “direct photophobic response”) was examined by high speed cinemicrography. The response is expressed as a turning reaction toward the dorsal side of the cell, after a transduction time of 0.1–0.5 sec after the onset of stimulation. Transduction times, turning rates, and flagellar beat frequencies were measured by analyzing the filmed sequences. The experimental data are consistent with a mechanism of directional homeostasis in negative phototaxis that is based upon shading of the photoreceptor by the cell's posterior end.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:Starr, M. P., Ingraham, J. L. & Raffel, S., eds. 1975. Annual Review of Microbiology.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Data for host and geographic distribution are listed for Pirhemocyton and for apparently similar infections of poikilothermic vertebrates. The list was compiled from published accounts of Pirhemocyton, Toddia, Cytamoeba, Bertarellia, Piscine erythrocytic necrosis, Immanoplasma, Haematractidium, Sauroplasma, Sauromella, Serpentoplasma, Tunetella, Haemohormidium and unnamed infections. New records are included for Pirhemocyton and Haematractidium. The probability that some may be viruses and not protozoa is discussed; Haematractidium is shown by electron microscopy to be a eukaryote whereas Immanoplasma is not a eukaryote.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Relationships between the cell cycle and the beginning of conjugation were analyzed for 3 hypotrichs: Diophrys scutum, Oxytricha bifaria, and Euplotes crassus. The first 2 species enter conjugation with micronuclei in G1; the latter species with a micronucleus in G2. The 1st micronuclear division of conjugating E. crassus is mitotic. Thus meiotic DNA replication occurs when the cells of each species have already entered the mating process.Cells from asynchronous populations start conjugation with their macronuclei primarily in G1 or more rarely at the beginning of the S stage in a percentage significantly different from that expected on the basis of random mating among all cells in the population. Also, macronuclear replication, when already begun, was blocked in cells undergoing conjugation. Therefore only the G1 or the very early S stages of the cell cycle are compatible with conjugation in the 3 analyzed species.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Twenty different isolates of the cellular slime mold Acrasis rosea, obtained from diverse sources and geographic regions, were studied to determine similarities and differences in their development and structure in culture and their sensitivity or resistance to selected chemicals incorporated into the culture media. Six different classes of fruiting were defined based on the size, distribution, and type of sorocarps formed on the yeast, Rhodotorula, streaked on agar. In the course of these studies a significant mutant, NC-18V (variant), developed spontaneously from the wild type, normal parent strain NC-18N. The mutant differed considerably from all other Acrasis isolates, appeared several times in purified parental cultures, and represents the first laboratory derived variant of A. rosea to be described. Purified strains of the variant (V) and normal (N) cultures were obtained by single-spore isolation. Normal and variant amebae were mixed in ratios of 10:1 and 100:1 (N:V) and spore and stalk cells were selected from different sorocarps in various regions of the culture plate for analysis. The results of these selection experiments clearly indicate that the individual variant amebae have increased migratory ability and that they develop smaller, morphologically different, and more numerous sorocarps that form at distances further from the food source than NC-18N. Some isolates of Acrasis no longer were able to fruit and were classified as “non-fruiters” and a few other isolates formed only a few, small sorocarps on rare occasions. These isolates were mixed together in various combinations of 2 and 3 to screen for cell interaction, but no synergism contributing to fruiting was found. Although fruiting of many A. rosea isolates was inhibited by exposure to continuous light or constant darkness, some “escape”fruiting was noted in certain isolates even when small inocula were used. Single spore isolates of these escape fruiters still fruited in continuous light or dark, but fruiting was always greatly enhanced by a routine 12 hr light : 12 hr dark incubation cycle. It was shown by biochemical studies that actidione, crystal violet, malachite green, ethyl violet, and 5-fluorodeoxyuridine selectively killed some isolates and permitted a classification of isolates as either sensitive or resistant. In a further study of cell interaction between 2 different sets of Acrasis isolates with contrasting biochemical and morphologic markers the formation of neotypes or recombinants could not be demonstrated.The results of this study clearly indicate the existence of significant variation in A. rosea and the potential for application of these differences to developmental studies.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The ultrastructure of promastigotes of 4 reptilian isolates of Leishmania grown in culture, is described. One mammalian isolate of Leishmania is also examined for comparison. No differences in the basic ultrastructure of these strains are apparent; neither is there any significant digression from the organization described for other trypanosomatids. It appears, however, that the numbers of subpellicular microtubules are of potential use in taxonomy, and that differences in the spacing of these organelles exist between reptilian and mammalian forms. In addition, an attempt is made to clarify aspects of attachment of the flagellum to the subpellicular tubule network, and to the anterior face of the kinetoplast. Finally, the formation of multivesiculate bodies from the Golgi apparatus is described, together with some features of dividing forms.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Alveolar membranes and an epiplasm exist under the cell membrane of the noncontractile heterotrich ciliate Climacostomum virens. Postciliary microtubular ribbons join at the right of each somatic kinety to form a Km fiber. Two transverse microtubular fibers occur per kinetosomal pair. A myonemal network interconnects the kinetosomal bases intrakinetally and interkinetally. Ultrastructural comparisons are made between the contractile and noncontractile heterotrichs.The buccal cortex consists of an adoral zone of membranelles, a peristomal field, a buccal tube, the apical membranelles, and a haplokinety. The kineties of the peristomal field and buccal tube are rows of paired kinetosomes, with a postciliary ribbon of microtubules arising from the posterior kinetosome of each pair, and a transverse ribbon and an oblique ribbon from the anterior kinetosome. No Km fibers exist in this region. The haplokinety is a collar of paired kinetosomes surrounding the cytostome; a postciliary microtubular ribbon descends from each kinetosomal pair into the cytostomal region. Ultrastructural details of the buccal cortex of C. virens and other heterotrichs are compared. The nemadesmata which lie under the membranelles are implicated in the body bending of C. virens.Algae endosymbiotic in the cytoplasm of C. virens are described.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Ciliate protozoa from the rumen of the tsessebe, Damaliscus lunatus lunatus, all belong to the family Ophryoscolescidae and no holotrichs were found in any of the 16 animals. Eighteen species were identified of which Entodinium fyferi sp. n., Enoploplastron garstangi sp. n. and Epidinium lunatus sp. n. are new and have been described for the first time. A short redescription of Eremoplastron gigantium Kofoid & MacLennan is given.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A microsporidan tentatively classified as Encephalitozoon sp. on the basis of structure and tinctorial qualities was identified in tissues from a group of blue-masked lovebirds, Agapornis personata (Reichenow). The organism was present in renal tubular epithelial cells, hepatocytes, bile duct epithelial cells, and intestinal epithelial cells. Focal hepatic necrosis occurred around clusters of the organisms but inflammation was minimal or absent in the other infected tissues. Attempts to infect laboratory mice with the organism were unsuccessful. Ultrastructural features were compared with those of E. cuniculi of mammals.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The phototactic orientation of the dinoflagellate Gyrodinium dorsum was examined using photomicrographic, cinematographic, and closed-circuit television technics. Particular emphasis was placed on examining the movements and possible roles of the flagella during orientation. The data suggest that the longitudinal flagellum is primarily responsible for phototactic orientation, while the lateral flagellum is involved in forward propulsion and cell rotation. A possible receptor mechanism is proposed by which light direction sensing is accomplished.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Secondary lysosomes of cultured mouse peritoneal macrophages were labeled with the electron-dense colloid saccharated iron oxide; the identity of the labeled structures was checked by the Gomori reaction for acid phosphatase. Amastigotes of Leishmania mexicana mexicana derived from mouse lesions were used to infect these macrophages in vitro. In electron micrographs of thin sections of infected macrophages the labeled secondary lysosomes were seen fused with the parasitophorous vacuoles without preventing subsequent multiplication of the parasites. A similar fusion probably occurs in vivo, and may provide a pathway through which not only nutrients but also drugs and host antibodies could reach the intracellular parasite.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Tintinnida of the New York Bight (a bend in the coastline) were identified during the 1-year period August 1973–August 1974. Recurring genera included Stenosemella and Tintinnopsis; seasonal genera were mainly the hyaline Favella, Metacylis, and Helicostomella; exotic or unusual genera included Parafavella and Ptychocylis. Large size differences in loricae were found seasonally, related apparently, to water temperature.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. In Paramecium caudatum, occurrence of macronuclear regeneration is closely related to the time of feeding after conjugation. Macronuclear regeneration is induced with a high frequency when conjugating pairs are transferred into fresh culture medium. Feeding immediately after conjugation induces early cell division and 3 or more fissions occur without macronuclear division because of the inability of the macronuclear anlagen to divide. In the cells lacking normal macronuclear anlagen, old macronuclear fragments undergo regeneration and form vegetative macronuclei.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. An in vitro system, based on the rocker dilution technic, has been developed that supports intraerythrocytic growth of a rat-adapted strain of Plasmodium vinckei chabaudi from ring to schizont stages; some reinvasion was obtained, although invariably, this was associated with a decrease in parasite numbers. Pertinent features were the very high buffer content of the medium and the low oxygen tension of the gaseous phase. Lactate production, glucose utilization, and 3H-leucine and 3H-adenosine incorporations were investigated for their suitability to monitor parasite growth. Throughout an 18-hr incubation there was a continuous and increasing production of lactate and utilization of glucose, which correlated well with the development of the parasites from ring to schizont stages. During the same period, there was a low but continuous and increasing incorporation of 3H-leucine into parasite protein. However, 3H-adenosine was incorporated only for the 1st hr of incubation, after which time no net incorporation occurred. Parasites grew normally from ring to schizont stages even in the absence of adenosine from the dilution medium.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Monomeric ribosomes, isolated from the monkey malaria Plasmodium knowlesi by the combined use of low concentrations of Triton X-100 and differential centrifugation, sedimented in the SOS range and could be dissociated into 60 and 40S subparticles. The base composition of the rRNA was typically protozoan; that is, low in guanine and cytosine residues.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The life cycle of Eimeria ferrisi is described from experimentally infected Mus musculus. The prepatent period was 3 days and the patent period was 3–4 days. The endogenous stages were found only in the cecum and colon. Three generations of schizonts were found. Mature 1st-generation schizonts first seen 24 hr postinoculation (PI) measured 10.9 (7–14) × 10.2 (6–13) μm and had 9.6 (7–14) merozoites. Some 2nd-generation schizonts had uninucleate merozoites and others had multinucleate merozoites. The former were first seen in small numbers 36 hr PI and were most abundant 48 hr PI. They measured 9.6 (5–13) × 7.9 (6–12) μm and had 18 (6–25) merozoites. Schizonts with multinucleate merozoites were seen 72 hr PI. Mature 3rd-generation schizonts were seen 72 hr PI. They measured 14.0 (12–18) × 11-0 (9–13) μm and had 12.5 (5–16) merozoites. Macrogamonts were first seen in 72 hr sections. Each young macrogamont had a large nucleus with a prominent nucleolus. Only one type of cytoplasmic granule appeared to be involved in the formation of the oocyst wall. Mature macrogamonts were 11.0 (5–14) × 10.0 (6–13) μm. Crescent-shaped bodies were observed in the parasitophorous vacuole of trophozoites and young macrogamonts. Early microgamonts were first recognized at 96 hr by the presence of darkly stained and irregularly shaped nuclei. Usually, mature microgametes were arranged in long, narrow whorls at the periphery of the microgamont or in whorls at the surface of 2–5 compartments.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:Hedley, R. H. & Adams, C. G., eds. 1974. Foraminifera.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Ultrastructure of cysts of Naegleria gruberi, Naegleria fowleri, and Naegleria jadini was compared by transmission electron microscopy. Pores in the cyst wall were observed in all 3 species. In N. gruberi they were surrounded by a collar and sealed with a relatively large mucoid plug; no such collar was seen around the pores in the other 2 species, in which the plug was smaller than that in N. gruberi. An electron-dense plaque serving as an additional pore closure was present in all 3 species. In N. gruberi, the cyst wall consisted of an inner thick and an outer thin layer; however, only the inner component was present in cysts of N. fowleri and N. jadini, which had a smooth appearance. At the ultrastructural level, excystment of N. fowleri involved digestion of the mucoid plug and emergence of the trophozoite through the pore. Some digestion of the cyst wall also appeared to take place during excystment.

