ALBERT

Beschreibung: Most of the 14C measurements reported here were made between October 1972 and October 1973. Equipment, measurement, and treatment of samples are the same as reported previously (R, 1968, v 10, p 36–37; 1970, v 12, p 534).

Beschreibung: The radiocarbon dating facility is part of the UM Geochronology laboratory housed in the Department of Geology, University of Miami, Main Campus. The laboratory was established to carry out and support research in Pleistocene marine geology, particularly in the Caribbean, and to act as a specialized teaching facility of geochronologic research using radiometric age dating techniques.

Beschreibung: A radiocarbon facility has been installed at the University of California, Riverside (UCR) to support interdisciplinary studies including archaeologic, archaeometric, geophysical, and geologic research. The laboratory was built between 1970 and 1973. Initially, a sample pretreatment and combustion system designed for a proportional CO2 counting system was installed. It was designed after concepts developed at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and New Zealand (Institute of Nuclear Sciences) Laboratories, and began processing samples in November 1972.

Beschreibung: The following list of dates contains all measurements made during 1973, ie, since our last list (R, 1973, v 15, p 451–468). We have installed this year a Nuclear Enterprises NIM system to be used with our 2.5L Oeschger-type proportional counter (Philips), in addition to our 6L and 1L proportional counters which have worked consistently with Beckman Lowbeta electronics. The Philips counter has been calibrated relative to the Beckman electronics and we are now calibrating it relative to the NIM system.

Beschreibung: The following list includes samples dated in 1973. Benzene is used as the carrier of natural 14C activity as previously described (Punning et al, 1973). We used both 1-channel and 2-channel scintillation devices. The detector shield comprises 10cm lead. Around the detector we put 16 Geiger-Mueller type counters in anticoincidence circuit with output signals from detector. It decreased the average background ca 20 to 40%.

Beschreibung: Measurements have continued with the same proportional counter system, pretreatment procedure, methane preparation and measurement, and calculation using a half-life of 5568 ± 30 years, as described previously (R, 1970, v 12, p 298–318). Uncertainties quoted are single standard deviations originating from standard, sample, background counting rates and half-life. No 13C/12C ratios were measured.

Beschreibung: The dating equipment and operating conditions remain essentially as previously described. All samples are from Ireland unless specified.

Beschreibung: This date list includes most of the archaeologic and geologic samples dated in this laboratory since publication of our last date list (R, v 13, p 367–381), as well as some samples dated previously, which lacked adequate sample information. Known-age samples are reported in Univ of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates XVI, this issue. The bp ages are based on ad 1950, and have been calculated with the half-life value of 5568 yr. All samples were counted at least twice for periods of not less than 1000 min each. Errors quoted for each sample are derived from the measurement of the sample, the background, and several counts of our mid- 19th century standard Oak sample, but do not include the half-life error. All samples were pretreated with 3N HCL, and some, where noted, were given additional pretreatment with 2% NaOH for the removal of possible humic acid contaminants.

Beschreibung: On two previous occasions we have published lists of 14C results of precisely dated wood samples in Radiocarbon as per mil deviations (R, 1965, v 7, p 179–186; R, 1969, v 11, no. 2, p 469–481). We have also published a list of 14C dates, consolidating all dated wood samples processed in our lab to July 1969 (Ralph and Michael, 1970).

Beschreibung: In September 1970, the laboratory moved into new premises on the ground floor of a new building. The measuring room is constructed of low radioactive limestone concrete and is lined with grounded copper plate. Air conditioning insures a working temperature of 20 ± 1°C and a relative humidity of 40%.

Beschreibung: The Radioisotopes Laboratory was established in January 1972, in order to supply radiocarbon measurements of various samples to several institutions. Active analyses commenced in June following the testing and evaluation of equipment and known samples for accuracy and reproducibility. During this time, data was accumulated for the statistical establishment of counting accuracy, particularly for background activity.

Beschreibung: 14C dates listed in this report on geochemical, geologic, and archaeologic samples were obtained mainly from the beginning of 1971 to the middle of 1973. Techniques of measurement used are the same as described previously (Yang, 1972). Sample descriptions and comments for archaeologic samples were prepared in collaboration with collectors and submitters. For age calculation, 95% activity of NBS oxalic acid is used as the modern standard and the value of 5568 ± 40 years is used for the half-life of 14C. Dates are expressed in years bp (before ad 1950). The error (1σ) quoted is calculated from the uncertainty involved in counting background, NBS oxalic acid standard, and sample.

Beschreibung: Radiocarbon measurements, mainly on soil and water samples are being continued. Benzene samples are prepared as described earlier (Scharpenseel and Pietig, 1969; 1970). Radioactivity is measured in a single quartz vial, and also with 13 specially manufactured, low background Teflon/Duraluminium vials, similar to the system described by Polach (1971, pers commun).