Notes: RESUME. La Microsporidie Nosema bombycis, Protozoaire parasite agent de la pébrine du ver à soie, a étéétudiée cytochimiquement à la fois en microscopie photonique et électronique.Les examens ont porté sur la détection et la localisation des acides nucléiques (ADN et ARN), des polysaccharides, de la phosphatase acide, au cours des différents stades du développement dans les cellules de I'hôte (du schizonte à la spore).Les principaux résultats concernent les observations relatives aux polysaccharides et à la phosphatase qui ne sont détectés qu'au stade de la spore et ne sont pas observés au stade du schizonte. Les polysaccharides sont présents au niveau du sac polaire, du filament polaire et sur la membrane cytoplasmique; la phosphatase acide est localisée au niveau du sac polaire, du filament polaire et dans la vacuole postérieure.SYNOPSIS. Nosema bombycis, agent of pebrine disease of silkworm, was studied cytochemically, using both light and electron microscopy. Presence of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), polysaccharides, and acid phosphatases was demonstrated and localization of these substances was determined in various stages of the parasite (from the schizont to the spore). DNA and RNA were detected in all these stages. Polysaccharides and acid phosphatase were found in the spore but not in the schizogonic stages. Polysaccharides were detected in the polar cap, the polar filament, and the limiting membrane of the cytoplasm of the spore. Acid phosphatase was found in the polar cap, the polar filament, and the posterior vacuole.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:Ciba Foundation Symposium 29 (new series) 1975. Cell Patterning.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Acanthamoeba (Mayorella) palestinensis produces high basal levels of α- and β-glucosidases, the latter being much more active than the former. Glucose, an essential growth substance, has a dual effect on the glucosidase activity. Growth concentrations (1%) of glucose inhibit, while low levels elevate the activity of both enzymes. Natural α-glucosides support growth in the same manner as glucose and raise the activity of both enzymes to the same extent. β-glucosides, on the other hand, are weak growth substrates, but stronger inducers, especially for β-glucosidase activity. The role of the glucosidases in the over-all metabolism of the ameba is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The total content of DNA in Eimeria tenella, estimated at 5.8 × 10−12 gm/oocyst, varies little during sporulation. Its buoyant density is 1.682 gm/cm3, reflecting a G + C content of ∼41%. Thymidine is not incorporated into any TCA insoluble fraction of sporulating oocysts, but radioactivity from [3H]uridine and [3H]deoxyuridine are incorporated into RNA at a linear rate during the first 5 hr of sporulation. The labeled RNA, found mainly in the paranuclear bodies of newly formed sporozoites, contains ∼0.15 nmole [3H]uridine/106 oocysts at the completion of sporulation. One nmole of leucine is incorporated into the hot TCA insoluble fraction of 106 oocysts during the first 7 hr of sporulation after an initial lag. The incorporated amino acid is mainly in the cytoplasm of the sporozoites, and an analysis by SDS-gel electrophoresis reveals most of the radioactivity in a narrow band with a molecular weight of ∼50,000 daltons. Incorporation of uridine and leucine, however, can be totally suppressed by respiratory inhibition. Further analysis of the proteins in the oocysts reveals that the total protein content remains relatively unchanged at 2.64 × 10−16 gm/oocyst during sporulation, but there is a shift of 13–14% of total protein from the soluble cytoplasm to the 15,000 g pellets. By polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, a major protein band. possibly a glycoprotein, is shown in the soluble cytoplasm of unsporulated oocysts. This band disappears during sporulation.

Notes: Book review in this ArticleDept. of Pathology, Ontario Veterinary College (sponsor). 1974. Proceedings of the Symposium on Coccidia and Related Organisms. 23 June 1973. University of Guelph, Ontario.

Notes: The reliability of national accounts is determined by the adequacy of a great variety of data sources and estimating methods. This inquiry focuses on major conceptual and methodological problems, and while it does not solve the reliability problem, it provides a framework for reliability analysis and suggests criteria for the evaluation of results; it also assists the producers of national accounts in determining the major trade-offs between different areas of possible data improvement.

Notes: This article present estimates, in current prices, of the national wealth of Japan and of about a dozen components for twelve benchmark dates between 1885 and 1973, the distance ranging, with one exception, from five to twelve years. The estimates are derived by a combination of (a) Ohkawa's perpetual inventory estimates of reproducible fixed assets for the period from 1885 to 1940 and Economic Planning Agency censuses for 1950 to 1965, roughly extrapolated to 1973; with (b) estimates of other components of national wealth (land, inventories, consumer durables and net foreign assets) taken for the pre-war period chiefly from census-type data and derived for the postwar period from miscellaneous, mainly official, sources.As in most countries the current value of Japan's national wealth increased until World War II considerably more slowly than its national product, which expanded with extraordinary rapidity. In the postwar period, however, the ratio showed a slight upward trend reaching by 1973 fully 3 1/2. The ratio of all reproducible assets to national product showed a similar pattern at a lower level, reaching 2 1/2 in 1973. In contrast the ratio of so-called productive assets (non-residential buildings, equipment and inventories) failed to show a definite secular trend remaining between 1.5 and 2.2 at all but one benchmark date.Changes in the structure of national wealth over the past century were pronounced, but very different before and after World War II. Up to the 1940's, the share of land declined sharply from about one-half to less than one-fourth, to the benefit primarily of producer durables and non-residential structures. In the last quarter of a century, in contrast, the extraordinary rise in urban land prices brought the share of land in national wealth back to one-third (though the share of agricultural land continued to decline rapidly), while that of producer and consumer durables continued to increase.

Notes: The purpose of this article is to record the history of the national income and product accounts of the United States, concentrating on the period 1932–47. During that period the single national income aggregate evolved into a set of accounts and the estimates emerged as an important analytical tool. Interviews with participants in these developments were extensively utilized to trace the events, people, ideas, and other factors which shaped the history of the accounts.The generally recognized need for economic information during the Great Depression stimulated the request that the Department of Commerce undertake what became the first official continuing series on national income in the United States. These estimates were prepared with the cooperation of the National Bureau of Economic Research and were published in 1934. By the late 1930's, estimates were extended to include income by state and a monthly series. World War II was the impetus for the development of product, or expenditure, estimates. By the mid-1940's, the estimates had evolved into a set of income and product accounts–a consolidated production account, sector income and outlay accounts, and a consolidated saving-investment account–designed to provide a bird's-eye-view of the economy. During this period uses of the accounts widened; analysis of wartime production goals and anti-inflation policy are noteworthy examples. The National Income, 1947 Edition was the culmination of a period of intensive conceptual discussion, extension of data sources, and improvement of estimating techniques. Thereafter the mainlines of development are more familiar, encompassing refinement and elaboration of the estimates and proliferation of uses.