Beschreibung: The following list of dates is of archaeologic samples submitted in 1971–2, using the counting equipment described in R, 1971, v 13, p 468. Ages are quoted with a 1σ counting error which includes statistical variation of the sample, background, and standard count. The reference year is ad 1950 and 0.95% NBS oxalic acid for 14C dating is the standard. The half-life used is 5570 years.

Beschreibung: The following date list consists of samples prepared mainly during 1970 and 1971. Some old measurements, not included in previous lists are added. Ages reported here are calculated using the conventional half-life of 14C: 5568 years and NBS oxalic acid as recent standard.

Beschreibung: The 14C dates given below are continued from our previous list (R, 1972, v 14, p 223–238), and results obtained mainly during 1971–2 are described. A 2.7L stainless steel counter and a 3.3L copper counter are used as previously, yielding background counting rates of 6.9 and 6.0 cpm, respectively, when filled with dead CO2 at ca 1.8 atm. Dates have been calculated on the basis of the 14C half-life of 5568 yr and 95% of NBS oxalic acid is modern standard. No correction has been made for any of the samples in this list.

Beschreibung: This list includes results of measurements made from 1969 to 1972 in the Natural Radiocarbon Laboratory of the Centre de Recherches Radiogéologiques de Nancy (CRR).

Beschreibung: Most of the 14C measurements reported here were made between August 1970 and August 1972. Chemical treatment of samples and counting technique remain as described previously (R, 1968, v 10, p 144–148; 1971, v 13, p 97–102). We have added Houtermans-Oeschger type multi-anode anticoincidence gas proportional counter, manufactured by Tokyo Atomic, Japan. The central counter tube, which has several small holes, 5mm diam, is made of aluminized polyethylene foil, 0.06mm thick, with 72mm inside diam and 300mm sensitive length. The external counter tube is made of stainless steel 4mm thick, with 93mm inside diam and 350mm length. The anode wires of both counters are also made of stainless steel 0.05mm diam. The counters are surrounded by a paraffin shield 50mm thick and encased in a 250mm shield of steel on all sides. Acetylene is used as the counting gas at 753.3mm Hg (22 ± 1°C). Counting rates of background and 95% activity of NBS oxalic acid standard were 1.25 ± 0.02cpm and 14.39 ± 0.12cpm, respectively.

Beschreibung: The SMU Radiocarbon Laboratory is operated by the Department of Geological Sciences within the Institute for the Study of Earth and Man. One laboratory room contains the benzene synthesis system where samples are pretreated and converted to CO2 in a standard way and gas is purified after the procedures of Broecker (1957) by passage through hot CuO, 10% AgNO3 solution, chromic acid, hot copper, and P2O5 via cryogenic pumping with liquid nitrogen. Purified CO2 is then converted to Li2C2 which is hydrolized to C2H2 and converted to C6H6 catalytically following the procedures of Noakes et al (1966). Carbon dioxide and benzene yields are routinely in excess of 90% in both cases.

Beschreibung: This date list was compiled by the Institute of Geological Sciences (UK) incorporating data supplied under contract by E Welin, Radioactive Dating Laboratory, Stockholm. Unless otherwise stated, age figures are in 14C years before ad 1950. The half-life of 14C is taken as 5568 years and the error, based on counting statistics of sample, background, and modern, is given as one standard deviation. Correction for 13C/12C fractionation has been made.

Beschreibung: The Dublin radiocarbon dating laboratory was operational in 1958 to 1960 and the scintillation counter system used at that time has previously been described (Delaney and McAulay, 1959). The system is now operational again and has been modified to date samples after conversion to benzene. The electronic equipment differs from that previously used only insofar as more compact and drift-free transistorized units are now employed. With these modifications, considerable improvements in sensitivity and accuracy are obtained. 5ml benzene, diluted with a commercial toluene based scintillant is used in a 12.5ml silica cell for the detection of 14C disintegrations. The background count-rate varies inversely with the barometric pressure (ca 2.6% cm–1Hg). The background is ca 3.4cpm, and the detection efficiency is ca 60% and excludes the tritium spectrum.

Beschreibung: This list comprises age measurements carried out from October 1972 to July 1973. Samples dated are all of archaeologic interest and come from Italian territory. Pretreatment of samples, production of purest CO2 and counting techniques have been described elsewhere (Azzi, 1972; Azzi et al, 1973).

Beschreibung: The Organisation of Egyptian Antiquities believes that Egypt should play an important role in current international research in the field of radiocarbon dating of archaeologic samples. Thus, such a laboratory was established within the Center of Research and Conservation of Antiquities, CRCA, Cairo.