Notes: This is a study of the first order incidence of government taxation and expenditure policies on the incomes of families and unattached individuals in Canada in 1970. The specific purposes of the study are twofold. The first is to estimate for calendar year 1970 the first order incidence of governments’actual tax, transfer, and expenditure policies on spending units. The second objective is to simulate the changes in this incidence that would have occurred in 1970 if the new federal personal income tax, unemployment insurance, old age sccurity and family allowance programs had been in operation during that year. The methodology is similar to that used by W. Irwin Gillespie in his pioneering 1964 study for the Royal Commission on Taxation.It is concluded that the 1970 incidence of the combined tax and transfer programs of all levels of government is broadly redistributive, with net incidence of federal government programs being considerably more redistributive than that of provincial and local governments. In general, the public sector provides large net benefits to families and individuals with incomes of less than $4,000, declining net benefits to families earning from $4,000 to $11,000 and levies small but increasing levels of net tax on families and individuals with incomes in excess of $11,000. This general conclusion is relatively insensitive to the precise assumptions made about the shifting of taxes and the distribution of expenditures on pure public goods. From simulation experiments, recent reforms of the federal income tax, unemployment insurance, old age security and family allowance systems were estimated to increase the amount of redistribution from the rich to the poor.

Notes: This paper seeks to set out in some detail an accounting structure for the public sector of developing countries which will provide the information essential for development planning. The public sector is of course of special importance in planning because of its sheer size and its pivotal position for altering the contours of the entire economy. Yet the information available for this strategic area often falls far short of what is needed, and also of what could be provided with more effort.The paper is divided into a number of sections, the first two of which are concerned with demarcating the public sector and with the nature of the accounting framework proposed. These are followed by sections dealing with the distinction between development and other expenditures; the need for separate financial information; public enterprises; the grouping of expenditures according to the purposes served; and income distribution. A final section touches briefly on some of the data problems involved in implementing the system. In addition, a full set of accounts for the public sector and its components is appended.

Notes: For purposes of analyzing the nature and meaning of index number formulas to be used in the calculation of factor productivity, a distinction is made between interetemporal comparison of factor productivity for a single country and contemporaneous comparison of factor productivity in two different countries. In the former case, the country in question is supposed ideally to be realizing fully its production possibilities, and the concern is seen as appraisal of shifts in such possibilities over time due to the advance of technological knowledge. Following Moorsteen such an advance is taken to be represented by the change in capacity to produce a standard mix of outputs per unit of a standard mix of inputs. Any mix might be standard, but those actually realized at the times in question are of particular interest.The index number formulas to be applied then depend on the assumed shape of the functions representing production possibilities. The conventional practice of aggregating output arithmetically and inputs geometrically, for example, is in order where production possibilities are given by an elaborated Cobb-Douglas function, but achieves only more or less approximate results otherwise. The analysis necessarily bears also on the prices at which inputs and outputs are to be valued.For the case of contemporaneous comparison of different countries, technological knowledge is taken ideally to be the same in the countries considered. Hence the concern is to gauge differences in production efficiency, i.e., realization of production possibilities. With production capacity understood to reflect any shortfall from possibilities, and hence production inefficiency in that sense, the analysis proceeds much as before, but given the fact of inefficiency determination of suitable prices for valuation of inputs and outputs becomes relatively difficult. Alternative expedients, none entirely satisfactory, are explored.

Notes: The elegant general equilibrium world of Arrow and Debreu has had a considerable mathematical development in the last decade. Underlying this work is an extremely parsimonious model of the economic system. In particular, only one economic actor is distinguished, the consumer who maximizes his welfare (the firm which maximizes profit is an automation). One class of economic entities is considered. These are goods and services. There is no important operational distinction made between a good, which is durable, and a service, which is not.It is suggested here that a more fruitful basic economic model needed to achieve a unification of micro and macroeconomic theory needs both more actors and more basic economic units. Specifically, the structure of process in a political-economy is such that even at the level of relatively abstract theory operational differences among consumers, entreprenuers, administrators, financiers, and politicans should be discernible. Furthermore, several basic economic entities (or “basic particle”) must play important discernible roles in an adequate theory. In partiuclar, in the “real sector” physical assets should play a mahor role, i.e., the distinction between durable goods and consumables or services should be important. The paper sector must also be present with the roles of flat money, ownership claims and contracts all distinguished. It is argued here that any economy can be characterized in terms of two real and six paper basic units: goods, services and six financial instruments. All other financial instruments can be obtained as mixtures of this basic set.

Notes: An attempt is made in this paper to identify and quantify the relative influence of several economic, social, and demographic factors on variations in the size distribution of family incomes in 208 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) in the United States in 1959. Using a simple ordinary least squares model with Gini's concentration ratio (R) as the proxy for family income inequality, the estimating equations explain up to 89 percent of the SMSA-to-SMSA variation. The “best” explanatory variables are those having to do with size of nonwhite population, occupational structure, and median years of education. City size and region—which are represented by dummy variables—are also revealed as playing an important role, both on their own and in conjunction with other of the independent variables.

Notes: This study examines the effects of public expenditure on production activity and private consumption activity. An input-output model with consumption functions connected is used for evaluating the repercussions of public expenditure. Taking both production and consumption repercussions into account, it is concluded that in the year 1965 public expenditure generated 26 percent of domestic incomes and 18 percent of imports. Viewed in terms of the shares of different types of income generated, 72 percent of public expenditure goes to domestic income, and the remaining 28 percent to imports. Forty-five percent of public expenditure returns directly as income to general government. The study also examines the effects of public expenditure by industry and over time (1959 to 1965).

Notes: Starting from the proposition that economic welfare is better measured by the capitalized value of expected future income at age 18 than by income at a point of time, the present paper explores the bias introduced in comparison of earnings and income distributions.The earning distribution chosen for study is that for males in 1959 in the United States. It is shown that earnings distributions are biased and therfore can be considered highly misleading in most comparisons unless the comparison involves two groups with identical age distributions and identical distributions of earnings over the working life of earners.Further, a most striking effect can be discerned in comparing the earnings to the present value distributions by educational level. As one moves up the educational ladder, the within-group distribution of lifetime income becomes more and more equal, in sharp contrast to the findings for the distribution of earnings at a point in time.The result are sufficiently interesting and striking to warrant further studies of distributions of present value of lifetime expected earnings (and income).

Notes: In this article the authors anticipate some results of a study carried out in France and in Italy, in the framework of a wider research project aiming at analysing in some depth and at comparing the recent trends and patterns of total household consumption in some capitalist and socialist countries.1The accounting scheme used to arrive at a comprehensive definition of household consumption, inclusive of the “non-market” divisible services produced by public administrations, and to identify the share of this new aggregate which is financed by collective resources, isoutlined in the first section. In the second section, the article shows the growing relative importance of publicly-supported consumption, but it also shows that during the sixties, the overall cost of divisible public services and of social benefits provided in kind or in cash was, in both countries, almost entirely auto-financed by the household sector, via social security contributions and taxes levied on that sector's income and consumption. In the third section, comparative analysis of the recent structural evolution of the “market” and the “non-market” shares of total household consumption points out the similarities and dissimilarities between the patterns and forms of private and public spending in the two countries.The results of this analysis seem to support the thesis that unless a better integration of social policies with economic growth policies is achieved, it will not be possible to implement rational choices between the “market” and the “non-market” ways of satisfying specific population needs. The authors' conclusion is that under present circumstances, public civil expenditures will continue to rise, both in France and in Italy, more rapidly than total national resources and it will become difficult to balance total receipts and total outlays of the public sector.

Notes: This paper has three parts. The first part attempts to analyse the prevailing situation in developing countries. The second part presents a feasible accounting system for such countries, by and large within the framework of the SNA. The third part goes beyond this and tries to obtain a more concise matrix (covering, in concept, those given in the accounting system) furnishing minimal sets of variables and classifications which one has, in any case, to play within the context of policy issues of developing countries. All three authors are jointly responsible for the first part. Uma Datta Roy Choudhury has drafted the second part. The third part has been drafted by the other two authors.

Notes: This paper presents some preliminary findings from a research study by the OECD Development Centre into the treatment of subsistence activities in national accounts. It summarizes the results of a questionnaire on country practices, and reports on the findings with respect to shares of non-monetary production in GDP, methods of estimation, and usefulness of the resulting estimates. Among the 48 developing countries covered, the share of non-monetary value added in total GDP ranges from over 40 percent for the poorer countries of Africa to 5 percent or less for the more advanced countries of Latin America and Southern Europe. In countries where rural living standards are much below those in urban areas, non-monetary activities may be very important to the well-being of a large number of people, even though they form only a small part of GDP, and it is still important to make realistic estimates for subsistence output. Agriculture is obviously the main item in non-monetary production, accounting often for over 80 percent of the total. Most countries use some kind of “producers' prices” for valuing agricultural output. Few countries now publish separate figures for non—monetary activities. For many countries, doing so would involve a considerable amount of extra work, but for a number of planning purposes it does seem important to distinguish subsistence activities separately.

Notes: The paper details the methodology used and the results obtained in a recently completed study of the total U.S. tax burden based on microdata survey files. The method of constructing the data base—the 1966 MERGE file—is discussed, and the needed imputations and adjustments to income and taxes to bring the file totals up to national income aggregates are described. An explanation is included of adjusted family income, a unique income concept used in the study to measure and compare tax burdens.The study involved the evaluation of errective tax burdens under eight different assumptions regarding the incidence of the various major taxes. Those assumptions are detailed and the results of the study are presented. The essential conclusion of the study is that the overall impact of the tax system is virtually proportional for 90 percent of the families in the United States regardless of the incidence assumptions used. However, substantial differences in tax burdens were found among various subgroups of the population.

Notes: This paper is directed at the following question: How far is the national accounting system as developed in the industrially advanced countries and recommended by the United Nations applicable and useful to countries at an early stage of development? In order to examine the suitability of this tool, the nature of economic policy decisions and their dependence on macro-statistical constructs are analysed, the emphasis being on planning as actually undertaken in the field or going to be undertaken in the near future and not on planning activities as possibly ought to be attempted. The conclusion reached, based upon personal experience in Africa, the Caribbean area, Brazil and Venezuela, both as “producer” and “user” of data, is that planning is mainly limited to the public sector. Comprehensive plans, prepared with the assistance of foreign consultants, were generally forgotten soon after publication, the driving force behind those plans being external pressure by bilateral donors and international agencies and propaganda-prestige motives. Real over-all economic management or consistent medium term planning of the whole economy never appeared to be an important factor in the decision-making process, possibly because those concepts are far too abstract and do not have short-term impact.The role of national accounting should therefore be limited to the provision of a general framework and factual support for public sector planning activities. In practice the United Nations system has been found far too complicated and ambitious, not sufficiently development planning oriented, and not suitable to the limited statistical resources available in the developing countries.The paper recommends the publication of several detailed “case studies” in national accounting, hoping that those studies might help to identify types of accounting systems appropriate to different existing constellations. In the meantime a drastic scaling down of the United Nations system should be undertaken; we should try to equate demand and supply of relevant information.In the final part, the paper considers planning requirements (timetable and flexibility, information required for a general assessment of the economy, crucial role of the publicsector, relative precision), statistical requirements (resources, data available, priorities, international reporting) and decision-makers’requirements (compactness, simplicity, background information, wishes of external aid donors) and recommends, as an interim measure, a simplified system of national accounts consisting of eight main tables.

Notes: This note explores further the utility of national income estimates derived from monetary data, an issue recently revived in this journal by Professor Leff. Income estimates for New Zealand are extended back from 1918 to 1870 and it is argued that while such figures are not a substitute for more laboriously compiled product or factor reward estimates, they are a useful stop-gap in what is otherwise an historical vacuum.

Notes: If a welfare economist wants to express income inequality in a sensible way by a single parameter, he has to make rather strong assumptions regarding the social preferences of his fellow citizens. Formulas are presented with whose aid one is able to test whether or not these assumptions hold. The standard measures used nowadays contradict prevailing preferences. If no common single measure can be found which fits the social preferences of almost all individuals concerned tolerably well, additional parameters measuring poverty and riches separately are necessary.