Beschreibung: The familiar Segré-Silberberg effect of inertia-induced lateral migration of a neutrally buoyant rigid sphere in a Newtonian fluid is studied theoretically for simple shear flow and for two-dimensional Poiseuille flow. It is shown that the spheres reach a stable lateral equilibrium position independent of the initial position of release. For simple shear flow, this position is midway between the walls, whereas for Poiseuille flow, it is 0·6 of the channel half-width from the centre-line. Particle trajectories are calculated in both cases and compared with available experimental data. Implications for the measurement of the rheological properties of a dilute suspension of spheres are discussed. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: A detailed study of the intermittency in the outer region of a flat-plate turbulent boundary layer has been carried out using digital sampling and processing techniques. Conditional averages are used to generate mean and fluctuating components for the turbulent and non-turbulent zones of fluid. More particularly, point averages of these variables, taken with reference to the instantaneous position of the turbulent/non-turbulent interface, have been made to show the distribution of various quantities through the turbulent front. The results indicate that significant differences exist at leading and trailing edges of the turbulent bursts and a more complete picture of the motion of an average large eddy is deduced. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Experimental results for dissociating nitrogen flow over a wedge, obtained in a free-piston shock tunnel, are described. Interferograms of the flow show clearly the curvature of the shock wave and the rise in fringe shift after the shock associated with the dissociation. It is shown that the shock curvature a t the tip of the wedge can be used to calculate the initial dissociation rate and that it is a more sensitive indication of the rate than can be obtained from fringe shift measurements under the prevailing experimental conditions. Because the free-stream dissociation fraction can be adjusted in the shock tunnel, the dependence on atomic nitrogen concentration of the dissociation rate can be determined by the shock curvature method. A detailed calculation of the flow field by an inverse method, starting from the measured shock shape, shows good agreement with experiments. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Measurements of the intermittency factor γ and in particular the crossing frequency fγ of the turbulent/non-turbulent interface in the outer regions of various turbulent shear flows depend strongly on the settings of the intermittency meter used. Two methods of calibrating an intermittency meter of conventional design are described. In the first, turbulent and non-turbulent signals are simulated and switched at random times using an analog computer. Particular attention is given to the spectra of the switching and turbulent signals but the non-turbulent signal is assumed to have the same spectrum as the turbulent signal. In the second method, the same switching process is applied to two real signals, obtained in the fully turbulent and irretational flow regions associated with a turbulent jet with a co-flowing external air stream. A rather simple calibration procedure derived using the results of both methods is applied to the measurements of γ and fγ in the same jet. It is suggested that the simulation process adopted here could be useful in inferring properties of intermittent turbulent flows. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The steady streaming generated in a pipe of slowly varying cross-section when a purely oscillatory pressure difference is maintained between its ends is considered. It is assumed that the perturbation of the pipe wall in the r, θ plane is small compared with the characteristic thickness of the Stokes layer associated with the oscillatory motion of the fluid. The first-order steady streaming is evaluated for the cases when this characteristic thickness is large and small compared with a typical radius of the pipe. In both these limits it is found that the geometry of the pipe is crucial in determining the nature of the induced steady streaming. If the ends of the pipe have the same mean radius it is found that the steady streaming consists of regions of recirculation between the nodes of the pipe. Otherwise the steady streaming is of a larger order of magnitude and has a component which represents a net flow towards the wider end of the pipe. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The steady streaming generated in the boundary layer on a cylinder performing simple harmonic motion in a viscous incompressible fluid which is otherwise at rest is investigated in the case where the Reynolds number Rs associated with this streaming is large. Comparison is made between experimental results obtained here and the theories of Riley (1965) and Stuart (1966). This comparison shows good agreement between the theories and the experiment close to the cylinder, but away from the cylinder significant discrepancies are observed. Possible reasons for these discrepancies are discussed. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: By making simple assumptions, an analytical theory is deduced for the mean velocity behind a two-dimensional obstacle (of height h) placed on a rigid plane over which flows a turbulent boundary layer (of thickness δ). It is assumed that h ≫ δ, and that the wake can be divided into three regions. The velocity deficit − u is greatest in the two regions in which the change in shear stress is important, a wall region (W) close to the wall and a mixing region (M) spreading from the top of the obstacle. Above these is the external region (E) in which the velocity field is an inviscid perturbation on the incident boundary-layer velocity, which is taken to have a power-law profile U(y) = U∞(y − y1)n/δn, where n ≫ 1. In (M), assuming that an eddy viscosity (= KhU(h)) can be defined for the perturbed flow in terms of the incident boundary-layer flow and that the velocity is self-preserving, it is found that u(x,y) has the form [formula omitted] and the constant which defines the strength of the wake is [formula omitted] where u = uE(x, y) as y → 0 in region (E). In region (W), u(y) is proportional to In y. By considering a large control surface enclosing the obstacle it is shown that the constant of the wake flow is not simply related to the drag of the obstacle, but is equal to the sum of the couple on the obstacle and an integral of the pressure field on the surface near the body. New wind-tunnel measurements of mean and turbulent velocities and Reynolds stresses in the wake behind a two-dimensional rectangular block on a roughened surface are presented. The turbulent boundary layer is artificially developed by well-established methods (Counihan 1969) in such a way that δ = 8h. These measurements are compared with the theory, with other wind-tunnel measurements and also with full-scale measurements of the wind behind windbreaks. It is found that the theory describes the distribution of mean velocity reasonably well, in particular the (x/h)−1 decay law is well confirmed. The theory gives the correct self-preserving form for the distribution of Reynolds stress and the maximum increase of the mean-square turbulent velocity is found to decay downstream approximately as [formula omitted] in accordance with the theory. The theory also suggests that the velocity deficit is affected by the roughness of the terrain (as measured by the roughness length y0) in proportion to In (h/y0), and there seems to be some experimental support for this hypothesis. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Two-species, irreversible, very rapid reactions, with mild heat release, in a turbulent shear flow are shown to be analogous to the transport of two non-reacting species by the same shear field. Expressions for the probability density functions of the reacting species, the product species and the reaction-generated thermal field are obtained in terms of the joint probability density functions of the two nonreacting species. As an example we have constructed, from recent measurements of temperature statistics at a cross-section in a heated jet, the meanand fluctuating concentration fields of the reacting species and the mean concentration of the product. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: An integral analysis of the type used to predict the flow of co-flowing jets has been applied to the problem of a sudden enlargement in a pipe (Borda–Carnot expansion). This technique successfully predicts all the overall flow parameters of interest (e.g. reattachment lengths, pressure profile, etc.). The analysis indicates that the downstream conditions (up to reattachment) are insensitive to wall shear and the point of minimum pressure does not coincide with the location of the maximum return-flow velocity. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The equations which govern the flow at high Reynolds number in the vicinity of the trailing edge of a finite flat plate at incidence to a uniform supersonic stream are solved numerically using a finite-difference procedure. The critical order of magnitude of the angle of incidence α* for the occurrence of separation on one side of the plate is α* = O(R−¼) (Brown & Stewartson 1970), where R is a representative Reynolds number for the flow, and results are computed for three such values of α* which characterize the possible behaviour of the flow above the plate. The final set of computations leads to a numerical value for the trailing-edge stall angle α*s, the angle of incidence which just causes the flow to separate at the trailing edge of the plate. Analytic solutions are available in the form of asymptotic expansions near the trailing edge in terms of the scaled variable of order R−⅜. A multi-layer-type of expansion which occurs in the case α* = αs* is presented in detail for comparison with the computed solution. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The properties of finite-amplitude thermal convection for a Boussinesq fluid contained in a spherical shell are investigated. All nonlinear terms are retained in the equations, and both axisymmetric and non-axisymmetric solutions are studied. The velocity is expanded in terms of poloidal and toroidal vectors. Spherical surface harmonics resolve the horizontal structure of the flow, but finite differences are used in the vertical. With a few modifications, the transform method developed by Orszag (1970) is used to calculate the nonlinear terms, while Green's function techniques are applied to the poloidal equation and diffusion terms. Axisymmetric solutions become unstable to non-axisymmetric perturbations at values of the Rayleigh number that depend on Prandtl number and shell thickness. However, even when stable, axisymmetric solutions are not a preferred solution to the full equations; steady non-axisymmetric solutions are obtained for the same parameter values. Initial conditions determine the characteristics of the finite-amplitude solutions, including, in the cases of non-axisymmetry, whether or not a steady state is achieved. Transitions in horizontal flow structure can occur, accompanied by a transition in functional dependence of heat flux on Rayleigh number. The dominant modes in the solutions are usually the modes most unstable to the onset of convection, but not always. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Jets of water and of poly(ethylene oxide) solutions discharging in air were photographed using a novel image-motion compensating camera. Spray droplet formation is inhibited by low concentration polymer solutions. The effect of the polymer is to reduce, dampen, or eliminate small-scale surface disturbances in the jet, while not reducing but even amplifying larger scale motions. The initial laminar zone present in the jet efflux with water is eliminated with trace quantities of polymer. When substantial quantities of polymer are present (200 p.p.m.), the jet breakup is accompanied by filament formation linking all the drops together. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The inviscid stability of swirling flows with mean velocity profiles similar to that obtained by Batchelor (1964) for a trailing vortex from an aircraft is studied with respect to infinitesimal non-axisymmetric disturbances. The flow is characterized by a swirl parameter q involving the ratio of the magnitude of the maximum swirl velocity to that of the maximum axial velocity. It is found that, as the swirl is continuously increased from zero, the disturbances die out quickly for a small value of q if n = 1 (n is the azimuthal wavenumber of the Fourier disturbance of type exp{i(αx + nφ − αct)}); but for negative values of n, the amplification rate increases and then decreases, falling to negative values at q slightly greater than 1·5 for n = −1. The maximum amplification rate increases for increasingly negative n up to n = −6 (the highest mode investigated), and corresponds to q ≃ 0·85. The applicability of these results to attempts at destabilizing vortices is briefly discussed. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The analytical characteristic method is an effective method for computing non-linear effects in inviscid supersonic flow problems. Although only linear equations have to be solved, the results are essentially nonlinear, in the sense that the functional relations between physical state variables and space co-ordinates are nonlinear in the small perturbation parameter introduced, like the thickness ratio or incidence of a wing. This holds even for the first-order approximation of the method. In the case of two-dimensional (plane or axisymmetric) flow the independent variables are characteristic co-ordinates, i.e. they are chosen so as to be constant along corresponding characteristic lines. The space co-ordinates are considered as dependent variables. In three dimensions there is no unique definition of a characteristic co-ordinate system, because the manifold of characteristic surfaces or bi-characteristics is larger than is necessary for defining a co-ordinate system. The success of a three-dimensional analytical characteristic method, however, depends on the proper choice of the co-ordinate system. The present analytical Characteristic method for three-dimensional flow is based on the fact that three-dimensional flow behaves locally like axisymmetric flow if it is considered in the osculating plane. The corresponding ‘distance from the axis’ is a function of space depending on the flow field. No change of pressure occurs normal to the osculating plane and in isentropic flow no change of speed either. Therefore no co-ordinate perturbation is performed in this normal direction. In the osculating plane the analytical characteristic methodis applied locally as in axisymmetric flow. In the large the space co-ordinates are obtained by integration along the main bi-characteristics. As an example the flow field on the suction side of a flat delta wing with sub-sonic leading edges is computed. As a main result one obtains shock waves in the neighbourhood of the leading edges following the expansion. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Stokes' infinitesimal-wave expansion for steady progressive free-surface waves has been extended to high order using a computer to perform the coefficient arithmetic. Stokes’ expansion has been found to be incapable of yielding the highest wave for any value of the water depth since convergence is limited by a square-root branch-point some distance short of the maximum. By reformulating the problem using a different independent parameter, the highest waves are obtained correctly. Series summation and analytic continuation are facilitated by the use of Padé approximants. The method is valid in principle for any finite value of the wavelength and solutions of high accuracy can be obtained for most values of the wave height and water depth. An alternative expansion procedure proposed by Havelock for the computation of waves short of the highest has been reconsidered and found to be defective. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: A fluid layer that lines the inner surface of a circular tube has motion induced by axial surface-tension gradients. The lubrication equations for the system are analysed and it is found that even for thin layers the motions differ markedly from those in planar layers. The planar case serves as a class of outer solutions. These approximate solutions are modified by a boundary-layer correction where the mean surface tension is important. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: General dimensional and similarity arguments are applied to derive a heat and mass transfer law for fully turbulent flow along a rough wall. The derivation is quite analogous to Millikan's (1939) derivation of a skin-friction law for smooth-and rough-wall flows and to the derivation of the heat and mass transfer law for smooth-wall flows by Fortier (1968a, b) and Kader & Yaglom (1970, 1972). The equations derived for the heat or mass transfer coefficient (Stanton number) Ch and Nusselt number Nu include the constant term β of the logarithmic equation for the mean temperature or concentration of a diffusing substance. This term is a function of the Prandtl number, the dimensionless height of wall protrusions and of the parameters describing the shapes and spatial distribution of the protrusions. The general form of the function β is roughly estimated by a simplified analysis of the eddy-diffusivity behaviour in the proximity of the wall (in the gaps between the wall protrusions). Approximate values of the numerical coefficients of the equation for β are found from measurements of the mean velocity and temperature (or concentration) above rough walls. The equation agrees satisfactorily with all the available experimental data. It is noted that the results obtained indicate that roughness affects heat and mass transfer in two ways: it produces the additional disturbances augmenting the heat and mass transfer and simultaneously retards the fluid flow in the proximity of the wall. This second effect leads in some cases to deterioration of heat and mass transfer from a rough wall as compared with the case of a smooth wall at the same values of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: This paper deals with local flow characteristics of subsonic turbulent jets in the presence of a cross-flow. For the various types of jet considered (a cylindrical jet and coaxial jets) the experimental results concern the axes and the velocity profiles in the plane of symmetry of the flow. In the case of the cylindrical jet, the shape of the universal axial velocity profile is defined, as are the law of velocity decay along the axis and the laws of variation of the thicknesses of the jet. Finally, the existence of a link between the axis equation and the law of axial velocity decay in the zone of similarity of the velocity profiles is established. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: Numerical calculations are made of the torque required to sustain a wavy-vortex flow between rotating cylinders. The results are found to agree well with experimental work of Donnelly (1958), and give further confirmation of the validity of Davey, DiPrima & Stuart's (1968) analysis. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The theory describing the swimming mechanism of an elongated body is extended to cover the cases of locomotion through unsteady streams in pipes. Such an extension is essential for the artificial fish ‘Pod’, a medical device which swims in the patient's blood vessel. Two approaches are considered. First, potential theory is considered, and the results achieved show that the main influence of the pipe is on evaluation of the proper virtual mass. Next the flow is assumed to be viscous. The consideration of viscosity is obviously necessary for flows in pipes. In that case the virtual mass is replaced by another equivalent mass depending on the viscosity and on the angular frequency of the lateral motion and in addition new terms appear in the local lift expressions. These are recognized as the viscous damping force. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The response of a Pitot probe in a uniform laminar stream is commonly expressed in the form [formula omitted] where P s is the probe signal pressure, P is the stream static pressure, U is the stream speed and ρ is the fluid density. It has been found that for ordinary sphere-nosed, round-nosed and square-nosed probes [formula omitted] where θ is the angle between the velocity vector and the probe axis, and Un ≡ U sin θ is the transverse velocity component. The parameters m and K are functions of the probe geometry. These formulae also describe the performance in a turbulent stream when the probe is small compared with the turbulence scale. The evaluation of the time-averaged response is treated, and an answer is developed to the question of what it is that a Pitot probe measures in a turbulent stream. In a turbulent shear flow having the properties of a boundary layer, the reference pressure is best taken to be the static pressure at the shear-layer edge. It is shown that round-nosed probes with D i/D≃0·45 and square-nosed probes with D i/D≃0·15 then detect [formula omitted] with good accuracy, where D /D is the ratio of the inside and outside diameters of the Pitot tube. When measurements are made with two probes of dissimilar geometry, the differential response can be used to find the mean-square level of the transverse velocity fluctuations. Turbulence levels so measured agree closely with results from hot-wire anemometry. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The 41st EUROMECH Colloquium on flows with concentrated vorticity was held in Norwich from 17 to 21 September 1973. There were sixty-five participants from nine countries and the author was the chairman of the organizing committee. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: The steady flow in and around a deformable liquid sphere moving in an unbounded viscous parabolic flow and subject to an external body force is calculated for small values of the ratio of the Weber number to the Reynolds number in the creeping-flow regime. It is found that, in addition to the drag force, the drop experiences a force orthogonal to the undisturbed flow direction. When the body force is absent (neutrally buoyant drop), this lift force tends to drive the drop inwards to the axis, where the undisturbed flow velocity is maximum, i.e., towards a position of lower velocity gradient. In the case for which the parabolic flow profile is a Poiseuille flow profile, the lift force is given by the expression. [formula omitted] Here a is the radius of the undeformed sphere, R 0 is the radial distance from the position of maximum undisturbed flow U 0 at the profile axis to the position of zero flow, ε is the ratio of the Weber number to the Reynolds number, given by ε=μU 0 T −1, where μ is the external fluid viscosity and T is the surface tension of the drop, α is the ratio of the drop and external fluid viscosities, b is the radial vector from the flow axis to the centre of mass of the drop, and F is a function of α and a dimensionless parameter dependent on the body force that is determined in the analysis. Reasonable agreement is found between the observations by Goldsmith & Mason (1962) of the axial drift of liquid drops in Poiseuille flow and the predictions of the theory herein. © 1974, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Beschreibung: It is, to say the least, highly unsatisfactory to begin a discussion of developments in Malay society within the last century by using 1874 as the take-off point. But, in Malaysian historiography, it has been so common to accept 1874 as the all important watershed between what is generally believed to be a period of negligible advancement and a period of rapid development that any discussion which makes a sudden departure from conventional practice, without appropriate comments, may confuse more than enlighten.