Notes: Microdata sets—samples of data relating to individual reporting units—can provide a valuable extension of the national economic accounts as they presently exist, making it possible to meet many of the criticisms being leveled at the accounts over their failure to include much nontransactions information that is essential to the evaluation of economic and social performance. To serve this purpose, however, the microdata sets must be integrated with the aggregate accounts, and with one another. A microdata sets relating to any given sector should add up (with appropriate weighting) to the economic constructs for that sector in the national accounts, and the microdata set for one sector should be articulated as appropriate with those of other sectors. This paper discusses techniques for constructing such microdata sets, including necessary adjustments of the macro accounts, techniques of alignment of microdata with the macro accounts and the creation and development of synthetic microdata sets. Synthetic matching and other techniques of merging data sets are discussed. The paper concludes with a consideration of the methodological implication of the integration of microdata and national accounts.

Notes: Regional distribution of government expenditures is examined first in relation to other indicators of economic and social development. This shows both the magnitude of regional disparities and the degree of redistribution in the field of government expenditures brought about by the federal subsidy. The static aspect of regional disparities is analysed by decomposing per capita income into demographic, employment and productivity components. The time-dimension of disparities is analysed by introducing the concept of time-distance, which is a dynamic measure of disparity that is complementary rather than competitive with existing static measures.Institutional aspects are explored next, along with some implications of the present system of federal subsidy as an instrument towards regional equalization of the budgetary resources available to lower levels of government. A few alternative technical solutions to improve the present system are discussed and a set of macro-variables is suggested as a framework within which the degree of equalization, which is basically a political decision, could be discussed in an explicit and systematic way. While the question of the appropriate degree of equalization remains a problem with many facets, it can be shown that government expenditures have been distributed much more equally than the corresponding levels of regional economic activity.

Notes: Until recently, there has been virtually no discussion among professional economists of the impact of government expenditures on the distribution of income.1 Neoclassical economics has traditionally shown little interest in distributional issues. Little is said beyond the assumption that factors are paid their marginal products. Micro economics is said to take a “neutral” stance with regard to distributional issues. Static efficiency of allocation is attainable for any income distribution, and consequently, so the parable goes, no income distribution is superior on purely economic grounds to any other. Macro economics also purports to be neutral with respect to distribution. Government expenditures in Keynes' model appear as an undifferentiated blob called “G”. The only interest macro economics takes in distribution issues is concerned with the marginal effect of redistribution on the marginal propensity to consume out of income. Keynesian economics, therefore, is unable to say whether one form of government expenditure is superior to another so long as both accomplish macro objectives.When orthodox economists have approached the issue of the government's distributional impact, they have until recently focused solely on its use of taxes and transfer payments. Public finance has traditionally ignored the expenditure side of state activity since, after all, government activity was a necessary evil, benefiting no one. Gillespie's path-breaking study in 1965 finally acknowledged the utility of government spending, but his analysis and those that have followed in the orthodox tradition have been hampered by a number of awkward premises.First, the orthodox studies of fiscal incidence implicitly accept the view of the government as a neutral arbiter rather than a protagonist of the dominant classes in society. Second, benefits of government services are assumed to be accurately measured by outlays. Thus, if we find that the government spends four times as much on highways as on police, it is assumed that the utility of highways is four times that of police even though one cannot even imagine the continuity of the status quo without the police while many responsible citizens argue that we should drastically curtail outlays on roads. Obviously, the utility of the police in terms of system maintenance exceeds that of the more expensive highway expenditures. Third, it is assumed that for each dollar spent by the government, only one person will benefit when, in fact, many disparate groups can benefit from the same expenditure. A dollar spent on education benefits the student as well as hislher employer. Fourth, Gillespie and his orthodox followers ignore any effect of the government on the pre-tax, pre-transfer distribution of income which they take as given. A hypothesis which we examine in this paper is that the government has an enormous influence over the shape of the pre-tax, pre-transfer income distribution.A more general criticism of previous studies of fiscal incidence is that they suffer from a poorly defined theory of the state. This assertion is most clzarly illustrated by the categorization in previous studies of a wide variety of public exp-enditures as “public goods” (such as national military expenditures). The benefits of these “public goods” are allocated among various income groups in several ways, for example on the basis of wealth ownership (both productive and consumptive) or on a per capita basis. The method of allocation chosen has enormous consequences for one's estimate of overall fiscal incidence. According to Herriot and Miller, those with incomes over $50,000 either receive a net benefit of 4.5 percent of their total income from the government or lose 42.1 percent, depending upon the allocation formula chosen for public goods. Previous studies have taken an agnostic position with respect to the appropriateness of the several allocative assumptions. But this is merely simple empiricism without theoreticai foundation, and thus the formulation of specific hypotheses which employ scientific procedures is impossible. What is needed to provide an interpretation of the data is a well-articulated theory of the state-an area to which we turn our attention in the next section of this paper.

Notes: Pseudo-velocity-logs are tentative determinations of subsurface velocity variations with depth, using both information of seismic amplitude and reflection curvature.A rigorous theoretical method would consist in〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉a) deconvolving the seismic traces to remove the filtering effects of the ground and of the recording equipmentb) demultiplying the deconvolved traces by a complete desynthesization with convergence criteriac) computing the velocities.While this method works with synthetic examples, it is not generally applicable to field cases, one of the reasons being the poor reliability of desynthesization in the presence of noise.The present method is a compromise between a rigorous and a practical process: the complete desynthesization is not performed; deconvolution and demultiplication are done by more classical techniques using real amplitudes; absolute velocities are determined to fit both the reflection coefficients and the rms velocities. It leads to pseudovelocity-logs, accurate enough to show lithologic variations, smoothed enough to preserve the signal/noise ratio.Examples are shown of Flexichoc profiles recorded in 2500 m (8000–9000 feet) deep areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Pseudo-velocity-logs show 1000 m (3000 feet) of a velocity-increasing-with-depth Plio-pleistocene marl formation, overlying Miocene evaporites. Intercalations of high and low-velocity layers in the evaporites seem to indicate vertical facies variations.The Pseudo-velocity-log, associated with other lithologic determination processes, should become a geological tool for deep offshore exploration.

Notes: Dynamic predictive deconvolution makes use of an entire seismic trace including all primary and multiple reflections to yield an approximation to the subsurface structure. We consider plane-wave motion at normal incidence in an horizontally layered system sandwiched between the air and the basement rock. Energy degradation effects are neglected so that the layered system represents a lossless system in which energy is lost only by net transmission downward into the basement or net reflection upward into the air; there is no internal loss of energy by absorption within the layers. The layered system is frequency selective in that the energy from a surface input is divided between that energy which is accepted over time by net transmission downward into the basement and the remaining energy that is rejected over time by net reflection upward into the air. Thus the energy from a downgoing unit spike at the surface as input is divided between the wave transmitted by the layered system into the basement and the wave reflected by the layered system into the air. This reflected wave is the observed seismic trace resulting from the unit spike input. From surface measurements we can compute both the input energy spectrum, which by assumption is unity, and the reflection energy spectrum, which is the energy spectrum of the trace. But, by the conservation of energy, the input energy spectrum is equal to the sum of the reflection energy spectrum and the transmission energy spectrum. Thus we can compute the transmission energy spectrum as the difference of the input energy spectrum and the reflection energy spectrum. Furthermore, we know that the layered system acts as a pure feedback system in producing the transmitted wave, from which it follows that the transmitted wave is minimum-delay. Hence from the computed energy spectrum of the transmitted wave we can compute the prediction-error operator that contracts the transmitted wave to a spike. We also know that the layered system acts as a system with both a feedback component and a feed-forward component in producing the reflected wave, that is, the observed seismic trace. Moreover, this feedback component is identical to the pure feedback system that produces the transmitted wave. Thus, we can deconvolve the observed seismic trace by the prediction-error operator computed above; the result of the deconvolution is the wave-form due to the feedforward component alone. Now the feedforward component represents the wanted dynamic structure of the layered system whereas the feedback component represents the unwanted reverberatory effects of the layered system. Because this deconvolution process yields the wanted dynamic structure and destroys the unwanted reverberatory effects, we call the process dynamic predictive deconvolution. The resulting feedforward waveform in itself represents an approximation to the subsurface structure; a further decomposition yields the reflection coefficients of the interfaces separating the layers. In this work we do not make the assumption as is commonly done that the surface as a perfect reflector; that is, we do not assume that the surface reflection coefficient has magnitude unity.

Notes: The theory of geoelectric sounding exploration is based on Stefanescu's kernel. In order to study the analytic properties of the kernel, necessary and sufficient conditions on it's poles and zeroes are developed. A distinction is made between “physical” and “perfect” models.It is shown that a physical model may be determined from either the set of poles or the set of zeroes of the raised kernel function at the top of the model. These roots may be of desired multiplicities.For determining a perfect model, both sets of poles and zeroes are required and they all have to be simple ones.

Notes: The Galerkin method of solving integral equations is well suited to the solution of the integral equations describing the transient response of a sphere embedded in a layered medium, which is excited by a large co-axial loop.The transient response is calculated by transforming the steady state solutions obtained in the frequency domain.The analysis shows that the scattering matrix is extremely diagonally dominant and the maximum number of modes required to obtain convergence does not rapidly increase with frequency. The number of modes required is about eight. This type of scattering matrix can be taken to be an expression of the principle of elementary superposition. This principle is reflected in the decay curves. These show that the early part of the decay curves asymptotically approach the decay curves to be expected for a layered structure without the sphere. The slope of the latter stages of the decay curve gives a decay constant that is the same as was obtained for spheres in free space excited by planar or dipolar sources.The point of departure in time of these curves from the layered ground curves is delayed either by placing the sphere at a greater depth or by placing a more conductive overburden above the sphere.

Notes: The hydrocarbon-brine contact produces a flat reflection, unconformable with the lithologic reflections from the trap boundaries, and over a limited area bounded by structural contours. When it can be reliably detected and mapped, the flat spot can provide (i) a reasonably unambiguous indication and areal extent of a reservoir and (ii) an estimate of reservoir thickness.The gas-brine contact in thick reservoirs in offshore elastic sections is the easiest target. An example of gas mapping is presented in the paper. Other reservoirs represent a continuum of increasingly elusive targets.Increasing the range of applicability of flat spot exploration will require (i) increases in signal/noise and multiple ratio, increases in the three dimensional depth point density (or grid density), increased resolution and static and dynamic correction accuracy, and (ii) processing and interpretation aimed directly at flat spot mapping.Low relief structural and stratigraphic traps should provide the most attractive targets. The approach should be at least theoretically feasible, though not necessarily cost effective, for most major reservoirs with a well-behaved hydrocarbon brine contact.

Notes: The estimation of residual static corrections is investigated as a linear system. For 1200% coverage shot one way offset weighting functions—or in other words, estimation error operators—are computed. Assuming zero time shift determination errors and zero RNMO it is seen that large residual corrections will distort the effectivity of the estimation.With an iterative procedure which includes the repeated averaging according to depth point, shot point, and geophone point the effectivity of the method becomes more favourable. This can be learnt from the evaluation of estimation error operators computed by recursive formulae.In practice, due to the time shift determination errors, the routine does not give improved results in the desired level. Errors can be reduced with a more reliable time shift determination routine.For detecting and suppressing the unfavourable effect of time shift errors still remaining in the data a self-adaptive method was developed. In this non linear routine the data are evaluated at all three averaging processes according to limit values and weighting factors computed from the data itself.Field examples processed in different ways are presented.

Notes: The spectral representation of gravity and magnetic fields shows that the mathematical expressions describing these fields are the result of convolution of factors which depend on the geometry of the causative body, the physical properties of the body and the type of field being observed. If a field is known, it is possible to remove or alter these factors to map other fields or physical parameters which are linearly related to the observed field. The transformations possible are: continuation, reduction to the pole, converting between gravity and magnetic fields, converting between components of measurement, calculation of derivatives, and mapping magnetization and density distribution, relief on interfaces, and vertical thicknesses of layers.

Notes: The hidden layer problem in seismic refraction work has been studied for three velocity configurations – the intermediate layer having (a) lower, (b) intermediate and (c) higher velocity than the underlying and overlying beds. It has been shown that conventional methods fail to locate the presence of the intermediate layer for the cases (a) and (c) and lead to errors in calculating the depth to the bedrock. For the case (b), it is possible to interpret the first arrival travel time analytically as an alternative to Green's graphical approach. It has been suggested that the hidden layer may be detected in all the three cases if converted S waves are also recorded in the seismogram.