Beschreibung: Several years ago Wong Lin Ken noted that, as yet, no general economic history of Malaysia had been written. Since then a considerable number of studies in both article and bookform have appeared; too many for a comprehensive listing here. These range from specialised works on particular industries, or aspects such as immigration, to more wide-ranging analyses of the political, social and administrative structure. The periods surveyed also vary considerably, but the tendency is towards relatively short time-spans of some twenty to forty years in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Only one recent book, Economic Development of Modern Malaya by an economist, Lim Chong Yah, seeks to cover the economy as a whole over a longer period, roughly 1874–1963. But from the historian's viewpoint, much primary research still remains to be done before the pattern of changes in this period can be explained in full detail. However, the work done to date makes it possible to re-examine certain broad aspects such as the effects which can be directly attributed to the introduction of British administration. This is facilitated if some account is also taken of the very extensive literature on economic development, and colonialism, as well as on the situation in other countries with a similar historical experience. It must be emphasised that the following survey is necessarily selective in terms of the topics included and the published materials referred to.

Beschreibung: Nationalism developed in a peaceful constitutional and political manner in Malaya during the 1950s. Beginning with the reactions to the Malayan Union scheme and the contrasting political attitudes towards the 1948 Federation proposals, political bargaining led to the emergence of various political parties advocating different platforms and adopting contrasting policies on the major issues facing Malaya until the first federal elections in 1955. However, it is significant that political parties were formed and party politics grew principally as the result of constitutional changes which were introduced during that period. Constitutionalism and the rise of party politics thus combined to help Malaya achieve its ultimate goal of independence and nationhood.

Beschreibung: The controversy that has surrounded the question of British intervention in Malaya has turned upon a number of issues. What was the importance of economic factors? What was the significance of imperialism? What was the role of local initiative? Was the British Government bringing order to troubled native states? Was it responding to commercial pressures? Was it protecting its established interests in the Straits? In a well-known book, C.D. Cowan added to a careful analysis of such issues the suggestion that fear of foreign intervention was decisive. It affected Kimberley, the Colonial Secretary, and he impressed it on Gladstone himself.

Beschreibung: There is perhaps no more startling example in the history of the British Empire of a casual, almost imperceptible shift of attitude in the Colonial Office having such dramatic repercussions as in Malaya in 1874. Authorised to “enquire and report” into conditions in the western Malay states, the new Governor, Sir Andrew Clarke, found himself carried away by forces on the spot, which had been building up for twenty years while the British government maintained a strict policy of non-involvement. Within weeks of arriving in Malaya, Clarke made agreements with three Malay rulers for British Residents to be attached to their states, and laid the foundations for the relentless spread of British protection over the whole peninsula. These repercussions mystified Colonial Office officials at the time and left future generations of historians to unravel the mystery of what had happened and why.

Beschreibung: The first Japanese investments in Malaya were in rubber planting but their most important were in iron-mining. This article traces the development of Japánese interests in these two fields and shows how these ventures contributed to the expansionist impulse which, among other factors, eventually led to the military invasion of Malaya in December 1941.

Beschreibung: An educational system reflects the norms and needs of the society it serves. In the Federated Malay States, a plural society, there were four separate school systems, each with its own distinctive characteristics. This paper discusses the British role in their development. The period studied extends from around 1900 to the outbreak of World War Two.

Beschreibung: Within the last two decades, and particularly after the Federation of Malaya achieved its independence (1957), most historical writings on Malaya (now called Peninsular Malaysia) have been inspired or influenced by a marked revisionist tendency. Such revisionism, abetted by nationalism, has led to (a) a critical reappraisal of British personalities and policies in Malaya, and (b) a relative reduction of historical interest, both professional and popular, in the ‘imperial theme’ as compared with indigenous topics. While some of these revisionist writings may be self-conscious and tendentious, they do provide a corrective to earlier colonial historiography and have encouraged a more balanced estimate of the British element in Malaysian history.

Beschreibung: The Viet-Nam War was without qualification the most unpopular war in United States history. By May 1971, 61 per cent of the 1,502 persons interviewed by the Gallup Poll thought it had been a mistake for the United States to become involved in Viet-Nam. (The question asked was, “In view of the developments since we entered the fighting in Viet-Nam, do you think the United States made a mistake sending troops to fight in Viet-Nam?” 28 per cent answered, “No”, and 11 per cent had no opinion.) The significance of the May poll lay in the fact that it marked a complete reversal of public opinion since Gallup first started asking the question in August 1965.

Beschreibung: SummaryThe homesteading system instituted in the Philippines in 1903 was intended to stimulate economic development through increased agricultural output from previously unoccupied lands and also to relieve agrarian problems in densely settled parts of the country. A case study shows that while early homesteaders did significantly improve their conditions, the intense demand for land rapidly led to the development of squatting and tenancy. Average farm sizes are declining but there are simultaneously indications of a trend towards concentration of land ownership, which accords with experience in other peasant economies.During the intense concern for economic development over the past 25 or so years, many governments have expressed their faith in the development of new agricultural land as at least a partial answer to a wide range of economic and social problems. These problems include regionally dense populations with inadequate farm sizes, inequitable systems of holding and renting land, inefficient methods of production and marketing, lack of capital and difficulties of capital formation, and low yields from land that is losing fertility through constant cropping. Frequently, ignorance, poverty or the agrarian structure inhibits the adoption of measures for improvement.Those countries with significant areas of little used land resources have tended to rely on developing these resources as an answer to agrarian problems rather than attempting to tackle defects in the whole structure. Since the structure is not changed, it is not surprising that in due course the firmly institutionalised problems of the older areas gradually established themselves in areas of new settlement too. This is essentially what Boeke referred to as “static expansion”. More recently, Mellor has pointed out, “Expanding the land area at constant productivity and incomes is not economic development in the usual sense — it is only a holding action in the face of a growing population”. Even with rising productivity such as associated with the Green Revolution, there is considerable evidence to suggest the continuation, if not exacerbation, of agrarian problems.By examining in detail a case study of colonisation in the Philippines, this paper will show that even if productivity and incomes in a new area are initially high, the operation of customary economic and social processes is likely to ensure the recreation of traditional problems. Such a conclusion is nothing new. It has been repeated depressingly often not only in recent decades but also of course throughout history.