Notes: The depth of causative bodies may be derived from the power spectrum of their magnetic anomalies. After a short review of the theoretical basis of the method, several examples of its application to synthetic cases are shown. Disturbing effects due to improper choice of the sampling interval and to anomalies only partially contained in the examined segment of the profile are studied.The spectral method is then applied to real cases; the tapering of the anomalies, the application of non-linear filters and the effects of anomaly superpositions are investigated.In conclusion, an appraisal of the method and of its possible practical impact has been given.

Notes: Some time ago, we described and implemented two methods of seismic data compression. In the first method a seismic trace is considered as being the convolution of a distribution made up of the trace peak values with a Gaussian pseudo-pulse. The second method is performed through a truncation of the sequential (Walsh, Paley or Haar) spectrum of each trace.In this paper it is shown that neither method has adverse effects on quality when traces with their information compressed undergo conventional data processing, such as stacking and deconvolution.

Notes: The effects of systematic (constant) and random errors in the observed data have been investigated analytically for rational approximation method of computing second derivative involving a summation of the products of the averages of the gravity field with the corresponding weight coefficients, both in numerator as well as in denominator. A theoretical gravity anomaly over three spheres has been analyzed to demonstrate the high accuracy in the approximation. Since the sums of the weight coefficients in numerator and denominator are zero and one respectively, the regional gravity anomaly, even though approximated by a constant value over the entire area under computation, can produce substantially large error in the calculated derivative value. This is happening because of the contribution of the regional field in the denominator. Thus, inspite of the high accuracy in rational approximation, the method has limited application to field cases where a combined gravity field consisting of regional and residual anomalies is usually used. Master curves are presented for the constant and random errors by which a rough estimate of the percentage of error in second derivative computation can be made provided one has some idea of the magnitudes of the regional field and random error.

Notes: A technique is suggested to separate the effect of conductive overburden from the recorded time-domain electromagnetic anomalies. Such a separation leads one to construct a relatively undistorted picture of the conductor underlying a conductive overburden. A parameter τ (with dimensions of time) is introduced to characterize various conductors. To illustrate the applicability of the technique, four ‘Input’ (Mark V) anomalies obtained over the Cuddapah District, A.P., India have been analyzed and different values of the time-parameter τ corresponding to the overburden and the mineralized zones are obtained.

Notes: Consider a thin, plane, finite sheet of material of thickness 2t whose electrical resistivity is σ2. It is surrounded by a medium of resistivity σ1 in which there is an electric field whose length scale is L. We consider the limit t/L→ o with 〈inlineGraphic alt="inline image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR70:GPR_70_mu1" location="equation/GPR_70_mu1.gif"/〉, or 〈inlineGraphic alt="inline image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR70:GPR_70_mu2" location="equation/GPR_70_mu2.gif"/〉 fixed. In the former case the sheet is an imperfect conductor and it is shown that it may be modelled by a surface on which the boundary condition is 〈inlineGraphic alt="inline image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR70:GPR_70_mu3" location="equation/GPR_70_mu3.gif"/〉, where φ and Z are the (nondimensional) electrical potential and distance measured normal to the surface, and the subscripts + and − denote values on either side of the surface.In the latter case the sheet is an imperfect insulator and the boundary condition is 〈inlineGraphic alt="inline image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR70:GPR_70_mu4" location="equation/GPR_70_mu4.gif"/〉

Notes: Electromagnetic depth sounding using source orientation as the sounding variable provides advantages in instrumental simplicity and operational flexibility when compared with conventional modes of electromagnetic sounding. The ease with which the technique may be simulated in a scale model permits its application to sounding over localized structures. The theoretical approach to interpretation is at present limited to structures which approximate a perfectly conducting half space. However, scale model tests suggest that the perfect conductor theory may be applicable to many localized structures.

Notes: Two comparisons between spring and autumn pasture for beef cattle were made. Animals used in all comparisons were of similar breed and weight and were subjected to the same feeding regime for 6–8 weeks before turn-out. The pastures were grazed on an equal grazing pressure basis between season comparisons. The pastures received similar rates of fertilizer N between seasons and had similar lengths of rest period for regrowth.Intakes of digestible OM were greater per unit of metabolic liveweight in spring than in autumn. Daily liveweight gains in spring were high, being 1·09 and 1·37 kg (2·4 lb and 3·0 lb), but were lower from autumn pasture at 0·98 and 0·71 kg (2·2 lb and 1·6 lb). Weather was implicated as a factor affecting daily gain from autumn pasture. Greater herbage yields in spring supported 42 and 204 more grazing days per ha which together with the greater gains per animal supported 80–120% more liveweight gain/ha.

Notes: The effect of artificial drying under commercial conditions on the digestibility and voluntary intake of herbage by sheep was studied, using either van den Broek (900°C inlet temperature) or Swiss Combi (1100°C inlet temperature) triple-pass drum-type driers. Organic-matter digestibility of chopped dried herbage was 8·3, 5·8 and 5·3% lower than that of fresh herbage in Experiments 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Packaging chopped dried grass into ‘cobs’ caused a further reduction in OM digestibility of up to 2·8%. Pre-milling plus packaging (i.e. ‘pelleting’) depressed OM digesti bility of chopped dried grass by 5 to 6 percentage units. Digestibility of dried grass in its various physical forms was further reduced when offered ad lib.; the greatest fall (9·4%) occurred with pellets and the smallest fall (0·8−1·3%) with loose chopped material; cobs were intermediate at 4·3−7·0%.

Notes: Two paddocks each received a total of 412 kg N/ha (371 lb/ac) between April and July in four equal applications. The paddocks were grazed four times for four days by two groups of 5 Friesian cows starting 14 and 21 days after each N applica tion.The nitrate-N content of the herbage DM reached a peak of 0·76 % in the third grazing 14 days after N application. There was a significant (P 〈 0·001) correlation (r =0·67) between water soluble carbohydrates and nitrate-N in the herbage DM.No marked changes occurred in eitber the methaemoglobin or packed cell volume of the blood samples from either group.No detrimental effects on animal health or production were recorded during the experiment.