Beschreibung: British rule in the Malay peninsula and the island at its southern tip—Singapore—took a new form after the defeat of the Japanese in 1945. Previously Singapore had been only part of the Straits Settlements which also included Penang and Malacca. In 1946 Britain chose to run Singapore separately as a Crown Colony and grouped the mainland Malay states and British settlements into what was first a Malayan Union and later, from 1948, the Federation of Malaya. In so doing, the seeds were laid for what was to be the independent nation of Malaya in 1957. At that time the White Paper explained:A stage has now been reached when the system of government should be simplified and reformed. International relations as well as security and other interests of the British Commonwealth require that Malaya should be able to exercise an influence as a united and enlightened country appropriate to her economic and strategic importance.

Beschreibung: Despite the dominant role the timber industry now plays in the economy of Sabah, little is known of the development of the industry prior to the Pacific War. The small amount that has been published on the pre-war situation appears in the Malayan Forester, but the destruction of records in Sabah during the Japanese Occupation has greatly impeded detailed research. For the present study the papers of the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company now held in London have served as a source of far more comprehensive information than occurs in the oft-quoted secondary sources. The aim of this paper is to provide the first detailed account of forest policy and administration, and a systematic analysis of the development of the timber industry in pre-war North Borneo.

Beschreibung: Much has been written about the labor system introduced by the Spaniards in Latin America where institutions such as the repartimiento (forced labor) were used to obtain laborers for the public works and the private haciendas and mines. Many of these features existed in the early Philippine colonial period, but were modified to accomodate the local situation and the differing patterns of conquest and colonization. As in Latin America, the Spaniards distributed encomiendas and land grants (mercedes) to the conquistadores, and a system of corvee labor was imposed on the Filipinos for public works (the so-called polos and servicios personales), but for the private haciendas in the Philippines a different method was used than had been the rule in the New World.

Beschreibung: By the mid-1920s, the spread and popularity of a Hollywood dominated cinema in Malaya, and elsewhere in the Empire, was causing the British considerable concern. The motion picture or cinematograph (as it was then called) was a rapidly growing entertainment and educative phenomenon that transcended barriers of literacy and language in its appeal and was freely accessible to all sections of colonial society. In the words of a contemporary, “it taught the mass of uneducated Asiatics about the white race.” In Malaya, the Government had acted to place controls on the cinema soon after its introduction but by the opening years of the 1920s there was a growing number of travellers and expatriate critics who felt that the authorities had not yet realized the seriousness of the ‘threat’ posed by the cinema and had not acted with enough purpose in imposing safeguards. To emerge as the leading campaigner on the subject was Sir Hesketh Bell, (late Governor of Mauritius) who visited Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies in 1926, on a private tour of the Far East.

Beschreibung: Teaching Political Science in Southeast Asia can be an easy academic exercise. Structure the courses after those of a department in an established university in Europe or America, use the textbooks produced by the major publishing companies, list the references carefully worked out by their counterparts in some western universities, organize the facts and points in the texts, present them in class, give one or two examinations to find out how much the students know, mark them strictly or leniently, hand in the grades to the Registrar's office and the academic year is over. With few exceptions, everything seems to be ready-made for the teacher and the student.

Beschreibung: In describing the changing status system of Indonesia, Wertheim sees its development in four stages: the system in the old native society; the rise of a new status system based on race; the decay of the colonial status system in the twentieth century; the reversal and continuity brought by war and revolution.

Beschreibung: Polar Record, Vol 17, No 108, September 1974SCAR Bulletin No 48, September 1974Page 333 [39], line 3 For magnetism read magmatismPage 335 [41], For paragraphs numbered 6, 7, 8 read 5, 6, 7Page 336 [42], line 1 For paragraph numbered 9 read 8Page 337 [43], paragraph 10, line 2 For magnetism read magmatismPage 344 [50], line 1 For The Working Group on Geology's proposal read The Working Group on Geology proposed